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Pipelines and Hazard Mitigation for
Emergency Management
Draft
2/8/2013
Table
of
Contents
TableofContents.................................................................................................................................................... 1
Foreword................................................................................................................................................................. 1
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................................. 4
Introduction:AnOverviewofPipelines.................................................................................................................. 6
IntegratingPipelinesintoHazardMitigationPlans............................................................................................... 26
AppendixAPipelineSystems............................................................................................................................. 46
AppendixBPhysicalandChemicalPropertiesofPipelineProducts.................................................................. 71
AppendixC
Pipeline
Design
and
Construction
...................................................................................................
91
AppendixDPipelineRegulationsandSafetyPrograms..................................................................................... 95
AppendixFLiquidPetroleumProductsTerminalsandAboveGroundStorageTanks.................................... 118
AppendixGOtherFederalAgencies................................................................................................................ 124
Foreword
PIPARecommendedPracticesandHazardMitigationPlans
FollowingpublicationofthePipelinesandInformedPlanningAlliances
(PIPA)report,PartneringtoFurtherEnhancePipelineSafetyInCommunities
ThroughRiskInformedLandUsePlanning:
FinalReportofRecommendedPractices,inNovember20101,a
communicationteamofrepresentativestakeholdersbeganresearching
howcommunitiesplanforotherhazardsandlearnedofthehazard
mitigationplanningprocess.
Mitigation iscommonlydefinedassustainedactionstakentoreduceoreliminate longtermriskto
peopleand
property
from
hazards
and
their
effects.
Hazard
mitigation
focuses
attention
and
resourcesoncommunitypoliciesandactionsthatwillproducesuccessivebenefitsovertime.Hazard
mitigationstrategiesincludebothstructuralmeasures,suchasstrengtheningorprotectingbuildings
andinfrastructurefromthedestructiveforcesofpotentialhazards;andnonstructuralmeasures,such
astheadoptionofsoundlandusepoliciesorthecreationofpublicawarenessprograms.Someofthe
1ReviewanddownloadthePIPAReportathttp://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/pipa/LandUsePlanning.htm.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 2
mosteffectivemitigationmeasuresare implementedatthe localgovernment levelwheredecisions
ontheregulationandcontrolofdevelopmentaremade.
The PIPA Communications Team recognized that the PIPA recommended practices are potential
hazardmitigationstrategies thatstateand localgovernmentscan implement. And,manyof these
actionscanbereadilyandcosteffectivelyimplemented.
TheStaffordAct(PublicLaw93288),asamendedbytheDisasterMitigationActof2000(DMA2000),
provides the legal basis for state, Indian Tribal, and local governments to undertake a riskbased
approachtoreducingrisksfromnaturalhazardsthroughmitigationplanning.TheFederalEmergency
ManagementAgency(FEMA)mitigationgrantprogramsrequireanapprovedandadoptedmitigation
plan for approval ofmitigation grant funding. FEMA offers information and guidance on hazard
mitigationplanninglaws,andregulations,onitswebsite:
http://www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/guidance.shtm.
DMA 2000 specifically requires mitigation planning for natural hazards, but not for manmade
hazards.However,
FEMA
supports
those
jurisdictions
that
choose
to
consider
technological
and
manmade hazards as part of a comprehensive hazard mitigation strategy in their respective
mitigation plans. FEMAs HowTo Guide # 7, Integrating Manmade Hazards Into Mitigation
Planning (FEMA3867)2,assumes thatacommunity isengaged in themitigationplanningprocess
andservesasaresourcetohelpthecommunityexpandthescopeofitsplantoaddressterrorismand
technologicalhazards.
PipelinesareManmadeHazards
Gas and hazardous liquid pipelines are constructed by and for pipeline companies for the
transportationand
distribution
of
gas
and
hazardous
liquids.
By
the
nature
of
the
potentially
hazardousproductstheycarry,pipelinesareasourceofpotentialharmtoacommunity,includingthe
population,environment,privateandpublicpropertyand infrastructure,andbusinesses.Pipelines
should be included in the lists of hazards that communities consider when developing hazard
mitigationplans.
Thus, the stage is set and the need is recognized to integrate pipelines into hazard mitigation
planning.
Purpose
Thisdocument
was
created
to
assist
those
involved
with
state
and
local
hazard
mitigation
planning
to
assess the riskofpipelinehazardsand toprovideguidanceonmitigationactions they can take to
reduce this risk. The goal is toprovide emergencymanagers,planners, andothers involvedwith
developinghazardmitigationplanswiththeknowledgeandunderstandingofhowpipelinesoperate,
2FEMAsMultiHazardMitigationPlanningGuidancecanbehelpfulindevelopingandevaluatingplansthatincludethese
hazards. SeeHowToGuide#7(FEMA3867),http://www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=1915
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 3
the common products that may be transported through transmission and distribution pipeline
systems,andthepotentialimpacts(risks)ofpipelineincidents.
This document also provides information that can be of value in developing a risk and capability
assessmenttosupportthedevelopmentofapipelinehazardmitigationstrategy. Thisincludesatable
that showsmitigativemeasures ajurisdictional governmentmight consider including in its hazard
mitigationplan
to
address
pipeline
hazards.
Some
actions
may
be
applicable
only
to
state
or
only
to
localgovernments.
Pipelinesafetyisacommongoalandasharedresponsibilityofallstakeholders.TheU.S.Department
of Transportation'sPipeline andHazardousMaterials SafetyAdministration (PHMSA) is the federal
safetyauthorityforensuringthesafe,reliable,andenvironmentallysoundoperationsofournation's
pipelinetransportationsystem.ThroughcertificationoragreementwithPHMSA,statepipelinesafety
agencies may assume some of these responsibilities. State and local governments establish
emergencymanagement programs, development regulations, zoning and permitting requirements
and establish excavation damage laws. (PHMSA) has identified five areas where state and local
governments, through theirauthority,playan important role indevelopingmitigation strategies to
reducetherisksfrompipelinehazards.Theseare:
(1)Pipelineawareness educationandoutreach,
(2)Pipelinemapping,
(3)Excavationdamageprevention,
(4)Landuseanddevelopmentplanningneartransmissionpipelines,and
(5)Emergencyresponsetopipelineemergencies.
ThePIPArecommendedpracticesandthisdocumentweredevelopedforstakeholderinformationin
considerationof
the
risks
associated
with
existing
gas
and
hazardous
liquid
pipelines.
Neither
was
intended to address the sitingor constructionof futurenewpipelines, although some information
relatedtopipelineconstructionmaybeprovided.
Stateandlocalgovernmentsalsohavevaryingauthorityoverthesitingofnewpipelines.Thenumber
ofagenciesand specificpermits required fornewpipeline constructionwillvarydependingon the
route,typeoflandcrossed,orecologicalresourcesimpacted.Allpipelineprojectsmustfollowspecific
federal,state,and localpermittingrequirements.PHMSAdoesnothaveauthorityoverthesitingof
pipelines. Some of the PIPA recommended practices, which address land use and development
mitigationstrategies,maynotbeappropriateforconsiderationinthesitingofnewpipelines.
Our energy pipeline transportation system also includes networks of production, gathering, and
distributionpipelines.However,thePIPA initiativefocusesexclusivelyontransmissionpipelinesand
the PIPA recommended practices are not intended to apply to those production, gathering, and
distributionpipelinesystems.
The PIPA recommended practices also do not specifically address geological exploration and
productionofoilandgasorenvironmentalresourceconservationissuesinpipelinerightsofway.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 5
pipelinesontheirproperty,andwheretofindmoreinformation.TheGuidedescribesallthedifferent
typesofpipelines,butmuchofthediscussionaboutpropertyrights,easements,andeminentdomain
ismorepertinentto largetransmissionandgatheringpipelinesthan it istothesmallerdistribution
pipelinesthatdelivergastoourhomesandbusinesses.
TheLandownersGuidewasmadepossibleinpartbyaCommunityTechnicalAssistanceGrantfrom
PHMSA.This
grant
program
provides
local
governments
and
community
groups
with
up
to
$100,000
fortechnicalassistanceintheformofengineeringorotherscientificanalysisofpipelinesafetyissues
andtohelppromotepublicparticipationinofficialproceedings.Youcanlearnmoreaboutthisgrant
program and what other communities have done with this grant money by visiting
www.primis.phmsa.dot.gov/tag/.
Finally, its worth repeating that the PIPA recommended practices afford actions to mitigate
hazardous pipeline risks that local governments can most likely implement readily and cost
effectively.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 6
Introduction:
An
Overview
of
Pipelines
IntheUnitedStates,energypipelinesareextremelyimportanttooursocialandeconomicwellbeing.
Youmight say that pipelines are the arteries that carry the lifeblood our national economy and
security
Thereare
over
2.5
million
miles
of
pipelines
in
the
United
States4.
Our
national
pipeline
infrastructure
consists of various types of pipeline systems, both onshore and offshore, including approximately
321,000 miles of gas transmission and gathering pipelines, 2.06 million miles of natural gas
distributionpipelines, and 175,000milesofhazardous liquid pipelines.Additionally, there are 114
activeliquefiednaturalgas(LNG)plantsconnectedtoourgastransmissionanddistributionsystems,
andvariouspropanedistributionsystempipelines. Eachyear,morethan66%ofouroil,naturalgas,
andhydrocarbonresourcesaremovedusingthisvastnetworkofpipelines.
Pipelinesarethesafestpracticalmodefortransportinganddistributingthetremendousvolumesof
energyproductsthatweuseonadailybasisacrossourcountry.Alargepipelinecantransportroughly
twomillionbarrelsofgasolineaday.However,likeanyindustrythatdealswithhazardousmaterials
(hazmat), there is always a potential for risk pipeline accidents do occur andwhen an accident
occurs the impactscanbedevastating.Pipelineoperatorsand theemergency responsecommunity
must collectively respond topipeline incidents ina timelyandeffectivemanner toprotectpeople,
property,andtheenvironment.
UnderU.S.DepartmentofTransportation (DOT)pipelinesafety regulations (49CFRSubchapterD,
Parts192.3and195.2),apipelinesystemisdefinedasallpartsofapipelinefacilitythroughwhicha
hazardous liquidorgasmoves in transportation, includingpiping,valves,andotherappurtenances
connected
to
the
pipeline,
pumping
units,
fabricated
assemblies
associated
with
pumping
units,
metering and delivery stations, and storage and breakout tanks. Although typically found
underground, pipelines may also be found aboveground in various places where operational
considerations,suchasatpumpandcompressorstations,orwhereotherconditions,suchasharsh
environmentorgeologicalconcerns,makeitnotfeasibleforthepipetobeunderground.
Inthisdocument,includingtheappendices,thedifferenttypesofpipelinesaredescribed. Thebasics
ofhowpipelinesworkandhowhazardousproductsaretransportedthroughpipelinesarediscussed.
Other topics discussed include pipeline system components, pipeline construction and pipeline
regulation.
Categorizingpipelines
Pipelinescanbecategorizedintoseveraltypes:bytheproductstheycarry,bytheirfunction,andby
whethertheycrosstheboundaryfromonestatetoanother.
Categorizingpipelinesbytheproductstheycarry:
4PHMSAStakeholderCommunicationsWebsite(http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/Index.htm)
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 7
Gaspipelinescarrynaturalgasandothergasesthatareflammable,toxicorcorrosive,suchas
vaporized liquefied petroleum gases (i.e., propane and butane), ethylene, and propylene.
However,sincenaturalgasisthepredominantgastransportedbyandthoughtofwithregard
topipelines,furtherdiscussioninthisdocumentwillmostlyrefertonaturalgas.
Hazardous liquidpipelinescarrycrudeoiland refinedpetroleumproducts suchasgasoline,
dieseland
jet
fuel.
Ammonia
and
liquid
carbon
dioxide
are
also
considered
hazardous
liquids
and are also transported by hazardous liquid pipelines. A hazardous liquid pipeline can
transportbatchesofdifferent typesof refinedpetroleum.Thepipelineoperator schedules
andtracksthecustomer'sbatchorproductthroughthepipeline,trackingtheproductbeing
transported, thevolume,where it isbeing transported fromand to, and theownerof the
product.
Categorizingbyfunction:
Gathering pipelines transport gas and crude oil away from the points of production (i.e.,
wellheads)tofacilitiesforprocessingorrefinementortotransmissionpipelines.
Transmission pipelinesmove gas and hazardous liquids long distances across the country,
oftenathighpressures.
Distribution pipelines are generally smaller lines that take natural gas from transmission
pipelines and deliver it to individual homes and businesses. Distribution pipeline systems
operateatmuch lowerpressuresthantransmissionpipelines. Distributionpipelinesarenot
associatedwithhazardousliquids;distributionofhazardousliquidsisaccomplishedviaother
transportationmodes.
Categorizingbyintrastateversusinterstate
Intrastatepipelines
are
operated
entirely
within
one
state
and
do
not
cross
state
boundaries.
However, some pipelines that cross stateboundariesmaybe classified as intrastate if the
pipelineownershipchangesatthestateline.
Interstatepipelinestransportproductsacrossstateboundaries.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 8
Naturalgaspipelinesystem.Source:PHMSA
HowPipelinesWork
Gasandhazardousliquidpipelinesworkbasicallyinthesameway. Aproductisputintothepipeline,
pressureisappliedbysometypeofpump,andtheproductisforcedtoflowtowardanareaoflower
pressure. Flowismaintaineduntiltheproductreachesitsdestination. Alongtheway,pressureislost
duetofrictionandheat;boosterpumps(compressorsforgas)locatedalongthepipelineareusedto
boostthepressureandkeeptheproductflowing.
Varioussystemcomponentssuchasvalves,storagetanks,meteringstations,andcitygatestations
areusedtodirect,control,andmeasureproductflow. Productsareextractedorremovedfromthe
pipelineattheirdestinations,wheretheproductsarestored,transferredtoalternatetransportation
modes,orconsumed.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 9
PipelineControlCenters
Pipelinecontrolcentersare theheartofmodernpipelineoperations. Informationaboutapipeline
system'soperatingequipmentandparametersiscommunicated intothecontrolcenter,whichmay
be
located
hundreds
of
miles
away
from
thephysicallocationofvarioussegmentsof
thepipeline. Controlcenteroperatorsuse
computerizedsupervisorycontrolanddata
acquisition(SCADA)systemstomonitorand
control thepipeline systemoperation.The
SCADA system provides digital and analog
information to controlcenteroperators to
showvariousoperatingparameterssuchas
pipeline
pressure,
temperature,
flow,
alarms,andotherconditionsinthepipeline
fromallofthestationsalongthepipeline.Theseandotherdataare important inputs incontrolling
systemoperation,detectingpossibleleaks,andidentifyingotherproblemsalongthesystem.
MostSCADAsystemsenable thesystemoperator to instantlycheckoperationalparametersatany
location.Inaddition,mostSCADAsystemscandisplayinformationgraphicallysothatitcanbemore
easily understood. If a change occurs, such as the opening or closing of a valve, the shape
representingthatspecificvalveonacontrolcenterdisplayscreenchangesaswell.Remotecontrol
and monitoring may be combined with automatic controls and with field communications and
manualresponses
to
accomplish
the
actions
necessary
to
control
the
system.
Manypipelineoperatorshave their 24hour emergencyphonenumbers routeddirectly into their
pipelinecontrolcenters.Intheeventofapipelineemergency,controlcenteroperatorsmaybeable
toevaluatetheconditionand,ifdeemednecessary,takestepstoisolatetheequipmentorsectionof
pipelinewheretheproblemisoccurring. Thecontrolcentermayalsohavethecapabilitytoopenand
closevalvesremotelyandtotransferproductsbothtoandfromthemainpipelineatmarketingand
distribution facilities. The control center can also dispatch field personnel to address pipeline
emergencies.
Pumpsand
compressors
Pumpsandcompressorsprovidetheforceandpressuretomove liquidandgasproductsthrougha
pipelinesystem.Pumpsarecommonlyassociatedwithhazardous liquidpipelines;compressorsare
typicallyassociatedwithgaspipelines.
Pump and compressor stations house the pumps and compressors and related equipment.
Pump/compressorstationsareplacedatregularintervalsalonghazardousliquidandgastransmission
pipelines (e.g., every 20 to 100miles)where needed to sustain necessary pipeline pressures and
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 10
flows. The number and power of pumps/compressors within a station are selected based on
parameters such as theneededoperatingpressure,product type,distance, and elevationsof the
pipeline.
Pumpsandcompressorsmustbe
provided power through drivers.
Driversmay
be
electric
motors;
diesel, gasoline, or natural gas
fueled engines; or natural gas
fueled turbines. The choices of
the driver units for pumps and
compressorswill depend in part
on the power sources available.
Forexample,pumpsandturbines
fueledbynatural gas canoftenbe found aroundexploration andproductionoperations,whereas
dieselpowered
equipment
is
often
used
in
remote
locations.
Back
up
diesel
generators
are
also
used
aspowersourcesduringpowerfailures.
Valves
Valves are critical andessential components for controlling the flow andpressureofproduct in a
pipelinesystem.
Therearemanytypesofvalvesusedinapipelinesystem. Theyareusedtocontroltherateofflowin
aline,toopenorshutdownaline,ortoserveasautomaticpressurereliefdevices.
Valves
can
be
identified
by
type
or
by
function.
They
may
be
manually actuated, but many frequentlyoperated valves are
equipped with electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic powerdriven
mechanical operators. Some large valves on natural gas
transmissionpipelinesoperate inapowerassistmode, inwhich
gaspressurefromthepipelinepowersasmallmotorthatassists
inopeningandclosingthevalves.
Depending on the type of valve, its location, and the pipeline
operating conditions,a considerableamountof time andeffort
maybe
required
to
close
apipeline
valve
manually
during
an
emergency. For example, in 1994 a fire involving a 36inch
naturalgastransmissionpipelineinEdison,NewJersey,required
emergencyrespondersandpipelineindustrypersonneltoclosea
keyvalvemanually.Workinginanextremelyintenseradiantheat
environment, it took 752 turns of the valves handwheel
operatorand2hourstoclosethevalve.
Emergencyresponse
personnelshouldNEVER
attempttoisolateany
pipelinevalvesonlarge
diametertransmissionor
distributionlinesunless
underthedirectionof
pipelineoperations
personnel.Todosomay
createadditional
operationalproblemsand
safetyconcernsbeyondthe
originalevent.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 11
Flowratesandpressuresontransmissionlinesandlargedistributionlinesarecontrolledthroughthe
use of automatic or remotelycontrolled valves usually found at pump and compressor stations.
Thesemayormaynotprovideforcompleteshutoffofthepipeline,asflowcontrol istheirprimary
function.
Intheeventofanemergencyalongatransmission lineor largedistribution line,remotelyactuated
isolationvalves
may
be
used
to
shut
down
the
pipeline.
Depending
on
the
nature
of
the
emergency
and the typeandconfigurationof thepipeline, fieldoperationspersonnelmay stillbe required to
respond and isolate manuallyactuated valves located in closer proximity to the location of the
emergency.
Pressurereliefvalves
Pressure relief valves (PRV) are special types of valves that provide overpressure protection for
pipeline systems and components. These are springactuated valves that open automatically to
relievesystempressurewhenactuatedatapreset limit.Onhazardous liquidpipelinesystems,the
PRVdischarge
is
often
directed
into
abreakout
tank
where
the
liquid
outflow
is
collected.
On
natural
gaspipelinesystems,theoverpressurereliefisventeddirectlyintotheatmosphere.
Emergency respondersare sometimes calledfor reportsof extremely loudnoiseorgaslike
odors intheareaofnaturalgaspipelinecompressorandregulatorstations.Whenactuated,
PRVsongaspipelinesystemscangenerateatremendousamountofnoise,aswellasstrong
odors ifthenaturalgasisodorized.APRVventingtotheatmosphere isperformingproperly,
anditsdischargeshouldneverbeisolatedorrestrictedbyemergencyresponsepersonnel.
Meters(MeteringStations)
Allproducts
entering,
leaving,
and
passing
through
apipeline
must
be
accounted
for
and
measured.
Accurateproductmeasurementisrequiredforproducttransfer,productcustody,leakdetection,and
deliveryschedules.
Metersareusedtomeasureandrecordthequantityorvolumeofproductpassingthroughaspecific
location. Pipeline throughput is defined as the volume of product that goes through a section of
equipmentduringaspecifiedamountof time.Factors thatmayaffectproductvolume include the
temperature,pressure,chemicalcomponents,anddensityoftheproductbeingmeasured.Product
characteristicsarealsocheckedperiodicallywithmanualandautomaticsamplingequipment.
CityGate
Stations
Acitygate isa locationwherenaturalgas isextractedfromatransmissionpipelinesystem intoa
lowerpressuredistributionsystem.Thecitygateistypicallywhereodorant,usuallyachemicalcalled
mercaptan,isaddedtothegas,givingitthecharacteristicsmellofrotteneggs.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 12
LineMarkers
Since pipelines are usually buried underground, line markers and warning signs are located at
frequent intervals along transmission pipeline rightsofway (ROW). They are also foundwhere a
pipeline intersectsastreet,highway,railwayorwaterway,andatotherprominentpointsalongthe
ROW. Markers warn that a transmission pipeline is located in the area, identify the product
transportedin
the
line,
and
provide
the
name
of
the
pipeline
operator
and
atelephone
number
to
callintheeventofanemergency.
Pipelinemarkersindicateonlythepresenceofapipeline.Theydonotdepictandshouldnotbeused
todetermine theexact locationof thepipeline.Pipeline locationswithinaROWmayvary in their
horizontal location and depth along the length of the ROW. Additionally, theremay bemultiple
pipelineslocatedinthesameROW.
Beforedigging inanareawherepipelinesare located,allexcavators, including thegeneralpublic,
shouldcall811andrequestthatthepipelinesandotherundergroundfacilitiesbeaccuratelylocated
andmarked.
Calling
811
before
digging
is
free
and
is
required
by
state
laws.
ExamplesofPipelineMarkers
MoreinformationongasandhazardousliquidpipelinescanbefoundinAppendixA.
PhysicalandChemicalPropertiesofPipelineProducts
Emergencyplannersdevelopinghazardmitigationplansmustunderstandhowpipelineproductswill
behave(theirphysicalproperties)andhowtheycanharm(theirchemicalproperties).
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 13
NaturalGas
Naturalgas isthepredominantproduct found ingaspipelines.Naturalgas (CH4) isacleanburning
fuelthatconsistsofapproximately94%methane,4%ethane,andtheremaining2%ofothergases,
includingbutane,carbondioxide,nitrogen,andisopentane.Itiswidelyusedasafuelforresidential,
commercial,and industrialpurposes.Compressednaturalgas (CNG)mayalsobeusedasavehicle
motorfuel
in
high
pressure
cylinders.
Somethingstoknow:
Naturalgasisodorless,colorless,andtastelessinitsnaturalstate.Itislighterthanairandwill
rise.
Natural gas isnontoxic,but canpresent inhalationhazards. If releasedwithin an enclosed
area,itcandisplaceoxygenandactasasimpleasphyxiant.
Whenmixedwiththeproperamountofair,naturalgascanburn.Theexplosivelimitsare4to
15% gas in air.A combustible gas indicator (CGI)or flammable gasdetector calibrated on
methanewill
be
required
to
determine
the
concentration
of
natural
gas
vapors
present.
Naturalgasvaporswillquicklyflashbacktotheirsourcewhenignited.
Natural gas fireswill give off tremendous amounts of radiant heat and provide significant
exposureconcerns.
Natural gas that is trapped in enclosed areas or confined spaces can cause a significant
explosionifignited.Ifventilatinganenclosedspace,thehazardmaymomentarilyincreaseas
theair/gasmixturepassesthroughtheexplosiverange.
Althoughnaturalgas canexistas a liquidor gas (atambient temperatures, itwillbe in its
gaseous form; it canbe chilled to 260oF and stored as a liquid),with few exceptions it is
transportedvia
pipeline
in
its
gaseous
form.
Leakednaturalgas trappedunderasphalt,concrete, frozenground,etc.,willmove laterally
fromitssourceviaanypathofleastresistance(e.g.,undergroundconduitsandpipecasings).
Soilthathasbeendisturbedbyexcavationwillallowfortheeasierpassageofnaturalgas.In
addition,certainsoilsmaycauseaddedodorantstobe"scrubbed"fromthenaturalgas.
HazardousLiquids
Hazardousliquidspipelinesmaycarryavarietyofproductswithwidelyvaryingphysicalandchemical
properties. Material safety data sheets (MSDS) for specific products, and emergency response
guidebooksare
good
sources
of
information
for
determining
the
physical
and
chemical
properties
of
hazardousliquidsinpipelines.
Understandingpipelinehazardsrequiresknowingthematerialsbeingtransportedandunderstanding
theirbehavior.Commonproductstransportedinhazardousliquidpipelinesincludecrudeoil,refined
petroleumproducts,andliquefiedpetroleumproducts.
Somethingstoknow:
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 14
Crude oil gathering pipelines may transport sour crudes with high concentrations of
hydrogensulfide(H2S),acolorless,verypoisonous,andflammablegaswiththecharacteristic
foulodorof rotteneggs.Exposure toH2Seven in low concentrationscancausedeath.The
OSHApersonalexposurelimit(PEL)forH2S is10ppmandthe immediatelydangerousto life
andhealth(IDLH)valueis300ppm.
Recentlycrude
oil
extracted
from
bituminous
sands
(also
known
as
oil
sands
or
tar
sands)
hasreceivedalotofmediaattention. Tarsands,atypeofunconventionalpetroleumdeposit,
refer to a mixture of sand, water, clay, and bitumen (which refers to the heaviest of
hydrocarbonmixturesfoundincrudepetroleum).
Bitumenextractedfromtarsandsisaheavy,sticky,viscoussolidorsemisolidformthatdoes
noteasilyflowatnormaloilpipelinetemperatures,makingitdifficulttotransport.Itmustbe
diluted through the addition of a diluent, such as natural gas condensates or naphtha, or
chemicallysplitbeforeitcanbetransportedbypipelineforupgradingintosyntheticcrudeoil
andrefined.Dilutedbitumen(dilbit)sinkswhenreleasedintowaterinsteadoffloatingonthe
toplikecrudeoilsandpetroleumproductstypicallytransportedintheUS.
Gasolineishighlyflammableandiseasilyignitedwhenreleasedintoair. Whenitisat10%of
the lower explosive limit, the atmospheric concentrationof gasoline vapors in air is 1,400
ppm.This isabove the threshold limitvalue/timeweightedaverage (TLV/TWA) for toxicity,
andshouldberegardedasanunsafeenvironment. Inaddition,theTLV/TWAforbenzene is
only 1 ppm. Emergency responders must initially use selfcontained breathing apparatus
(SCBA) until air monitoring results permit the level of respiratory protection to be
downgraded.
Distillates,such
as
diesel
fuel
and
jet
fuel,
are
combustible
liquids
and
produce
fewer
vapors
than gasoline. Diesel andjet fuel vapors are not easily detected with a combustible gas
indicator(CGI)duetotheirlowvaporpressure.
Allrefinedpetroleumproductshavevaporsthatareheavierthanairandaspecificgravityless
than1.0.Vaporswillcollectinlowareas,whilespillswillfloatonthesurfaceofwater.Spills
andvaporsmaymigratelongdistancesthroughdraintiles,sewers,orotherconduits.
Liquefiedgases thatare lighter thanair,suchasanhydrousammonia,will initiallyhang low
andcollectinlowareasuntilthevapors"heatup"andrise.Inaddition,propaneandbutane
vaporswill
extend
beyond
the
visible
vapor
cloud.
All liquidpetroleumproductshave increasedvolatilitywhen releasedunderpressureasan
aerosol. In addition, warm weather can increase the volatility of all refined petroleum
products.
Moredetailedinformationregardingthephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofproductstransportedin
pipelinescanbefoundinAppendixB.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 15
PipelineRisks
Risks to thepublic fromhazardous liquid and gas transmissionpipelines result from thepotential
unintentionalreleaseofproductstransportedthroughthepipelines.Releasesofproductscarriedby
pipelines can impact surrounding populations, property, and the environment, andmay result in
injuriesorfatalitiesaswellaspropertyandenvironmentaldamage.
Theseconsequencesmayresultfromfiresorexplosionscausedbyignitionofthereleasedproduct,as
wellaspossible toxicityandasphyxiationeffects.Some releasescancauseenvironmentaldamage,
impactwildlife,orcontaminatedrinkingwatersupplies.Releasescanalsohavesignificanteconomic
effects, such asbusiness interruptions,damaged infrastructure,or lossof suppliesof fuel such as
naturalgas,gasoline,andhomeheatingoil.
Thepotentialconsequencesoftransmissionpipelinereleasesvaryaccordingtothecommoditythatis
released aswell as characteristics of the surrounding area. Gas transmission pipelines transport
natural gas almost exclusively5.Natural gas releases pose a primarily acute hazard. If an ignition
sourceexists,
arelease
of
gas
can
result
in
an
immediate
fire
or
explosion
near
the
point
of
the
release. This hazard is reduced over a relatively short period after the release ends as the gas
disperses. Ifthevaporsaccumulate insideabuilding,thenthehazardmayremain longer6.There is
alsoapossibility that thesizeormovementof thevaporcloudcould result inconsequencesaway
fromthe initialpointoftherelease,butbecausenaturalgas is lighterthanair,thissituation isnot
common.Structuresand topographic features in thevicinityofa releasecanserveasbarriersand
mitigatetheconsequencesofthereleaseforothernearbyareas.
Hazardous liquidpipelines transportagreatervarietyofproducts (includingpetroleum,petroleum
products,natural gas liquids, anhydrous ammonia, and carbondioxide), so the risksofhazardous
liquidpipeline
releases
vary
according
to
the
commodity
involved.
Releases
of
some
commodities
transportedinhazardousliquidpipelines,suchaspropane,poseprimarilyanacutehazardoffireor
explosion, similar tonaturalgas.These commoditieshaveahigh vaporpressure and are in liquid
formwhiletransportedunderpressureinapipeline.However,iftheyarereleasedfromthepipeline,
theywillconverttogasasthepressureisreduced.Someofthesecommoditieshavedensitiesgreater
than air, so they have a stronger propensity to remain near the ground than natural gas,which
dispersesmorereadily.Thebehaviorofthesecommoditieswhenreleasedpresentssomedifferent
challengesformitigation,comparedtootherhazardousliquidsornaturalgas.
Releases
of
other
hazardous
liquids,
such
as
gasoline
and
crude
oil,
have
both
acute
and
more
long
termpotentialconsequences,asthereleasedproductcanspreadoverlandandwater,flowinginto
valleys, ravines, and waterways. This can result in harmful consequences to people and to the
environment, including human injuries or fatalities from fire or explosion, as well as potential
5Averysmallpercentageofgastransmissionpipelinestransportothercommoditiessuchashydrogenandchlorine,as
wellasothergasesthataretheresultofoilrefineryoperations.6Muhlbauer,W.Kent,PipelineRiskManagementManual,1992.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 16
ecologicaldamageandcontaminationofdrinkingwatersuppliesoccurringsomedistancefromthe
pointofinitialrelease.
Assessingthepotentialconsequencesofreleasesfromspecificpipelinesinspecificlocationsshould
bebasedonapipeline andlocationspecificevaluationofthefollowingfourelements:
1. Which commodity or commoditiesmight be released? A list of commodities potentially
transportedinaspecificpipelinemaybeobtainedfromthepipelineoperator.
2. Howmuch of the transported commoditymight be released? The answer to this differs
at different locations along a pipeline and can be derived from pipeline flow rates, spill
detectiontime,pipeline shutdown time, draindown volume, andother technical factors.
These factorsmaybediscussedwiththepipelineoperator.
3. Where might the released substance go? The answer to this is derived byconsidering
thereleasedcommodity,releasevolume,andpotentialflowpathsover landandwater,as
wellaspotentialairdispersion. Overland flow can be affected by factors such as gas
orliquid
properties,
topography
at
and
near
the
spill
location,
soil
type,
nearby
drainage
systems, andflowbarriers.Similarly,flow inwatercanbeaffectedby thewaterflowrate
anddirectionandproperties of the spilled fluids. Air dispersion can be affected by the
propertiesof releasedvaporsandwinddirectionandspeed.
4. Whatlocationsmightbe impacted?Thisquestionisansweredbyconsideringhowpotential
impacts, includingthermal impacts from fire,blastoverpressurefromexplosion,toxicand
asphyxiation effects, and environmental contamination, could affect locationswhere the
released commodity travels. Planned evacuation routes should be considered when
performingtheseassessments.
Various commerciallyavailablemodelshavebeendevelopedandareavailable to communities to
helppredicttheimpactsofpipelinereleasesonnearbyareas. Thesemodelssupportanalysisofsuch
elements as spill volumes, release paths along land or water, air dispersion patterns, and spill
impactsonhumanhealth,property,andtheenvironment.
Transmission pipeline releases result from a variety of causes, including internal and external
corrosion, excavation damage, mechanical failure, operator error, and natural force damage.
Pipelineswithdifferentcharacteristicsandoperatingenvironmentshavedifferentsusceptibilitiesto
these failurecauses.This results indifferent failureprobabilities fromdifferentcausesatdifferent
pointsalong
the
pipeline.
Inaddition to the lengthsofpipe thatmakeup transmissionpipeline segmentsona rightofway
(sometimesreferredtoaslinepipe),transmissionpipelinesystemsincludeancillaryfacilities,such
aspump stations and tank facilities (for liquidpipelines) and compressor and regulator/metering
stations (for gaspipelines).These facilities areoften adjacentorbeyond the rightofway andon
operatorownedproperty,frequentlyprotectedbysecurityfencing.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 17
Mostcommunitiesinthevicinityoftransmissionpipelinesarenearrightsofwaywithlinepipeand
not near ancillary facilities. However, some communities may be near these facilities. The
predominantfailurecausesandfailuremodesaredifferentfortheseancillarypipelinefacilitiesthan
thepredominant failure causes and failuremodes for linepipe.Consequently, local governments
should be aware of what parts of a transmission pipeline system are in the vicinity of their
communitiesin
order
to
better
understand
which
pipeline
risk
factors
should
be
addressed
in
their
communities.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 18
PipelineFailureImpactsExamples
Pipelineincidentsarelowfrequencyeventsbutwhentheydooccur,theimpactscanbedevastating.
Thefollowingsummariesandpicturesofrecent,highconsequenceincidentsareprovidedtodevelop
anunderstandingofthepotentialimpacttothecommunityfrompipelinefailures.
HazardousLiquid
Crude
Oil
Diluted
Bitumen
(Dilbit)
On Sunday, July 25, 2010, at 5:58 p.m., eastern daylight time, a segment of a 30inchdiameter
pipeline(Line6B),ownedandoperatedbyEnbridgeIncorporated(Enbridge)rupturedinawetlandin
Marshall,Michigan.Theruptureoccurredduringthelaststagesofaplannedshutdownandwasnot
discoveredoraddressedforover17hours.Duringthetimelapse,Enbridgetwicepumpedadditional
oil(81percentofthetotalrelease)intoLine6Bduringtwostartups;thetotalreleasewasestimated
tobe843,444gallonsofcrudeoil.Theoilsaturated thesurroundingwetlandsand flowed intothe
TalmadgeCreekandtheKalamazooRiver.Localresidentsselfevacuatedfromtheirhouses,andthe
environmentwasnegativelyaffected.Cleanupeffortscontinueasoftheadoptiondateofthisreport
(July10,
2012),
with
continuing
costs
exceeding
$767
million.
About
320
people
reported
symptoms
consistent with crude oil exposure. No fatalities were reported. For more information visit
http://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/summary/PAR1201.html
TalmadgeCreek CleanupcrewsremoveoilandcontaminatedmaterialsfromthestreambanknearMarshall,Michigan
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HazardousLiquidPropane
On November 1, 2007, at 10:35:02 a.m. central daylight time, a 12inchdiameter pipeline
segmentoperatedbyDixie PipelineCompanywas transporting liquid propane at about 1,405
poundspersquareinch,gauge,whenitrupturedinaruralareanearCarmichael,Mississippi.The
resultinggascloudexpandedovernearbyhomesand ignited,creatinga large fireball thatwas
heardand
seen
from
miles
away.
About
10,253
barrels
(430,626
gallons)
of
propane
were
released. As a result of the ensuing fire, two peoplewere killed and seven people sustained
minorinjuries.Fourhousesweredestroyed,andseveralothersweredamaged.About71.4acres
of grassland and woodland were burned. Dixie Pipeline Company reported that property
damagesresulting fromtheaccident, including the lossofproduct,were$3,377,247.Formore
informationvisithttp://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2009/PAR0901.pdf
Aerialviewofareaimpactedbythepipelineruptureshowingnearbydestroyedhouses.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 20
GasTransmission
OnSeptember9,2010,about6:11p.m.Pacificdaylight time,a30inchdiameter segmentof an
intrastatenaturalgastransmissionpipelineknownasLine132,ownedandoperatedbythePacific
Gas and Electric Company (PG&E), ruptured in a residential area in San Bruno, California. The
ruptureoccurredatmilepoint39.28ofLine132,atthe intersectionofEarlAvenueandGlenview
Drive.Theruptureproducedacraterabout72feet longby26feetwide.Thesectionofpipethat
ruptured,whichwas about 28 feet long andweighed about 3,000 pounds,was found 100 feet
south of the crater. PG&E estimated that 47.6 million standard cubic feet of natural gas was
released.Thereleasednaturalgasignited,resultinginafirethatdestroyed38homesanddamaged
70.Eightpeoplewerekilled,manywere injured,andmanymorewereevacuated from thearea.
Formoreinformationvisithttp://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/summary/PAR1101.html.
Aerialviewofareaimpactedbythe blastandfire
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 22
NaturalGasDistributionCastIron
OnFebruary9,2011at10:45pm,atragicexplosionoccurredonNorth13thStreetinAllentown,PA.
LocalemergencyrespondersworkedtolimitthespreadofthefirewhileUGIUtilitiescutthrough
reinforcedconcretetoaccessthegasmain.Gasflowtotheleakwascompletelyshutoffat3:40am
thenextmorning.UGIUtilitiesreportedtheleaktotheNationalResponseCenter(NRC)justafter
midnighton
the
9th.
As
aresult
of
the
explosion
and
ensuing
fire,
5people
lost
their
lives,
3people
requiredinpatienthospitalization,and8homesweredestroyed.UGIUtilitieshasestimatedthe
propertydamagefromtherupturetobe$2.5million.Formoreinformationvisit
http://opsweb.phmsa.dot.gov/pipelineforum/factsandstats/recentincidents/allentownpa/
Fireresultingfromgasdistributionpipelinefailure
Pipeline
Regulation
Ultimately the U.S. Congress has responsibility for setting the framework for pipeline safety
regulationsthroughitsestablishmentoflaws.TheU.S.DepartmentofTransportation(DOT),Pipeline
and HazardousMaterials Safety Administration (PHMSA), is primarily responsible for issuing and
enforcingfederalpipelinesafetyregulations.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 23
TheoverarchingpipelinesafetystatutesthatCongresshaspassedcanbefoundinU.S.Code,Title49,
SubtitleVIII,Chapter601. TheminimumfederalregulationsadoptedbyPHMSAcanbefoundinthe
CodeofFederalRegulations(CFR),Title49,Parts190199.
Pipeline safety regulations cover design, construction, testing, operations andmaintenance. This
includes requirements for damage prevention, public awareness, integrity management, control
roommanagement
and
operator
qualification
programs,
as
well
as
many
others.
Regulations
are
continuouslyreviewedandupdatedasnecessarytoaddressemergingissuesandtechnology.
Through partnershipwith PHMSA, states can assume all or part of the intrastate regulatory and
enforcement responsibility through annual certifications and agreements. Intrastate facilitiesmay
include gas distribution, gas transmission and hazardous liquid transmission pipelines, aswell as
gathering lines, storage fields, and LNG facilities. Themajority ofnatural gas distributionpipeline
system inspections are carried out by state inspectors. The strength of PHMSAs federal/state
partnershipsdirectlyimpactstheintegrityofournation'spipelines.Strongpartnershipsarecriticalto
a successful national pipeline safety program. PHMSAs Stakeholder Communications website
(http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/States.htm)providesinformationregardingstatepipelinesafety
regulatoryagencies,at.
Localgovernmentsarenotallowedtocreateregulationsregardingtheoperationsofpipelines. Also,
it should be noted that there are pipelines that are outside the scope of federal pipeline safety
regulationsadministeredbyPHMSA. Regulatedpipelinesaredefinedbyfederalregulationsfoundin
49CFR191.1,192.1,192.8,195.1,andelsewhereasreferencedinthoseregulations.
Hereareafewoftheregulatedareasthatmayimpactotherpipelinesafetystakeholders.
Mapping pipelines The National Pipeline Mapping System (NPMS)
(www.npms.phmsa.dot.gov)isageographicinformationsystem(GIS). Operatorsarerequired
toannuallysubmitgeospatialdata,attributedata,publiccontact information,andmetadata
pertaining to their federally regulated interstate and intrastate hazardous liquid and gas
transmission pipelines, liquefied natural gas (LNG) plants, and hazardous liquid breakout
tanks.
PublicAwarenessPipelineoperatorsmustconductpublicawarenessprogramstoeducate
thepublic,appropriategovernmentorganizations,andexcavatorson:pipeline locations,use
of onecall notification systems and other damage prevention activities, possible hazards
associatedwith
unintended
pipeline
releases,
physical
indications
that
such
arelease
may
haveoccurred, steps that should be taken forpublic safety in the eventof a release, and
procedurestoreportsuchanevent.
Damage Prevention Pipeline operators must conduct damage prevention programs to
informthepublicandexcavatorsoftheprogramsexistenceandpurpose,provideameansof
receivingandrecordingnotificationsofplannedexcavationactivities,andprovidetemporary
markingofburiedpipelines in theareaofanexcavationactivitybefore theactivitybegins.
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These requirementsmay bemet by participation in qualified onecall damage prevention
systems.
OneCallSystems Onecallnotificationcentersenableallexcavatorstomakeasingle,toll
freecalltothenationalcallbeforeyoudignumber,811,tohavetheexact locationsof
pipelinesnearplannedexcavationareasdeterminedandmarkedtoavoidexcavationdamage
tothe
pipelines.
Some
one
call
centers
also
accept
locate
requests
for
design
and
planning
purposes. Underfederalpipelinesafetyregulations,pipelineoperatorsmustparticipateina
onecallsysteminareaswheretherepipelinesarelocated,ifthatonecallsystemisaqualified
onecallsystem. Insomecases,excavatorsmayberequiredtocontactthepipelineoperator
directly.
EmergencyPreparednessandResponsePipelineoperatorsmustprepareandfollowmanuals
of written procedures for each pipeline system for conducting normal operations and
maintenanceactivitiesandhandlingabnormaloperationsandemergencies. Operatorsmust
establishandmaintainliaisonswithfire,police,andotherappropriatepublicofficialstolearn
the responsibility and resources of each government organization thatmay respond to a
pipelineemergencyandacquaintthoseofficialswiththeoperator'sabilityinrespondingtoa
pipelineemergencyandmeansof communication. Eachoperatorsemergencyprocedures
mustaddressthefollowing,amongotherrequirements,toensuresafetywhenanemergency
conditionoccurs:
1.
Receiving, identifying, classifying, and communicating notices of events which need
immediateresponsebytheoperatorornoticetofire,police,orotherappropriatepublic
officials;
2. Promptly and effectively responding to each type of emergency, including fires or
explosions occurring near or directly involving pipeline facilities and natural disasters
affectingpipelinefacilities;
3. Havingpersonnel,equipment,instruments,tools,andmaterialavailableasneededatthe
sceneofanemergency;
4.
Minimizingpublicexposuretoinjuryandtakingactionstoprotectingpeoplefirstandthen
property;and
5. Notifying fire,police,andotherappropriatepublicofficialsofpipelineemergenciesand
coordinatingwiththempreplannedandactualresponsesduringemergencies.
Regulating
Land
Use
and
Development
near
Pipelines
There isnonational structured framework for regulating landuse anddevelopmentnearexisting
pipelines.This isalso complicated in that federal regulationsdonotprescribe the sizeofpipeline
rightsofway, and pipelines may be installed in public spaces and in
privateeasements.
State and local governments can regulate development near pipelines
with their land use authority. For example, they can enact planning,
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 25
permitting,andzoningregulationsandordinancesgoverningthetypesofstructuresthatcanbebuilt
near existing pipelines, requiring consultationwithpipelineoperators,or establishing a varietyof
other landuse permitting requirements directed at improving safety when developing around
pipelines. However,veryfewstateorlocalgovernmentshaveusedtheirauthoritiestotrytoincrease
safetyaroundpipelines. But,asmoreandmoregrowthoccursaroundexistingpipelines,regulating
suchdevelopment
to
ensure
safety
will
become
increasingly
more
important.
ThePIPAReport7providesrecommendedpracticesforlocalgovernmentsandotherstakeholdersto
consider for reducing risks and improving the safety of affected communities and transmission
pipelinesthroughimplementationofriskinformedlanduseplanning.
Appendix C provides some information regarding pipeline design and construction. However, as
noted above, this document pertains to existing gas and hazardous liquid pipelines and is not
intendedtoaddressnewpipelinesitingorconstruction.
AppendixDprovidesanoverviewexaminationof the laws,regulations,andstandards thatdirectly
influencethe
pipeline
industry.
Included
there
is
discussion
of
non
regulatory
influences
on
pipeline
safety.
7http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/pipa/LandUsePlanning.htm
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 26
Integrating
Pipelines
into
Hazard
Mitigation
Plans
Thissectionprovidesabrieflookattheneedsandbenefitsofincorporatingpipelinesintostateand
localhazardmitigationplans. Forthepurposeofthisdocument,therearefourstepstothehazard
mitigationprocess:
1.
Identifypipelines
and
pipeline
hazards
2.
Performvulnerabilityassessment
3.
Developcapabilityassessments
4. Developmitigationstrategies
Premises
1. Pipelinesaremanmadehazards.
2. Naturalhazardscanpresentrisktopipelines.
3. Pipelinesarecriticalinfrastructure.
4. Publicawarenessinformationforpipelinesneedstobebalancedwithsecuritysensitivity.
5. Pipelinesshouldbeincludedinthedevelopmentofhazardmitigationplans.
PipelinesareManmadeHazards
Gasandhazardousliquidpipelinesareconstructedbyandforpipelinecompaniesforthe
transportationanddistributionofgasandhazardousliquids. Bythenatureofthepotentially
hazardousproductstheycarry,pipelinesareasourceofpotentialharmtoacommunity,includingthe
population,environment,privateandpublicpropertyandinfrastructure,andbusinesses.Pipelines
shouldbeincludedinthelistsofhazardsthatcommunitiesconsiderwhendevelopinghazard
mitigationplans.
Pipelinefailuresarelowfrequency,highconsequenceevents. Asevidencedbyseveralhighprofile
pipelineincidentsoverthelastseveralyears,pipelinefailurescan:
resultinseriousinjuries,includingfatalities;
result in environmental impacts, such as the pollution of waterways and drinking water
sources,andthecontaminationofenvironmentallysensitiveareas;
destroyormakeuninhabitableresidencesandotherstructures;and
impacttrafficflowsanddisruptlocalandregionaleconomies.
Pipeline failures can also impact local community resources. Emergencymedical servicesmay be
needed, aswell as government services including:emergency responders (police, firefighters, and
hazardousmaterials),trafficandcrowdcontrol,evacuations,infrastructureexpertise,barricadingand
utilitysupport.Othergovernmentaldepartmentsmayberequiredforemergencytaskingaswellto
assistwithlongertermissuesofsupportandrecovery.Groundandwatercontaminationmayrequire
cleanupoperationslastingfromdaystoyears,whichcouldfurtherimpactgovernmentalresources.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 27
A pipeline leak or rupture can create the following hazards depending on the product being
transported:
1.
Fire and explosion Natural gas, highlyvolatile liquids (HVLs), and other refined petroleum
productsareflammableandcombustible. Dependingontheenvironmentandcharacteristicsof
therelease,explosionscanoccur. Naturalgas,ifleakedundergroundcanfollowpathsofminimal
resistance,such
as
other
utility
line
cavities,
and
migrate
inside
residences
and
other
structures.
2. Air dispersion of hazardous vapors Toxicity and asphyxiation effects can impact health and
safety.TheseresultprimarilyfromspillsofHVLs,butcanalsobeasignificantproblemforgasoline
and other refined products and some crude oil, due to hydrogensulfide (H2S) and benzene
components.
3.
OverlandspreadofhazardousliquidproductHazardousliquidproductscanspreadoverground
surfaces. This includespaved parking lotswith curbs, streets, culverts, anddepressions in the
earth.
4. WaterwaytransportWaterwaysmaycreatepathwaysforspilledliquidproductsandflammable
vapors
to
travel
close
to
populated
areas,
drinking
water
sources,
and
wetlands.
Storm
drains
can
beinterconnectedwithstreamsandcancreateapathforflammableorcombustibleliquidsand
heavierthanairvapors.
In2011therewere284significantpipelineincidentsforallpipelinetypescombinedintheU.S.8This
includes: 139 hazardous liquids pipeline incidents; 82 gas transmission incidents; 2 gas gathering
incidents;and61gasdistribution incidents. Combined, these incidents resulted in15 fatalities,60
nonfatalinjuries,andwellover$327millioninpropertydamage. Thesenumbersarecomparableto
recenttenyearaveragesforthesame impacts,althoughthetenyearaverageforpropertydamage
exceeds $467million. In 2010, property damage for pipeline incidents combinedwas over $1.3
billion.
There isnoquestionthatthese incidentsalsoresulted inunaccounted impactsto localeconomies,
such as lossof supply for customers, the closingofbusinesses, and the closureof transportation
modesforthecommunitiesinwhichtheyoccurred,andbeyond.
NaturalHazardsCanPresentRisktoPipelines
Natural forcedamage is cited as the causeof comparatively fewerpipeline incidents thanmost
other pipeline failure causes. However, natural force damage (natural hazards) can and does
resultinsomerelativelylargescalepipelinefailuresduetothepotentialforextremelylargeand
unpredictableforces
to
act
upon
pipelines
and
their
associated
facilities.
PHMSAcompilesdatareportedbypipelineoperatorsregardingpipelineaccidentsandincidentsand
theircauses. Incidentsattributed tonatural forces includedamage reportedas the resultofearth
movement, lightning, heavy rains and flood, temperature, high winds, and other natural force
8Source:PHMSASignificantIncidentsFilesApril30,2012
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damage. Thefollowingtablesreflectnaturalforcedamageincidentsreportedforallhazardousliquid
andgastransmissionpipelinesforthetenyearperiodof20022011.
Table1.HazardousLiquidPipelinesNaturalForceDamage
HAZARDOUS LIQUID PIPELINES - NATURAL FORCE DAMAGE 2002 -2011
Reported cause of incidentNumber ofincidents
% of allincidents
Fatalities Injuries Property damage% of property
damage from allincidents & causes
EARTH MOVEMENT 16 1.3% 0 0 $69,702,045 3.1%
HEAVY RAINS/FLOODS 17 1.3% 0 0 $207,680,909 9.3%
LIGHTNING 22 1.8% 0 0 $28,217,747 1.2%
TEMPERATURE 18 1.4% 0 0 $8,645,177 0.3%
HIGH WINDS 14 1.1% 0 0 $264,498,153 11.9%
OTHER NATURAL FORCE DAMAGE 1 0.0% 0 0 $511,550 0.0%
Sub Total 88 7.1% 0 0 $579,255,584 26.1%
Table2.
Gas
Transmission
Pipelines
Natural
Force
Damage
GAS TRANSMISSION PIPELINES - NATURAL FORCE DAMAGE 2002 -2011
Reported cause of incidentNumber ofincidents
% of allincidents
Fatalities Injuries Property damage% of property
damage from allincidents & causes
EARTH MOVEMENT 16 2.1% 0 0 $13,357,106 0.9%
HEAVY RAINS/FLOODS 70 9.2% 0 0 $309,365,109 22.6%
LIGHTNING 7 0.9% 0 0 $1,964,670 0.1%
TEMPERATURE 2 0.2% 0 0 $483,571 0.0%
HIGH WINDS 10 1.3% 0 0 $114,830,215 8.4%
OTHER NATURAL FORCE DAMAGE 3 0.4% 0 0 $2,354,121 0.1%
Sub Total 108 14.2% 0 0 $442,354,793 32.3%
During this period no fatalities or injurieswere reported as a result of these pipeline incidents.
However,thepotentialforseriousinjuryandfatalitieswaslikelypresentineveryincident. And,the
amountofpropertydamageattributeddirectlytothepipelinefailuresissignificant.
Emergencymanagementorganizationsandpipelineoperatorswillfacesomeofthesamechallenges
fromnaturalhazardevents, including:the inabilitytouseroadstoaccesstroubleareasandcontrol
points(suchaspipelineshutoffvalves);theinabilityofcriticalpersonneltoreachneededareas;out
ofservice and ineffective communication channels;unresponsive control channels; lost,damaged,
andinaccessible
response
equipment;
conflicting
and
confusing
information
being
received;
and
the
increasedneedtosurveyaffectedareas. Thesearebutafewofthecomplicationsthatcanarise.
Pipeline failures resulting from and in conjunction with natural hazard events can significantly
complicate and compound the response to and recovery from such events. Coordination among
emergencymanagementorganizationsandpipelineoperatorsiscriticalandmustbeconsideredboth
beforeandduringnaturalhazardevents.
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PipelinesandHazardMitigationforEmergencyManagers 29
PipelinesareCriticalInfrastructure
The energy transportation network of the United States consists of over 2.5 million miles of
pipelines that are vital to the transportation of critical energy supplies. These pipelines are
operated by approximately 3,000 companies, large and small. IntheU.S.thereareabout500,000
milesofhazardous liquidandgastransmissionpipelines(includingfederallyregulatedgasgathering
pipelines).
Pipelinesconnectandsupplyenergyfuelstocriticalinfrastructuresuchasairportsandpowerplants.
U.S.industriesrelyonrawmaterialssuppliedbyandderivedfromlargevolumesofcrudeoil,refined
petroleumproducts,andnaturalgasdeliveredbytransmissionpipelines.Asignificantpercentageof
the economic benefits from our core national industry sectors, including food products,
pharmaceuticals, plastics and resins, industrial organic chemicals, and automotive,would not be
possiblewithout oil and natural gas energy and related feed stocks transported by transmission
pipelines.Commercial and residential customersusenaturalgas for spaceheating,waterheating,
andcooling.
Pipelinedisruptionscanhaveeffectsthatripplethroughoutlocalandregionaleconomies,and,atthe
mostextreme,can impactand thenationaleconomyandnationalsecurity.Minordisruptionsmay
result in localized increases in thepricesofgasoline,diesel fuel,homeheatingoil,ornaturalgas.
Prolonged disruptions could result in widespread energy shortages and the inability of some
manufacturerstoproduceproductssuchasplastics,pharmaceuticals,andmanychemicalsthatrely
onoilandnaturalgasasmanufacturingfeedstock.Inthecaseofanextremedisruptionofpipelines,
Americantransportationandmanufacturingcouldbehalted,homesandbusinessescouldgocoldfor
lack of natural gas or heating oil, and energy for vital defense usemay begin to limit American
defensecapabilities.
PublicAwarenessofPipelineInformationMustBeBalancedwithSecuritySensitivity
Althoughmuch information aboutpipelines ispublicallyaccessible, certain securityrelated and/or
proprietaryinformationaboutpipelines, informationthatcannotbesharedwiththepublic,maybe
neededforemergencymanagerstomakeinformeddecisionsduringthemitigationplanningprocess.
Accesstosuchneededinformationwillrequirediscussionswiththepipelineoperators.
PHMSAhasdevelopedthePipelineInformationManagementMappingApplication(PIMMA)foruse
by pipeline operators and federal, state, and local government officials. The application contains
sensitive pipeline critical infrastructure information. Recognizing the publics need to know the
location of transmission pipelines, theNPMS Public Viewer allows users to access pipelinemaps
withoutdisclosingsensitivepipelineinformation.
PHMSAsdataaccesspolicyfortheNPMSrestrictsstate,regionalandlocalgovernmentmapsasregards
releasetothepublic.Mapsmayshowonlythepipelinesinasinglecountyandmustbeata1:24,000or
coarserscale. ApipelinemapatacoarseenoughscaletodisplaytheentirecontiguousUSonan8.5x11
printoutmayalsobereleased. Otherwise,themapmustbemarkedFor Official Use Only (FOUO) andnot
redistributedoutsideofworkingpartners. Forinternalworkingpurposes,state,regionalandlocal
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governmentsmayincorporatepipelinedataintotheirGISormappingsystemsinaccordancewiththelevelof
datatheyareprovided.ThedatasharingrestrictionsaresignedbytherequestorbeforeNPMSdatais
released.
Pipelinesshouldbeincludedinthedevelopmentofhazardmitigationplans
Stateandlocalcommunitiestodayaresusceptibletoavarietyofnatural,technological,andsocietal
hazards. It is importantthat theydevelophazardmitigationplanstounderstand thehazardsthey
face and develop appropriatemitigative actions. Theymust evaluate the hazards, and take into
considerationtheatriskpopulations,buildings,transportationroutesandkeyfacilities.
Communitieshaveanobligationtounderstandtheriskstheyface.Knowledgeoftheserisksallows
themtomakeinformeddecisionsabouthowtomanagetherisksanddevelopneededcapabilities.
HazardMitigationPlanningforPipelinesVulnerabilityAssessment
Hazard evaluationsmust take into consideration the atrisk populations, buildings, transportation
routes
and
key
facilities.
As
noted
in
the
Threat
and
Hazard
Identification
and
Risk
Assessment
(THIRA)Guide9:
Riskiscommonlythoughtofasaproductofathreatorhazard,thevulnerabilityofacommunity
orfacilitytoathreatorhazard,andtheresultingconsequencesthatmayimpactthecommunity
orfacility. Byconsideringchangestotheseelements,ajurisdictioncanunderstandhowtobest
manageitsriskexposure.
TheTHIRAGuideprovidesa comprehensiveapproach forcommunities to identifyandassess risks
andassociated impacts. Itbroadens the factorsconsidered intheprocess, incorporatingthewhole
communitythroughouttheentireprocess,andaccountsforimportantcommunityspecificfactors.
In assessing natural andmanmade hazards, emergencymanagement organizations maywant to
develop:
1. Ageneraldescriptionofthehazards
2. Information regarding historical occurrences and impacts (natural hazard events, pipeline
failures)
3.
Identification of location(s) of the hazards (e.g., floodplains, tornadoprone geography,
pipelinelocations)
4. Estimatesof theprobabilitiesofoccurrence (e.g.,annually,once in fiveyears,once inone
hundredyears)
5. Vulnerabilitiesofeachjurisdiction
6. Vulnerabilitiesofgovernmental(stateandlocal)andothercriticalfacilities
7.
Estimatesofpotentiallosses(dollarvalue)foreachjurisdiction
9ThreatandHazardIdentificationandRiskAssessmentGuide,ComprehensivePreparednessGuide(CPG)201,First
Edition,April2012,U.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurity.
http://www.fema.gov/library/file?type=publishedFile&file=cpg_201_thira_guide_final_040312.pdf&fileid=b8f77f90
7e6511e18178001cc456982e
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8. Estimatesofpotentiallosses(dollarvalue)forgovernmentalandothercriticalfacilities
9. Determinationsofthepotentialforlifehazardandresponserequirements
Todevelopacomprehensiveassessmentofthethreatsandhazardsfacingthecommunity,pipelines
and the potential impacts of pipeline failure incidents should be included. Only by inclusion of
pipelines in the development of hazard mitigation plans can communities identify feasible and
effectivemitigation
actions
to
address
hazardous
threats
to
pipelines
and
risks
to
the
community
resulting frompipeline incidents. TheTHIRAtoolkit10
lists theU.S.DepartmentofTransportations
PipelineandHazardousMaterialsSafetyAdministration(PHMSA)asadatasourceforinformationon
theNationspipelinetransportationsystemandhazardousmaterials.
ConsequencesofPipelineFailures
Annual,statespecificandcompositestatisticsonpipelineaccidents,theirconsequences,andcauses
canbereferencedfromthePHMSAwebsiteatwww.phmsa.dot.gov.Historicalpipelineincident
informationisalsolocatedonthatsite.Themajorcausesofpipelineaccidentsasreportedby
PHMSAsOffice
of
Pipeline
Safety
include:
corrosion,
excavation
damage,
incorrect
operation,
material/weld/equipmentfailure,naturalforcedamage,andotheroutsideforcedamage.
NationalPerspectiveonPipelineRisk
PHMSApublishedareportonpipelineriskin201011
inconjunctionwiththe
releaseofthePIPAReport12. ThepurposeofthePipelineRiskReport isto
assist local governments and developers in better understanding pipeline
risksandtoprovideacontextfortheuseofthePIPArecommendedpractices
fordevelopmentnearhazardous liquidandgastransmissionpipelines. The
PipelineRisk
Report
offers
comparisons
of
the
frequency
of
incidents
involvingdeathor injury resulting fromhazardousmaterials releases from
differenttransportationmodesover20052009.
StateorLocalPerspectiveonPipelineConsequences
Togainaperspectiveonpipelinerisk,oneapproachistoidentifywhereintheaffectedareapipelines
arelocated.Additionally,thepipelinemileagewithinanareacanbeoverlaidwithotherhazardsthat
couldaffectorcouldbeaffectedbypipelinefailures.
10ThreatandHazardIdentificationandRiskAssessmentGuide,ComprehensivePreparednessGuide(CPG)201,
Supplement1:Toolkit,FirstEdition,April2012,U.S.DepartmentofHomelandSecurity.
http://www.vmasc.odu.edu/downloads/CPG_201_SUPP_1_THIRA_Guide_Toolkit_FINAL_040312.pdf11
BuildingSafeCommunities:PipelineRiskanditsApplicationtoLocalDevelopmentDecisions.October,2010.
http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/publications/PIPA/PIPAPipelineRiskReportFinal20101021.pdf12
PartneringtoFurtherEnhancePipelineSafetyInCommunitiesThroughRiskInformedLandUsePlanning:FinalReport
ofRecommendedPractices.PipelinesandInformedPlanningAlliance.November17,2010.
http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/publications/PIPA/PIPAReportFinal20101117.pdf#pagemode=bookmarks
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Illustrationofmappingtransmissionpipelinemileageprofiles.
Source:VirginiaDepartmentofEmergencyManagement
Anotherapproachistoleveragehistoricpipelineincidentdataforspecificstateorlocaljurisdictions.
Pastperformance cannot accurately reflect future incidents sincemany factors could changeover
time,butsuchdatacanprovidetrendlinesthatpointtotheneedformitigationstrategies.
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Reference:http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/reports/safety/VA_detail1.html
HazardMitigationPlanningforPipelinesCapabilityAssessments
As inanyplanningprocess, it is importanttotrytoestablishwhichgoals,objectivesand/oractions
are feasible, based on an understanding of the organizational capacity of those agencies or
departments taskedwith their implementation.A capability assessmenthelps todeterminewhich
mitigationactionsarepracticaland likely tobe implementedover timegivena localgovernments
planningand regulatory framework, levelofadministrativeand technical support,amountof fiscal
resourcesandcurrentpoliticalclimate.
FundingCapabilities
Funding
to
assist
state
and
local
governments
to
adequately
develop
mitigation
programs
that
will
completelyaddresspropertiesat risk isgenerallyachallenge. However,PHMSAhas severalgrant
programsthatmayprovideassistanceinthisarea13.Itishopedthatasawarenessoftheneedforand
benefitsofhazardmitigation forpipelines increases,due inpart to implementationof thehazard
mitigationplan, agencieswill incorporate appropriatemitigation strategies into existingprocesses
andprograms.Pipelineoperatorsmayalsobeasourceofpipelineawarenesspromotionalmaterials,
13http://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/DamagePreventionGrantsToStates.htm
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emergencypreparednesstraining,andcharitablecontributions foremergencyresponseequipment
oradditionaltraining.
PHMSAFederallyFundedPrograms
Technical Assistance Grants (TAG) PHMSAs TAG program awards enable local
governments,
communities
and
groups
of
individuals
to
obtain
funding
for
technical
assistanceintheformofengineeringorotherscientificanalysisofpipelinesafetyissuesand
help promote public participation in official proceedings (universities are not eligible).
Enhancinghazardmitigationplans forpipelineswouldbeaneligibleactivityunder theTAG
program. The grant opportunity typically opens around January/February and is awarded
aroundSeptembereachyear.Theamountofanygrantmaynotexceed$100,000forasingle
grantrecipient.CFDANumber20.710.Authorizedunder49USC60130.
State Damage Prevention Grants (SDP) The purpose of these grants is to establish
comprehensive stateprogramsdesigned topreventdamage toundergroundpipelines in
statesthat
do
not
have
such
programs
and
to
improve
damage
prevention
programs
in
states that do. The amount of any grant may not exceed $100,000 for a single grant
recipient.CFDANumber20.720.Authorizedunder49USC60134.
PHMSAPipelineSafetyProgramOneCallGrants OnecallGrantsaredesignedtoprovide
funding to state agencies inpromotingdamageprevention, including changeswith their
state underground damage prevention laws, related compliance activities, training and
publiceducation.Stateagenciesthatparticipateinthepipelinesafetyprogramareeligible
toapplyforonecallgrantfundingonanannualbasis,withamaximumrequestamountof
$45,000per state.AStatemayprovide funds receivedunder this sectiondirectly toany
onecall
notification
system
ifthe
State
substantially
adopts
the
Common
Ground
Best
Practices.CFDANumber20.721.Authorizedunder49USC6106.
PipelineOperatorContributions
Pipelineoperatorspublicawarenessprogramsarerequiredbyfederalregulationstocomplywith
the American Petroleum Institute (API) Recommend Practice (RP) 1162, Public Awareness
Programs for Pipeline Operators. Appendix D of RP 1162, Detailed Guidelines for Message
DeliveryMethods,MediaSectionD.2.6CharitableContributionsbyPipelineOperatorsprovides:
While contributions and civic causes are not in themselves a public awareness effort,
companiesshouldconsiderappropriateopportunitieswherepublicawarenessmessagescan
beconveyedasapartoforinpublicityofthecontribution.Examplesinclude:
Contributionsofgasdetectionequipmenttothelocalvolunteerfiredepartment
Donationoffundstoacquireorimprovenaturepreservesorgreenspace
Sponsorshiptothecommunityartsandtheatre
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Supportofscholarships(especiallywhentodegreeprogramsrelevanttothecompanyor
industry)
Sponsorshipofemergencyresponderstofiretrainingschool
StateProgramsandCapabilities
Thefollowing
state
agencies,
officials,
and
programs
may
have
either
direct
or
indirect
roles
in
hazard
mitigation inastate.Theseagenciescanplayakeyrole inreducingrisksfrompipelinehazards ina
stateandinimprovingtheeffectivenessofmitigationactivities.
EmergencyManagementDepartment
The primarymission of a states emergencymanagement department is to protect the lives and
property of the states citizens from emergencies and disasters, by coordinating state emergency
preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation programs. The responsibility is to ensure a
comprehensive,efficientandeffectiveresponsetoemergenciesanddisastersthroughoutthestate,
includingprovidingassistanceintheabsenceoffederalaid.Inthisrolestateemergencymanagement
departmentsareusuallychargedwithsupportingmitigationplanning.Stateemergencymanagement
departmentsmay alsoworkwith theU. S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency (EPA)and their state
partnersonoilspillresponsedrills.
StateFireMarshal
Thestatefiremarshalisthemostseniorfireofficialinthestate.Statefiremarshals'responsibilities
vary from state to state, but they tend to be responsible for fire safety code adoption and
enforcement,fireandarsoninvestigation,fireincidentdatareportingandanalysis,publiceducation,
and advising state governors and legislatures on fire protection. Some state fire marshals are
responsiblefor
fire
fighter
training,
hazardous
materials
incident
responses,
wild
land
fires
and
the
regulation of natural gas and other pipelines. Most state fire marshals are appointed by state
governorsorotherhighrankingstateofficials.
StateDepartmentofTransportation(DOT)
StateDOTsareresponsibleforbuilding,maintainingandoperatingstateroads,bridgesandtunnels,
includingrepairsandreplacementsrequiredafternaturaldisasters.Inaccordancewithrequirements
of theFederalHighwayAdministration,stateDOTs routinely factor floodhazards intotheplanning
anddesignoftransportationinfrastructure. Insomecasesseismichazardsarealsoconsidered.
Stateand
Territorial
Environmental
Agency
State and territorial environment agencies have major responsibility for the environmental
consequencesofaccidentsanddisasters.These agenciesplay amajor role inhazardousmaterials
containment, testing,andabatement,andprovideoversight to thejointpermittingprocesses that
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overseeanyactivitywithpotentialimpactstorivers,streamsorwetlands.14.Theymayalsoregulate
gasfracturingandtheassociatedwaterneeds.
LocalCapabilities
With respect toaddressingpipelinehazards, localjurisdictionscontrol landuse throughcodesand
ordinances,
planning,
zoning,
and
permitting.
These
local
governmental
functions
are
enabled
through state and federal laws and regulations, and can contribute significantly tomitigation of
pipelinehazards.Localjurisdictionalprogramsarealsoextremelyrelevantasstateagenciesgenerally
manage state facilities in amanner that is consistent and complementaryof local comprehensive
planningandzoning.
Useofuniformstatewidebuildingcodesisgenerallyrequiredforallnewconstructionandsignificant
building repairsor additionswithinmost cities, counties and towns.Many localhazardmitigation
strategiesreflectlocallanduserequirementsandbuildingcodesandmaycontributesignificantlyto
mitigatingpipelinehazards.
Followingare
some
typical
means
by
which
local
jurisdictions
control
land
use
and
development.
Comprehensivecitywideandcountywideplansarepreparedby localplanningcommissions
andaddressthephysicaldevelopmentof landwithinajurisdictionsboundaries.Thesemay
beenhancedor supportedby sectorplans. Thesemayalsobe supportedby, forexample,
generalplans,tenyearplans,growthpolicyplans,utilitiesplans,andmajorroadplans,
Zoning ordinancesprovide for thepublichealth, safety,morals,andgeneralwelfareof the
citizensofajurisdiction,andsecure for them thesocialandeconomicadvantages resulting
fromanorderlyplanneduseofthe landresourceswithinthejurisdiction. Theyareusedto
regulateand
restrict
the
location
and
use
of
buildings,
structures,
and
land
for
residence,
trade, industry,andotherpurposes. Theyrestricttheheight,numberofstories,andsizeof
buildingsandotherstructures,andthesizeofyards,courts,andotheropenspacesonalotor
tract. Theyprovidedefiniteofficiallanduseplansforpropertypubliclyandprivatelyowned
within the jurisdiction. They help to guide, control, and regulate the future growth and
developmentof thejurisdiction inaccordancewithdevelopmentplans,andprovide for the
administrationandotherwisecarryingoutofsuchplans.
Land subdivision and development ordinances are prescribed by statute. They generally
provide for theharmoniousdevelopmentof thejurisdiction and itsenvirons, including the
coordinationofroadswithinthesubdividedland,withotherexistingorplannedroads,orwith
the stateor regionalplan,orwith theplansofmunicipalities inornear the region. They
provideforadequateopenspacesfortraffic,light,airandrecreation;fortheconservationor
production of adequate transportation, water, drainage and sanitary facilities; for the
avoidanceofpopulationcongestion. Theyalsoprovidefortheavoidanceofsuchscatteredor
14CleanWaterAct,Section401,PermitsandLicensesCertificationandSection404,Regulations.
(http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/)
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prematuresubdivisionoflandaswouldinvolvedangerorinjurytohealth,safetyorprosperity
by reasonof the lackofwater supply,drainage, transportationorotherpublic services,or
wouldnecessitateanexcessiveexpenditureofpublic funds for the supplyof such services.
Theyalsocontrolthemannerinwhichroadsshallbegradedandimproved,andwater,sewer
andotherutilitymains,piping,connectionsorotherfacilitiesshallbeinstalled.
Building
codesare
sets
of
rules
that
specify
the
minimum
acceptable
levels
of
safety
for
constructedobjectssuchasbuildingsandotherstructures.Themainpurposeofbuildingcodes
istoprotectpublichealth,safety,andgeneralwelfareastheyrelatetotheconstructionand
occupancyofbuildingsandstructures.Abuildingcodebecomeslawofaparticularjurisdiction
whenformallyenactedbytheappropriateauthority.
Buildingcodesareusuallyacombinationofprescriptive requirements thatspelloutexactly
how something is tobedone, andperformance requirementswhichjustoutlinewhat the
required levelofperformance is. Inrecenthistory,thetrendhasbeenforbuildingcodesto
movetomoreprescriptiverequirementsandlessperformancerequirements.
Themajor
model
building
codes
used
in
the
United
States
are
developed
by
the
International
Code Council(ICC), which has 14 sets ofinternational codes, including, for example,
theInternationalBuildingCode(IBC),theInternationalResidentialCode,theInternationalFire
Code, the International Energy Conservation Code, the International Plumbing Code, the
InternationalMechanicalCode,andothers.
Floodplain management provisions for development within a regulated floodplain have
typicallybeenaddressedbystandaloneordinancesadoptedforvoluntaryparticipationinthe
NationalFloodInsuranceProgram(NFIP).ThedesignatedNFIPcoordinatingagencyofalocal
government may find benefit in discussing potential oil spill consequences with pipeline
operators.The
data
from
this
program
may
inform
pipeline
operators
of
locations
where
floodingismorelikelytoimpactpipelines.
Regional Cooperative Developmentoccurswhen thephysical landuseof an areaextends
beyondtheboundariesofasinglejurisdiction. Anexampleofthiswouldbethedevelopment
or extension of new interstates, railways, and airports. Pipelines cross jurisdictional
boundaries. Arraignmentsandlocationsareoftennegotiatedbyallstakeholdersinvolved.
PipelineHazardMitigationStrategies
PHMSA has identified five mitigation strategies wherein state and local governments have the
authorityto
reduce
the
risk
of
pipeline
hazards.
They
are:
Pipelinemapping,
Pipelineawareness educationandoutreach,
Excavationdamageprevention,
Landuseanddevelopmentplanningneartransmissionpipelines,and
Emergencyresponseplanningforpipelineemergencies.
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