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2015-16IndiaQuicknotes

WESTERN ART HISTORY

Old Stone Age/Paleolithic: Chauvet, Lascaux, Altamira animal cave paintings. Venus of Willendorf (statues)

New Stone Age/Neolithic: megaliths, Stonehenge

Mesopotamia: Sumerian ziggurats, Akkadian monarchy, Neo-Sumerian Ziggurat of Ur, Babylonian Stele of Hammu-rabi, Assyrian reliefs, Neo-Babylonian Hanging Gardens and

Ishtar Gate, Persian Persepolis

Egypt: monumental, Sphinx, Giza Pyramids, hierarchical scale/Palette of King Narmer, Bust of Nefertiti, Burial Mask of

Tut, fractional representation

Pre-Greek: marine life; Cycladic geometric nudes, Crete sea life/Palace of Knossos, Mycenaean gold

Greek: stoic; Doric/Ionic/Corinthian orders, black-/red-figure pottery, contrapposto statues (Early), Parthenon (High)

Hellenistic: emotional/detailed, Asian-influenced, Venus de Milo, Laocoon Group

Roman: Greek expanded; concrete, curved/Roman arch, Colosseum, Pantheon, Arch of Constantine

Byzantine: Christian, mosaics, Hagia Sofia

Medieval: hand-copied Bibles (Book of Kells, Coronation Gospels), small jewelry (Germanic, Hiberno-Saxon), Ro-

manesque (barrel vault), Gothic (pointed arch, ribbed vault, flying buttresses, Chartres). Emphasizes churches.

Early Renaissance: individual genius, Bondone (perspec-tive), Ghiberti (Gates of Paradise), Brunelleschi (Florence

cathedral, linear perspective), Masaccio (aerial persp.), Do-natello (David bronze sculpture), Botticelli (Birth of Venus)

High Renaissance: Renaissance Men, Da Vinci (Mona Lisa, Last Supper, sfumato smoke), Michelangelo (David, Moses,

Dying/Bound Slave, Sistine Chapel), Raphael (School of Athens, Sistine Madonna)

Other Renaissance: Giorgione (landscape, Tempest), Titian (colorist), Tintoretto (acidic, twisted Mannerism, Last Sup-

per), El Greco (Counter-Reformation, ornate/opulent)

N. Renaissance: more detailed, oil paints, Grunewald (cru-cifix, Isenheim Altarpiece), Durer (woodcut, 4 Horsemen),

Holbein (portrait, England)

Baroque: aristocratic, divine right; Louis XIV (Versailles, Academy), Caravaggio (chiaroscuro), Gentileschi (woman),

Rubens (color), Rembrandt (self-portrait, Night Watch), Velazquez (color patches), Bernini (greatest, Ecstasy of St.

Theresa, cloth-like stone)

Rococo: Watteau (fete galante), Boucher, Fragonard

Neoclassical: Fr. Revolution, Enlightenment; David (lines, Oath of Horatii), Ingres (pupil of David, rival of Delacroix)

Romantic: emotional, nature; Delacroix, Blake, Gericault

Realism: everyday; Courbet Stonebreakers, Daumier, Millet

Impressionism: light, form through brushstrokes; Manet (Luncheon), Monet (Impression: Sunrise), Pissarro, Sisley

Post-Impressionism: Cezanne (form), Seurat (optical mixing), Van Gogh (arbitrary color, Night Cafe), Gauguin

(Primitivism), photography, Degas (Japanese), pre-Raphael-ites (Romantic, archaic), Art Nouveau (decorative)

Early/Mid Modernism: see rest for most movements. Sur-realists (Freud and the mind in art, Dali, Magritte, Miro)

NON-WESTERN ART HISTORY

Abstract Expressionism: subject-less art, American; critics (Rosenberg, Greenberg), action paintings (de Kooning,

Krasner, Kline, Pollock), color fields (Rothko, Albers)

Pre-Pop/Pop Art: Johns (collages), Rauschenberg (com-bines, Bed, Monogram), Warhol (silk screening, soup can),

Lichtensetein (dot comic books), Indiana (stencils)

Minimalism: Stella, Smith (steel), Flavia (neon)

Photorealism: sharp focus, Close, Hanson

Earthworks: huge pieces, Christo/Jeanne-Claude (fabric fence, plastic island, orange gates), Heizer, Smithson

Performance: impermanent, Guerrilla Girls

Postmodern: Johnson, International Style, AT&T Bldg

Chinese: dates to 4000 BC. Great Wall, Emperor of Qin terra-cotta army. Buddhism, started in Tang Golden Age, highly

influential (ceramics, scroll drawings)

India: 1600 languages, varied tradition. Shiva deities in sensuous Hindu style. Greek influenced Buddha depictions

Japanese: artistically isolated 1600-1854; temporarily used Impressionist style; returned to isometric perspective, flat

color. Impressionists copied prints

African: excludes N. Africa (part of West history). Perishable fiber/wood used, meaning art didn’t last. Dan/Bwa masks,

Namibian caves, Nok terra-cotta, Benin bronzes

Oceanic: body art, Asmat shields; also perishable

Islamic: decorated Quran copies, Dome of the Rock; cal-ligraphic and abstract, not figurative

American: utilitarian; Pyramid of the Sun (Mexico); pueblos

TRADITIONAL AND HINDU ART

THE INDUS VALLEY ▪ The Indus River Valley civilization rivalled Egypt and

Mesopotamia ▪ One major accomplishment was sanitation and water

treatment; every home had a well, and there were central water systems

▪ These were better than many modern-day systems in the current Indus River Valley

▪ The best-preserved city is at Mohenjo-daro; the Great Bath of the city was used for ritual purification

▪ Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, and many of the ruins were destroyed or weathered away

▪ The Indo-Aryans brought Sanskrit and the Vedas around 1800 BCE from eastern Asia

▪ We know little about Indus Valley culture and life ▪ Key artistic works are small figurines and soapstone seals

as well as larger statues, like Dancing Girl

Bust of a man, possibly a priest, c. 2500-1800 BCE ▪ Soapstone sculpture of a pensive man; his somber expres-

sion and decoration suggests a religious role ▪ Deep-cut, half-closed eyes originally had shell inlay ▪ Missing arm originally wrapped around body ▪ Alkali glaze means original work was white ▪ Repeated trefoil pattern ▪ Earholes suggest necklace originally present ▪ Originally had red gauze filling in most of the patterns

HINDUISM AND SCULPTURE ▪ Hinduism is unified by a body of scripture and tradition

rather than a central figure (like Jesus or Moses) ▪ The Vedas, attributed to the god Brahma, detail sruti (or

“what is heard”) ▪ They were kept as oral tradition for centuries ▪ Four Vedas: Samhitas, Aranyakas, Brahmanas,

Upanishads ▪ Other key (non-Vedic) texts: Mahabharata (and the

Bhagavad Gita), Brahmasutras, Ramayana ▪ These are called smirti, or “what is written”

▪ Three major gods: Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, Shiva the Destroyer and Restorer

▪ Each has different aspects or avatars ▪ Shiva can be depicted as a Yogi, householder, and warrior

▪ Key features include a third eye, snake around his neck, Ganges River flowing from hair, small drum

▪ He is often worshipped aniconically as a lingam, or small pillar (phallic symbol)

▪ Key avatars: Nataraja (Lord of Dance), Tripurantaka (Victor of the Three Cities), Chandrasekhara (Moon-Crowned King)

▪ Early statues were permanent stone; however, to allow them to “travel,” they were made of lighter bronze

▪ The Chola dynasty used direct lost-wax casting techniques to improve the sculptures’ stability

▪ This also reduced weight and may have been GreekShiva as the Lord of Dance, copper alloy, 950-1100

▪ Holds flame of destruction (apocalypse) ▪ Points to raised foot (refuge of the soul) ▪ Hindu priest-inspired garments: wrapped sarong, bare

torso ▪ Tramples demon/dwarf Mushalagan in symbolic victory

over ignorance ▪ Lotus pedestal symbolizes creation and primordial being ▪ Outstretched palm reassures the faithful ▪ Drum symbolizes sound of creation ▪ Shiva surrounded by aureole (aura) of flame ▪ Water of the Ganges flows forth from hair ▪ Nataraja is one of the most famous Shiva avatars

Art

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HINDU WALL MURALS

HINDU ART

OVERVIEW EARLY ISLAM IN INDIA ▪ Islam arrived in India in the 600s; the Cheraman Juma

Masjid was the first mosque constructed ▪ Northwestern India and Pakistan was ruled by the Islamic

Ghaznavid Empire and Ghurid Dynasty ▪ Mu’izz ad-Din Muhammed of the Ghurid Dynasty

conquered Delhi in 1200, cementing Islam in India ▪ The Qubbat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi, 1198) emphasized

this triumph ▪ The Qutb complex featured minarets and Indian/Hindu

elements ▪ Islamic art was iconoclastic, abstract and often highly

floral

▪ The Ramayana is the most popular Hindu epic in India ▪ The god Rama, an avatar of Vishnu, tries to save his

wife Sita from Ravana, the king of Sri Lanka ▪ It describes the meaning of dharma, or law/duty

▪ Kerala (southwestern India) wall murals and depictions are some of the most famous Ramayana works

▪ The egalitarian Bhakti movement promoted dynamic, shaded, 3D wall paintings in the 1400s

▪ Kerala paintings use Pancha-mala borders, which emphasize five key figures: bhootha-mala (goblins), pakshi-mala (parrots), chitra-mala (abstract), vana-mala (flowers), mrugg-mala (elephants and deer)

▪ They also use the Pancha-vama color scheme of intense red, yellow, green, black and white

▪ The frescos were typically fresco secco ▪ The movement resurged following the destruction of the

Guruvayar Temple frescos

Detail of a wall painting, Mattancherry Palace, 1663 ▪ Painted as part of Dutch restoration in 1663

▪ Better known as the “Dutch Palace;” originally built by Portuguese, whom the Dutch replaced

▪ Traditional Indian building: two stories, narrow hallways

▪ Central figure is Rama: green skin, calm face. Holds arrow ▪ Rama and his brother Lakshmana enter an alliance with

the monkey king Sugriva ▪ Sugriva has white skin, an elongated nose, and a

broad jaw; meant to look like a monkey ▪ Lakshmana is blue-skinned, with open eyes ▪ Sugriva’s attendant Hanuman is also a monkey

▪ Elaborate costumes, headdresses typical for Kerala works ▪ Crowded mural work is typical of this style

ASHOKAN ART

▪ Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama between 500-300 BCE in eastern India

▪ He was born noble but encountered sickness, death, and a renunciate monk

▪ He left his heritage and became an ascetic ▪ Later, he learned yoga and meditation and created the

Middle Way/Path after meditating under a bodhi tree for 49 days

▪ This path attempted to mediate between ascetism and worldly pleasures

▪ He advocated the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path

▪ Buddhism strongly promoted karma, reincarnation, and the ultimate attainment of nirvana

The Great Stupa, overseen by Devi, c. 200 BCE ▪ Anda (central dome) set on platform; symbolizes the

“world mountain” ▪ Yasti pillar on top of anda marks axis of the universe ▪ Three chatras (disks) sit atop the yasti; symbolize Three

Jewels of Buddhism: Law, Buddha, Sangha (monks) ▪ Toranas (gateways) sit at the four cardinal directions

▪ Carvings tell stories from Buddha’s life ▪ Flowers, animals, Buddhist symbols, and elaborate

capitals also decorate the toranas ▪ Harmika fencing surrounds anda ▪ Walkway allows for worship

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE ▪ Babur founded the Mughal Empire by conquering

Hindustan in 1526 ▪ It was the last major pre-colonial empire to rule India

▪ Its people practiced Sunni Islam and spoke Persian, later Urdu (not native Indian languages)

▪ The empire did not practice primogeniture

Relic stupa: remains of Buddha or key disciples

Object stupa: key objects from Buddha’s life

Commemorative stupa: markers of key events

Symbolic stupa: represents key aspect of Buddha

Votive stupa: made as an offering

Seated Buddha from Gandhara, c. 200-300 ▪ Made of grey schist (stone) for permanence ▪ Ushnisha hairknot modelled after Greek statues of Apollo;

ushnisha typically represented larger brain ▪ Urna (mole) in center of forehead ▪ Dhyana cross-legged meditation ▪ Perfectly symmetrical and calm; halo frames figure’s face ▪ Base depicts Buddha, a Bodhisattva (enlightened one),

four other worshippers, and lions ▪ Drapery connects seated Buddha to base ▪ Would have been carried

INDO-ISLAMIC ART

Humayun (r. 1530-40) tried to consolidate his father Babur’s rule but was exiled to Persia in 1540. He returned tri-umphantly in 1555 with the help of the Safavid Persians and Shah Tasmash; this solidified the Persian roots of the Mughal

Empire, but he died in an accident shortly after returning

Babur (r. 1526-30) conquered much of Hindustan from an Afghan king; He focused on battle and was unable to

consolidate/control territories

Sher Shah Suri (r. 1540-45) was an ethnic Pashtun, unlike the Persian Mughals. He was a gifted administrator and ruler; reformed postal system and taxes and built roads.

Died 1545 in an accident

Akbar the Great (r. 1556-1605) ushered in a golden age for Mughal court and art

Shahjahan (r. 1628-58) reached height of Mughal architec-ture; built Taj Mahal and many other works

Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) expanded the empire the most, but overextended; empire faded afterwards

WEAVING AND CARPETMAKING ▪ Carpets are used in Islam for kneeling; they commonly

have a mihrab niche indicating prayer toward Mecca ▪ The weft is pulled through the vertical warp (on a loom)

to create a carpet ▪ They were commonly made from wool, silk, and cotton ▪ Turkish carpets added tufts (extra knots) to create pat-

terns in the pile ▪ They did not spread in India due to the country’s warmth;

Akbar the Great brought Persian weavers in the 1500s ▪ Indian carpets feature large central medallions and floral

patterns

Indo-Persian Carpet with Medallions, c. 1680

▪ Made of cotton, with wool pile added

▪ Perfectly symmetrical ▪ Burgundy, gold, blue/black ▪ Dark outer border: repeating

floral pattern ▪ Central blue medallion; two

matching gold medallions ▪ Staggered medallions unusual

BUDDHIST ART

▪ The Emperor Ashoka spread Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE, after seeing the destruction of the Kalinga War

▪ He constructed pillars and stupas (closed temples) at major points in Buddha’s life

▪ Ashoka’s lion, which topped the pillars, is still a major symbol of India

▪ Stupas often held Buddhist relics or ashes of Buddha; there were 5 major types of stupas

OTHER BUDDHIST ART ▪ Gandharan sculptors, influenced by Greco-Roman and

Hellenistic works, created sculptures of Buddha ▪ Traditionally depicted in a sanghati monk’s outfit

▪ Key events depicted: birth, enlightenment, first sermon, death (parinirvana)

▪ Buddhism split into two branches, Therevada (more human) and Mahanaya (more divine), around 200

▪ Buddha became more Indian-influenced, with a frontal, mask-liked face

▪ His proportions also became fixed around the angula, or width of a finger

▪ Face was 12 angulas; entire figure was 108 standing/60 sitting; 12 angulas for palm

▪ Japanese Buddhism also spread; the Sakyamuni is an enduring sculpture of this movement

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▪ Persian miniatures depicted people, animals, land-scapes in small, intricate paintings

▪ Human form not banned in Persia or Mughal India ▪ Painted on paper made from rags ▪ Style typically flat; subject viewed from slightly above ▪ Miniatures bound with carpet pages and calligraphy

into muraqqa books ▪ Gulshan Album commissioned by Jahangir began

using some Western techniques

INDO-ISLAMIC ART

METALWORKING ▪ Metal objects were used as functional objects at all

levels of Islamic society ▪ Metal water bowls were created for smoking hookah

▪ Key production processes: casting, hammering, turn-ing, spinning

▪ Materials: copper, silver, gold, iron ▪ Key patterns: floral and calligraphic patterns ▪ Bidriware was made in India; emphasized flowers,

Quranic verses ▪ Architecture, animals, people were very rare ▪ Made with silver-inlaid zinc; gold and brass also used

TEXTILES ▪ Cotton originated in India; woven cotton fabrics have

existed since Vedic times ▪ Indian weavers were also skilled at dyeing cotton; they

used mordants (catalysts) to bind dyes to cotton fibre ▪ Pen work directly applied patterns

▪ Resists allowed fabrics to keep their color ▪ Block printing (like silkscreening) allowed for repeated

patterns and elaborate designs ▪ Designs were typically colorful and floral ▪ Europeans loved Indian cottons; Portuguese and Dutch

traders brought chintzes ▪ The British government blocked imports of Indian clothes;

British factories had to process them

MINIATURES

Base for a water pipe, c. 1650-1700 ▪ Zinc alloy with silver and brass inlay ▪ Very unusual: depicts animals and architecture

▪ Animals depicted w/ anatomy emphasized ▪ Posed bird emphasized on flared lip

▪ Chini khana (“China room”) on center; niches used to display prized porcelain

▪ Shows horror vacui; no blank space

The Emperor Shahjahan Riding, 1600s ▪ Shahjahan on horseback; traditional symbol of power

▪ Richly dressed horse: jeweled bridle ▪ Servant’s clothing mirrors Shahjahan’s but is less fancy

▪ Servant holds aftabi (sunshade) above Shahjahan; titled at angle to show detail

▪ Sky suggested by light blue and unpainted yellow paper ▪ Small marsh scene below emphasizes Shahjahan ▪ Patna’s Drawings muraqqa; contains calligraphy,

quotes, other drawings of Shahjahan and his family ▪ Outer border painted with delicate grisaille flowers

▪ The British built large, imposing government buildings in major Indian cities

▪ Government Houses housed the British leadership of each territory

▪ Many of these were English Renaissance-inspired; later works (like the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai) incorporated English and Indian motifs

Rashtrapati Niwas (The Viceregal Lodge), des. Henry Irwin, 1888

▪ Overall style: “Jacobethean,” combining Jacobean and Elizabethan architecture

▪ Material: local limestone and sandstone, like traditional Indian buildings

▪ Built as “hill station” and summer headquarters for Raj leaders, chiefly Lord Dufferin (Viceroy of India 1884-88)

▪ Medieval elements: entrance tower, crenellation, roof spire

▪ Stacked Roman-inspired arcades; small rooftop gardens ▪ Architect Henry Irwin also built Mysore Palace

COLONIAL ART

▪ Early Muslim tombs were simple, in keeping with Muhammed’s wishes

▪ However, later tombs often contained a mosque, which allowed for elaborate tomb decorations

▪ Muhammed’s simple tomb was replaced with the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, an ornate complex

▪ Turkish tombs featured tomb towers (simple cylinders) and Islamic garden pavilions (with large domed squares)

▪ Mughal tombs adapted these pavilions into octagons ▪ Early Indo-Islamic tombs used post-and-lintel forms with

white marble and red sandstone ▪ Mughal emperors sponsored many tombs:

TOMBS AND THE TAJ MAHAL

Babur: Rambagh in Agra, Persian-style gardens and fountains

Humayun: “floating palace”

Akbar: Humayun’s tomb, Fort at Agra, Great Mosque at Fatehpur Sikri

Jahangir: Shalimar Gardens at Kashmir

Shahjahan: trained architect, golden age of Mughal archi-tecture. Wazir Khan Mosque, Red Fort at Delhi, Pearl

Mosque at Agra, Taj Mahal

Taj Mahal Complex, des. Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, 1632-53

▪ Name means “Crown of Palaces” ▪ Built as tomb for Mumtaz Mahal, second wife and love

of Shahjahan ▪ Double dome in center, with four smaller domes ▪ Octagonal drum base, modeled after Islamic gardens ▪ Sits on large platform with hidden stairwell ▪ Cream-colored marble veneer ▪ Small minarets at corners; four large minarets on pavilion ▪ Many Islamic arches on building ▪ Frieze has repeating floral pattern; echoed throughout

building and platform ▪ Inscribed with Quran verses ▪ Located at back end of long garden, next to the Yamuna

River; most tombs were located in the center of gardens ▪ Red sandstone buildings on either side with similar

domes and designs ▪ Inspired by Throne of God on Judgment Day ▪ Urban legend: English planned to destroy the Taj Mahal

and reuse the marble

Coat (Wentke), mid-1700s ▪ Material: mordant and resist-

dyed cotton ▪ Indian pattern with European

lace trim ▪ Wentke worn by northern

Dutch women for formal occasions

▪ Drawn, painted, and dyed in India

▪ Uses diapering, decorative mo-tifs on plain-color background

ARCHITECTURE

St. Andrew’s Church, Chennai, des. Maj. Thomas Fiott de Havilland, 1818-21

▪ Circular shape instead of basilica, but still modeled after St. Martin-in-the-Fields w/ central tower

▪ Based off of Gibbs’ design; he published a modified design with this circular plan

▪ Neoclassical portico; wide pediment, Ionic columns ▪ Balustrade (stair-stick row) tops church ▪ Material: brick and pottery; painted white to look like

marble ▪ Ionic pillar facade around building ▪ Interior: Palladian style, with Corinthian columns and

circular pews ▪ Dome is blue with golden stars

▪ British also tried to spread Chris-tianity as part of “enlightened imperialism”

▪ The EIC banned missionaries for interfering in trade, but other Europeans and the Raj encour-aged them

▪ St. Martin-in-the-Fields (located in London) was copied across all British colonies

▪ Basilica (cross-shaped) structure with large apse (containing the altar)

▪ Central tower instead of dome at crossing ▪ Des. James Gibbs; became famous because of his

popular Book of Architecture ▪ Indian Corps of Engineers led construction; Capt.

Caldwell, Maj. de Havilland were leaders

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COLONIAL ART

KALIGHAT ART ▪ Kalighat painting spread

from Calcutta and was the first Indian modernist style

▪ They were small watercolors with bold subjects and limited perspective

▪ Subjects “floated” in the background (like Byzantine)

▪ Japanese/Chinese scroll-work reflected in simple shading and brushstrokes

▪ Many works depicted gods

POSTCOLONIALISM ▪ Postcolonialism broadly explores unequal power

relationships inherent in colonialism ▪ Edward Said described the “otherized” East

▪ Postcolonial art uses mimicry (adapting and changing Western styles) and hybridity (fusing styles)

▪ Yinka Shonibare makes statues based on Western paintings but with ghostly, headless, cloth figures

FOLK AND MITHILA ART ▪ Indian government, particularly Office of the Develop-

ment Commissioner, encourages folk art ▪ Mithila (also Madhubani) painting, from Nepal and

northeast India, is one major folk style ▪ Vedic Mithila women painted Hindu gods with fingers,

sticks, and non-brush tools ▪ They often used geometric patterns and flat colors

▪ This art form was “discovered” in the West in 1934 by Wil-liam G. Archer following an earthquake in Nepal

▪ The Ethnic Arts Foundation currently supports female Mithila artists

MODERN AND POSTCOLONIAL INDIAN ART

▪ The British made some pro-female reforms: encouraging female education, discouraging child marriages, and ban-ning sati (widow burns herself on her husband’s pyre)

▪ Often used as an excuse to impose colonialism ▪ Indian feminist groups: Bharat Stree Mahamandal,

Women’s Indian Association, Council of Women in India, All-India Women’s Conference

▪ Indira Gandhi served as Prime Minister for many years ▪ However, problems still exist, particularly with sexual

violence

FEMINISM

The Tables Have Turned, by Nalini Malani, 2008 ▪ Nalini Malani creates large installation pieces; site-

specific, temporary ▪ Counter “timeless” nature of traditional art ▪ Often have audience involvement ▪ Malani references historical/mythological depictions

of women to discuss modern feminism ▪ First major work: City of Desires (2006)

▪ This work: 32 Mylar cylinders spin on turntables 5 times per minute

▪ Projector light shined through them, shining images on the wall

▪ 20-minute looping soundtrack plays text from Cassan-dra: A Novel and Four Essays

▪ Cassandra, a mythical Greek figure, has the gift of prophecy but is damned by Apollo: nobody will believe her, and Troy is destroyed

▪ Symbol of powerlessness, voicelessness

NUMISMATICS ▪ Numismatics studies currency and coins; these artifacts

are crucial in understanding society’s organization ▪ One of the few opportunities for widespread images

of a ruler ▪ Also used for economic analysis (past trade patterns)

▪ The Indian rupee dates to about 500 BCE ▪ Its name is from the Sanskrit “rupa,” or “silver” ▪ Pre-modern versions include Kanishka’s gold coins and

Sher Shah Suri’s rupiya ▪ The British Raj issued paper and metal rupees and

annas (1/16 of a rupee) ▪ The post-independence rupee has been devalued repeat-

edly ▪ First designs: Lion Capital of Ashoka, Hindu text ▪ The Mahatma Gandhi Series was issued in 1996

Englishman on Tiger Hunt, c. 1830 ▪ Subject: Englishman riding elephant and hunting tiger

▪ Figures painted atop each other ▪ Gun upside-down; probably satirical ▪ Typical 1820s English attire: top-hat, cut-away coat ▪ Tiger’s tongue, teeth depicted; elephant appears about

to step on him ▪ Strong black outlines; color added later ▪ No background or setting ▪ Englishman sits on a carpet saddle ▪ In reality: elephant would be driven by mahout (trainer);

hunter would be protected in howdah (carriage)

PHOTOGRAPHY ▪ Maharaja were local “rulers”

appointed by the British ▪ They tried to Westernize by

speaking English and dress-ing in Western clothing

▪ British tourists were interested in pictures of India; lithographic aquatint prints became quite popular

▪ Oriental Scenery, A Pictur-esque Voyage to India

Studio Portrait of Ram Singh of Jaipur, Bourne & Shepherd, c. 1877

▪ Subject: Ram Singh, maharaja of Jaipur ▪ “Normal” photo; meant to show him as “everyday” ▪ No distinct backdrop; patterned carpet, small drapery

piece only major elements ▪ Indian robe, skirt; Western pants and shoes; simple

jewelry ▪ Singh is carefully groomed ▪ Chair, table, book common European portrait elements ▪ European-influenced contrapposto pose

A Holy Man in the Forest (Shiva as Lord of the Animals), by Jogmaya Devi, 1981

▪ Material: ink on paper ▪ Central figure: man (possibly Shiva) with single eye,

dreadlock hair, horizontal forehead marker ▪ Posed with crossed legs and with colorful stripes ▪ Holds prayer beads ▪ Shiva as Pashupati (Lord of Animals) was one com-

mon depiction of the deity ▪ Other animals colorfully depicted:

▪ Two lions, one with with a lizard head and another with polka-dot mane, eye-shaped markings

▪ Deer/antelope with similar markings ▪ Small bird and small, antlered animal ▪ Elephant underneath meditating man

▪ Horror vacui present; no blank space ▪ Repeated motifs and colors unify the work; downward-

looking eye, bright colors, horizontal stripes ▪ Very typical of Mithila paintings

IITK Kelkar Library, des. Achyut Kanvinde, 1962 ▪ Material: reinforced concrete skeleton, brick highlights ▪ Bauhaus, Brutalist influence ▪ Three floors spread outward, shading the bottom and

creating a portico ▪ Strong vertical concrete pillars ▪ Architect Kanvinde trained at Harvard under Gropius,

then established own firm

as secular heroes or actors ▪ Workshop-produced; male patuas would draw outlines,

women would color in ▪ Replaced by lithographs and photographs later

POSTCOLONIAL ARCHITECTURE ▪ Two main schools of postcolonial Indian architecture ▪ Indo-Saracenic Revivalists brought back Hindu styles

▪ Secretariat Building in New Delhi, other govern-ment buildings used this style

▪ Modernists wanted to adapt Western architecture to Indian contexts; this was more successful

▪ The Bauhaus International style was very popular ▪ Louis Kahn (Yale University Art Gallery, Indian Insti-

tute of Management) and Le Courbusier (Chandigarh) ▪ Brutalism was also widespread

▪ Nehru encouraged education and founded the Indian Institute of Technology Karpur (IITK)

▪ Its campus was built in a Brutalist style

Rs. 1000 note, Mahatma Gandhi series, Reserve Bank of India, 1996-present

▪ Image of Gandhi from 1946 photograph with Lord Pethick Lawrence at eve of Independence

▪ Shows him as “father of the nation” ▪ Reversed from photograph

▪ Front side: Ashoka Lion Capital, Reserve Bank of India seal, blank space with watermark

▪ Obverse: India’s economy highlighted with oil drills, fac-tory, satellite, industrial agriculture, computer

▪ Both Hindi and English text ▪ All details created with fine-point intaglio engraving ▪ Other notes in series feature different elements of India:

buildings, landscape, animals

▪ Photography replaced miniatures and Kalighat paintings ▪ They were also used for official purposes

▪ Bourne & Shepherd was a major Indian photography studio and is the oldest still in existence

▪ Two founders: Charles Shepherd, Samuel Bourne ▪ Bourne was a famous celebrity photographer

▪ Photographic portraits very popular among the maharaja ▪ “Royal Photographic Album” collected many that

were presented as gifts at durbars (court gatherings) ▪ Raja Ramachandra Tondaiman, the maharaja of

Pugukkotta, was depicted in several famous ones