OUTDOOR RECREATION: A PSYCHOLOGICAL
NEED SATISFIER
by
JOHN EDWARD JULSONNET, B.S.
A THESIS
IN·
PARK ADMINISTRATION
Submitted to the Graduate School of Texas Tech University 1n
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
Approved
Accepted
December, 19'17
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am deeply indebted to Dr. James W. Kitchen; Dr.
Ernest B. Fish; and Col. Fred D. Barnes, USAF; for their
support, direction, and helpful criticism during the
preparation of this thesis.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
I. INTRODUCTION
Justification
Review of Literature
II. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGIES
Objectives
Methodology
III. MAN'S BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
Introduction
Definition of Terms
Psychological Needs
Critique of Psychological Needs
IV. OUTDOOR RECREATION SATISFIES PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
Introduction
Psychological Need Satisfiers
Critique of the Findings
V. OUTDOOR RECREATION SERVICES
Introduction
Problems
Solution of Substitution
Dissemination of Information
iii
ii
v
vi
1
2
2
8
8
8
9
9
9
10
16
19
19
20
25
28
28
28
32
36
LIST OF TABLES
1. Psychological Needs Satisfied by Participation in OUtdoor Recreation
2. Managerial Solutions Used to Control Use
v \ \
27
30
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Morgan's Motivational Cycle
2. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
3. Interrelationship of Psychological Clusters
vi
10
14
35
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The hypothesis of this thesis is: Outdoor recreation
satisfies specific psychological needs which are basic to
man. Two terms used in this hypothesis which require spe
cific definition are outdoor recreation and psychological
need.
According to various dictionary definitions, recre
ation is derived from the Latin word "receare" which.means
to create, to restore, and to become refreshed. Recreation
strengthens and exhilarates the individual not only physi
cally, but also mentally. This paper deals specifically
with outdoor types of recreation. According to Jensen
(1970), outdoor recreation can be defined as recreational
activities which occur in an outdoor (natural) environment
and which relate directly to the environment. Some examples
of outdoor recreation would be fishing, hunting, golfing,
water-skiing, and snow skiing.
Webster defines need as a lack of something useful,
requ_ired, or desired (Guralnik and Friend, 1966). Accord
ing to Morgan (1956), a psychological need is an element
essential to the mental or psychic well being of an
individual.
1
---
Justification
In, The Leisure Age, It's Challenges to Recreation,
Miller and Robinson (1963) state,
The modern recreation field has produced few philosophers to speak for it. There is a need for philosophical writings that will continue to integrate the scientific knowledge bearing on the recreation field, .•• and the faQts concerning modern recreation in relation to individuals, their needs, and their potentials.
This statement is a major justification for the relevance
of this thesis.
Review of Literature
As the world moved from an agrarian based society to
an industrial based society, the population started to
shift from rural living to urban living. With the popula-
tion shift, came an apparent increase in the need for out-
door recreation. Eighteenth and nineteenth century
philosophers began to pay more attention to the theories of
play and recreation. Philosophers such as Rabelais and
Montaigne in France, Mulcaster and Ascham in England, and
Comenius in Germany pleaded for the necessity of play in
life.
Prior to the 1900's, America was essentially an agrar-
ian nation. After 1900, America turned to industrialism
2
and Americans started to get involved in outdoor recreation.
Early American recreationists wrote their personal
philosophies as to why people engaged in recreation (Miller
and Robinson, 1963).
In 1945, Ott Romney divided an individual's life into
three classes. These classes are:
{1) time for existence--biological requirements, such as sleeping, eating, sanitation, and the like (10 hours daily),
{2) time for subsistence--economic requirements such as working on one's job {9 hours daily),
(3) leisure time--the time remaining after a minimum level of existence and subsistence have been accomplished (5 hours daily).
Romney believed these "leisure hours" are not preoccupied
with the necessity for existence or subsistence (Miller and
Robinson, 1963). The question arises as to what activities
does man engage in during his leisure time and does the
activity participation fulfill any specific requirement for
man or does it simply serve to occupy the hours not devoted
to the so-called essential requirements for existence and
subsistence~-
These questions must be answered to determine whether
the field of outdoor recreation is vital to the productiv-
ity and health of man or whether outdoor recreation can be
replaced by something else.
Finally, outdoor recreation leaders should know how
outdoor recreation satisfies man's n~eds. With this knowl
edge, they can specifically orient programs to help satisfy
particular needs of m~n.
3
Most authors, before attempting to analyze why people
participate in recreation, have shown the existence of play
in society (Miller and Robinson, 1963). Anthropologists
have found in their study of ancient peoples that community
recreation did exist. The fact that original organized
sports are found in present-day primitive tribes indicates
that the anthropologist finding~ are valid (Seidell, 1938).
4
A significant number of games in ancient societies were
not played for sheer fun. Most games were devised by the
tribes to train youths for battle, thus there was a definite
connection between games and physical combat (Seidell, 1938).
These games included ballgames, races, contests of strength
and skill, swimming, riding, running, and archery. Many of
these games were closely related to the survival activities
of food gathering and self defense while others were related
to religious worship, which also seemed universal among
early people (Miller and Robinson, 1963).
The games of the ancient societies continued through to
17th century England. Leonard and Affleck in A Guide to the
History of Physical Education noted that England had a wide
range of spo~ts and recreation "much in use, as bowling,
archery .•. , pitching bars, hurling, wrestling, leaping,
running, fencing, swimming, rugby, ~nd many such events
which were common recreation of the country folks" (Miller
and Robinson, 1963).
By opening a newspaper to the sports page, it can be
observed that many of the games of the ancient societies
have continued to the present.
Recreation Philosophies
Various scholars in the area of recreation have stated
their philosophies on why people participate in recreation.
Alexander Reid Martin (195S, 1962) (Leisure Time as a
Basic Health Resource and "A Philosophy of Recreation")
• • . that leisure and recreation process are natural biological, and innate, and an essential phase of the growth cycle, that leisure .•. comes to us as a natural blessing by the 'Grace of God,' that therecreative process complements the work process . . . that leisure is essential to all creativity: that man's great imperishable initiations have only come to him during his moments of true leisure.
The 'on your toes and get ahead' philosophy results in an increased anxiety and of compulsiveness and tragic frustration over the inability to relax.
5
Max K~plan (1960) (Leisure in America: ASocial Inquiry)
Kaplan's essential elements to leisure were: a. an antithesis to 'work' as an economic function, b. a pleasant expectation and recollection, c. a minimum of involuntary social-role obligations, d. a psychological perception of freedom, e. a close relation to values of the culture, f. the inclusion of an entire range from .inconsequence
and insignificance to weightlessness and importance, g. often, but not necessarily, an activity character
ized by the element of play. (Neulinger, 1965)
Melvin Radar (1950) (Ethics and Society)
••• the fundamental biological values, such as good nutritious food, rest, decent shelter, warm clothing, exercise and physical play, sex-expression, pain avoidance and he~lth care, must be considered basic
to the personality and therefore to the good life. (Miller and Robinson, 1963).
Norman Miller and Duane Robinson (1963) (The Leisure
Age, Its Challenges to Recreation)
Factors such as food, fresh air, and rest are vital to the organism, but activity is the means of stimulating bodily functioning.
Dr. Austin Fox Riggs (1935) (Play)
6
The function of play is to balance life in relation to work, to afford a refreshing contrast to responsibility and routine, to keep alive that spirit of adventure and that sense of proportion which prevents taking oneself and one's job too seriously, and thus to avert the premature death of youth, and not i'nfrequently the premature death of the man himself. (Kennedy, 1956)
Jay Nash (1965) (Philosophy of Recreation and Leisure)
Recreation is any form of experience or activity which an individual engages from choice because of the personal enjoyment and satisfaction which it brings directly to him.
Ott Romney (1945) (Off the Job Living)
Recreation is not a matter of motions--but rather emotions. It is a personal response, a psychological reaction, an attitude, an approach.
H. G. Danford (1953) ("My Philosophy of Recreation")
Among the basic needs of human beings are the need for activity or movement; the need for recognition, status, and self-direction; the need for group acceptance; the need £or new and interesting experience or adventure; and the need for expression. In the satisfaction of these needs • • • recreation has an important part to play.
These philosophies on recreation reveal divergent as
well as common opinions. However, few of the authors have
produced extensive philosophical writings which integrate
7
the present scientific knowledge of man into the recreational
field. Therefore, this thesis has attempted to use the pres
ent scientific knowledge and understanding of man and apply
it to the question of whether or not outdoor recreation ful
fills a particular need for man or mainly serves to occupy
those hours of·the day which are not devoted to existence
and subsistence requirements.
are:
CHAPTER II
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGIES
Objectives
The objectives of this thesis are:
1. To review literature and determine the basic psy
chological needs of man;
2. To review literature and ascertain if outdoor rec
reation satisfies these basic psychological needs;
3. To provide relevant information for outdoor recre
ation leaders so they can develop satisfying out
door recreation services for the public.
Methodology
The methods utilized for completion of the objectives
1. An extensive review.of literature pertaining to the
psychological needs of man in order to determine
the most basic needs;
2. An extensive review of literature to determine
what psychological needs can be satisfied by par
ticipating in outdoor recreation;
3. Combine the results of the first two objectives in
order to provide outdoor recreation leaders with
information which will help them develop satisfy
ing outdoor recreational services for the public.
8
CHAPTER II
MAN'S BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
Introduction
The literature concerning man's needs generally encom
passes both the so-called physiological needs and the psy
chological needs. In this thesis special emphasis has been
placed on the psychological needs. A discussion of the
physiological requirements of man has been avoided as far
as possible. Over the centuries, psychologists have
attempted to ascertain the 11 basic 11 psychological needs of
man. This research has attempted to determine which psy
chological needs man inevitably attempts to satisfy. In
this chapter, a re~iew of the psychologists' results and a
list of man's most basic psychological needs are presented
to lay the foundation for determining which needs can be
satisfied by outdoor recreation participation.
Definition of Terms
The words need and motive appear to be used inter
changeably throughout psychological literature. In the
introductory portion of this paper, need is defined by
Webster as; 11 a lack of something useful, required, or
desired. 11 Clifford Morgan (1956} defines psychological
needs as an element essential to the mental or psychic well
being of an individual. Morgan defines motive as a behavior
9
which is instigated by needs within an individual and is
directed toward goals which could be satisfied. A three
stage motivation cycle has been designed to show how the
needs and motives are satisfied. The three stages are:
1. Need, drive, motive 2. Instrumental behavior--behavior to satisfy the
first stage 3. Goal or incentive--after achieving the goal, the
need is satisfied.
10
Figure 1 illustrates Morgan's conception of the motivational
cycle.
~Need~ Relief Striving Go~trurnental Behavior
Figure 1. Morgan's Motivational Cycle (Morgan, 1956)
The diagram shows that a need has to be first established
before satisfaction can be achieved.
Psychological Needs
~he needs of man have been divided into two separate
categories which are: (1) physiological (viscerogenic)
needs such as drives for hunger, clothing, and shelter, and
(2) social (psychogenic) needs such as drives for achieve
ment, affiliation, and power (Isaacson et al., 1956).
The .social (psychogenic) needs of man have been contem
plated since the beginning of time. When Moses wrote the
11
Pentateuch, he stated that man is given a mandate by the God
of Israel to subdue the earth in the physical and social
realms. This mandate can be found in Genesis 1:20-26 of the
Old Testament (Scofield, 1945). Robert White, realizing man
has a psychological need to subdue, states that the main-
spring of man's action is the- desire for competence. Com-
petence implies control over environmental factors--both
physical and social (Hersey and Blanchard, 1972).
Sigmund Freud (1924), a founder of modern psychology,
believed that human life is guided by the psychological need
to seek pleasure and avoid pain. Karen Horney adds to the
Freudian hypothesis when she states in her book New Ways,
Man is ruled not by the pleasure principle alone, but by two guiding principles: safety and satisfaction. People can renounce food, money, attention, and affection so long as they are only renouncing satisfaction, but they cannot renounce these things if without them they would be or feel in danger of destitution or starvation or of being helplessly exposed to hostility, in other words, if they lose their feeling of safety. (Wolman, 1960)
Besides Freud's work on the psychological needs of man,
new and unique ideas were being developed by other psychol
ogists. Robert Isaacson, Max Hutt, arid Milton Blum (1956)
believed humans have at least two other psychological needs.
These needs are superiority and achievement.
The superiority need is a desire to obtain power over
things, people, and ideas. This power provides recognition
and approval from people of high social status. Alfred
Adler also believed that the superiority need is innate in
man (Wolman, 1960).
12
Secondly, the achievement need is satisfied by over
coming obstacles, exercising power, and striving diligently
to perform a task at a level of excellence (Isaacson et al.,
1956). A composite portrait of an individual with high
achievement motivation would be: someone who wants to do
well at what he undertakes, who is energetic, nonconforming,
tends to be predisposed towards innovations, and works at
tasks which are traditionally unsafe (McClelland, 1958).
Thomas. Ringness, Herbert Klausmeier, and Arthur Singer
Jr. (1959) observed two more psychological needs of man.
These needs include sensory gratification and exploration.
The need for sensory gratification is demonstrated by
a child's desire to touch, taste, smell, see, and listen to
objects in his immediate surroundings. Among adults, the
forms of gratification are highly varied. Such terms as
tastes, preference, desires, urges, and drives are some
times used to designate motives related to sensory gratifi
cations. Attendance at movies, athletic contests, concerts,
recitals, and other recreational activities are typically
initiated by and directed toward sensory gratification.
Exploration of an individual's surroundings is desig
nated as a psychological need. As children, we demonstrate
our inquisitive nature. about our environment. This
inquisitiveness can be seen by how children smell, touch,
taste, observe, and hear what goes on around them. This
exploratory need is not as prevalent in adults because it
13
is usually thwarded by society as an individual grows older.
Besides the psychological needs of exploration and
sensory gratification, Marvin· Sussman (1956) believed that
man needs freedom from routine and conformity. Man needs
time to develop latent talents and to express inner crav
ings for artistic and aesthetic experience. Psychological
experiments with factory workers show that relieving one
activity with another results in a greater output in a
given period than is possible by constant concentration on
one line of work (Ruch, 1937).
Of all the psychologists who have written on psycholog
ical needs of man, the one most quoted is Abraham Maslow.
Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs for man (Figure 2).
Maslow believed that a man will not progresst0the next
step on the diagram until he has satisfactorily fulfilled
his need on the previous level. The term satisfactorily is
used· in the sense that an individual does not have to com
pletely fulfill a specific need before he can move to the
next step or level. Man progresses on the hierarchy chart
at his own pace. The steps or levels in the hierarchy are
extensively defined by Hersey and Blanchard (1972).
Self actualization Requirements
Esteem Requirements
Affiliation Requirements
Security Requirements
!Physiological Requirements
Figure 2. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Hersey and Blanchard, 1972).
14
Physiological needs are the first and most basic needs
of man. Therefore, the physiological needs have been placed
at the beginning of the hierarchy chart. These needs include
the viscerogenic needs of hunger, clothing, and shelter.
The second level of the hierarchy chart is security.
The security level represents freedom from fearing physical
danger and deprivation of the basic physiological needs.
~his need is concerned with the present and future self-
preservation of man and is the guiding principle in human
behavior (Hersey and Blanchard, 1972) . Man cannot progress
in t~e hierarchy of needs unless he believes he is safe.
Fear· is the greatest enemy to man's health and happiness
(Wolman, 1960).
~he third level of Maslow's hierarchy chart is the need
for affiliation. This need emphasizes that man must share
some kind of close, emotional, satisfying relationship with
another person or group of persons. The sense of acceptance
15
or belonging helps maintain the feeling of adequacy and
security- During the early years of development, emphasis
is placed on receiving rather than giving affection; how
ever, during the adult years, an individual provides rather
than receives affection (Lindgren and Byrne, 1961).
The next step on Maslow's hierarchy chart is esteem.
Esteem provides a man with a sense of worthiness and com
petence. This need is of basic importance to most people.
A feeling of inferiority may come from a lack of self-esteem.
If inferiority affects an individual's self-esteem, then
the individual may:
1. strive harder to achieve his goal,
2. change direction to more suitable goals,
3. lower levels of aspiration and/or work effort,
4. paralyze his ambitions (Swartz, 1963).
The final level in Maslow's chart is self actualization.
For people to achieve this level, they must be self-directed.
The term self-directed means thinking for oneself and making
decisions on one's own. A self-directed person overcomes
obstacles, exercises personal power, and strives for perfec
tion. Man's adult life offers opportunities for self actual
ization in a great variety of ways. These opportunities
include: community service, vocational careers, parenthood,
religious activities, and leisure-time activities (Lindgren
and Byrne, 1961).
16
Critique of Psychological Needs
Behavioral scientists will recognize an absence of in
dustrial behaviorists in the previous section. such authors
~s: Elto Mayo (Hawthorne studies) , Douglas McGregor
(Theory X and Theory Y), George C. Homans (Human Group
Theory}, Chris Argyris (Immaturity-Maturity Theory),
Frederick Herzberg (Motivation-Hygiene Theory), and Rensis
Likert (Management Systems Theory) , although experts in the
field of industrial behavior, deal specifically with
Maslow's hierarchy and their own findings to increase the
productivity of men in their jobs.* Their writings did not
deal with leisure time activities which is the main subject
of this thesis.
Most of the psychological needs of man mentioned in
the literature by various authors can be placed within
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Sigmund Freud and Karen Horney's needs of p 1.easure,
safety, and satisfaction can be classified under Maslow's
security needs. Sigmund Freud (1924) believed that man
can be happy if he seeks pleasure and ·avoids pain. In
Maslow's security need, man desires to be safe and secure
and avoid hazards and death. Karen Horney's safety and
*rf one is interested in these theories, a book written by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchar~ ~1~72) entitled Management of Organizational Behavior, Ut1l1z1ng Human Resources, is very informative.
satisfaction needs are similar to Maslow's definition for
the security need (Wolman, 1960).
17
The superiority need observed by Isaacson, Hutt, and
Blum can be classified under the esteem needs of Maslow.
The feeling of superiority usually is obtained by a person
who has power. Power can be obtained by positional or per
sonal influence. As a person acquires more power, his
superiority and esteem needs are satisfied proportionally.
Finally, Moses• and White's competence need and
McClelland, Isaacson, Hutt, and Blum's achievement need are
examples of Maslow's self actualization need. Both of these
needs demonstrate how man tries to control his environmental
factors in the social and physical realms (Hersey and
Blanchard, 1972).
The identified psychological needs which are not simi
lar to Maslow's hierarchy are the needs for exploration,
sensory gratification, and freedom from routine and conform
ity. A review of psychological literature implies that man
has at least seven basic psychological needs. These needs
are:
1. Security
2. Affiliation
3. Esteem
4. Self Actualization
5. Exploration
18
6. Sensory gratification
1. Freedom from routine and conformity
Evaluationsotneed fulfillment by outdoor recreation activ
ities which follow compare activity achievements and bene
fits against these seven basic psychological needs.
CHAPTER IV
OUTDOOR RECREATION SATISFIES
PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS
Introduction
In this chapter, the basic psychological needs of man
have been compared with various outdoor recreation activ-
ities in an effort to determine which needs can be fulfilled
by specific outdoor recreation activity participation.
Outdoor recreation was earlier defined as: "Recre-
ational activities which occur in an outdoor (natural) envi-
ronment and which relate directly to the environment." The
following list of outdoor recreation activities has been
compiled in the 1974 nationwide outdoor recreation plan to
demonstrate the rank order of participation preferences for
various outdoor recreation activities (Jackson, 1974).
1. __ . Picnicking 2. Driving for pleasure 3. Swimming 4. Sightseeing 5. Pleasure walking 6. Attending Sporting
Events 7. Playing outdoor games
or sports 8. Fishing 9. General boating
10. Bicycling 11. Sledding 12. Attending concerts
and plays
19
13. Nature walks 14. Camping 15. Hunting 16. Ice Skating 17. Horseback riding 18. Hiking with pack 19. Water Skiing 20. Bird watching 21. Canoeing 22. Snow skiing 23. Sailing 24. Wildlife and bird
photography 25. Hountain climbing
20
These twenty-five activities, in terms of the number of par-
ticipants, account for well over 90 percent of all outdoor
recreation in America and demonstrate which activities Amer
icans engage in during their leisure time. These activities
have been tested against the basic psychological needs of
man to determine whether they. fulfill a particular psycholog
ical need or simply serve to occupy those hours of the day
which are not devoted t~ existence and subsistence
requirements.
Psychological Need Satisfiers
Before beginning the comparison of psychological needs
and outdoor recreation activities, it should be reemphasized
that in order for man to devote his efforts in the area of
psychological need fulfillment he must have first attained
reasonable satisfaction of his viscerogenic or physiological
requirements for food, clothing, and shelter (Hersey and
Blanchard, 1972).
The seven basic psychological needs of man presented in
chapter three are: (1) security, (2) affiliation, (3) self-
esteem, (4) self actualization, (5) sensory gratification,
(6) exploration, and (7) freedom from routine and conformity.
Man'ssecurityneed has been previously defined as a
freedom from fearing physical danger and deprivation of the
physiological needs (Hersey and Blanchard, 1972). This need
is not satisfied by most outdoor recreation activities. For
21
example, falling off a cliff while mountain climbing, derail-
ing while riding a roller coaster, and drowning while white
water canoeing are outdoor activities which physically
endanger an individual. Instead of freeing the individual
from the fear of physical danger, this fear is forced upon
the participant. The "thrill" of danger in certain circum
stances is sought for its own sa~e. Many individuals are
attracted to dangerous sports. These individuals may act
very cautiously at first, but often become increasingly ven
turesome as familiarity and skills are increased (Hebb, 1958).
Outdoor recreation activities contain some element of danger
for participants.
Affiliation, the second psychological need, can be sat
isfied by outdoor recreation activities. This need has been
defined as man sharing a close, emotional satisfying rela
tionship with people or groups of people (Lingren and Byrne,
1961). Outdoor recreation organizations which can help
satisfy this need include Explorer's clubs, Girl Scouts, Boy
Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, Brownies, and Cub Scouts. Outdoor
recreation activities which are accomplished as a family
unit also satisfy this need. For example, camping (espe
cially wilderness camping) places a family unit in an out
door environment where the family must rely on each other
to provide the things needed (Hughes and Dudley, 1973}.
Clark, Hendee, and Campbell (1971) studied a well developed
22
national forest campground in Washington state to determine
the reasons for participation in camping as a leisure time
activity. Their survey concluded that campground users
believed that "teaching my children about the out-of-doors"
was the most important reason for camping. This survey also
showed that the statement "getting completely away from
people other than my camping party" vias not highly endorsed
by the people sampled (Hollender, 1977). Camping as a out
door recreation activity apparently served to fulfill the
affiliation need for many of the participants.
Self-esteem the third psychological need identified,
has been defined as a individual's sense of worthiness and
competence (Hersey and Blanchard, 1972). An individual with
self-esteem has maturity, character, confidence, responsibil
ity, trust, and synergy. An outdoor recreation program
which is currently using the outdoors to teach individuals
self-esteem is called Outward Bound. Outward·Bound's goal
consists of pitting man against nature to teach him self
esteem ("Pitting Managers Against Nature, n 1968) . Some pro
grams used to accomplish this goal include: a 26-day
wilderness orientation/survival course; a 10-day wilderness
orientation course; and a three-day raft trip. Many U.S.
business executives have participated in the Outward Bound
programs to increase their self-esteem. The U.S. Outward
Bound schools are located in Colorado, North Carolina,
23
Minnesota, Oregon, and Maine ("How One Company Trains in the
Great Outdoors," 1971).
Besides being a catalyst in developing self-esteem, out
door recreation activities offer an opportunity to demon
strate socioeconomic status. A review of the 1974 nation-
wide outdoor recreation plan has indicated that the higher
the participation in recreation activities, the higher the
socioeconomic status of the individual (Jackson, 1974).
This participation is a result of the increase in disposable
personal income. With the removal of constraints on the
satisfaction of lower level needs, sales on outdoor recre-
ation equipment have been increasing (Kitchen and James,
1969).
The fourth psychological need identified was self
actualization. For people to achieve this requirement, they
must be self-directed. A self-directed person overcomes
obstacles, exercises personal power, and strives for perfec
tion (Lindgren and Byrne, 1961). Outdoor recreation allows
the person as an individual to achieve this goal. G. D.
Butler (1959) states that recreation,
• . • may be considered as an activity which is not consciously performed for the sake of an~ rewa7d beyond itself, which is usually engaged ~~ dur~n~ leisure which offers man an outlet for h~s phys~cal mental and creative powers, and in which he eng~ges be~ause of inner desire and not because of outer compulsion.
24
For example, snow skiing is an outdoor recreation activity
which provides an individual with the opportunity to be self
directed. Snow skiers first overcome the obstacle of learn
ing to ski. After overcoming this obstacle, the skier
mentally sets goals and physically attempts to achieve these
goals at a level of excellence.
The fifth psychological need of man is exploration.
Camping satisfies this need as it is a unique experience
with qualities of surprise and adventure. The ex~loration
need drives children to participate in new experiences and
welcomes adventures (Hughes and Dudley, 1973). Two outdoor
recreation activities which satisfy the exploration need
are driving for pleasure and sightseeing. These two activ
ities are rated second and fourth on the 1974 nationwide
outdoor recreation plan activity list (Jackson, 1974). This
rating indicates that Americans have a desire to explore
in order to satisfy this need.
The sixth psychological need of man is sensory gratifi
cation. This need. involves the five sensory perceptions of
man: taste, touch, smell, sight, and hearing (Ringness et
al., 1959). Outdoor recreation areas provide a great
variety of different sensory stimulants. For example, a
drive through Yosemite National Park provides the individ
ual with the tingling smells of pines, the change in land
scape vista from meadows to barren rock outcroppings, the
sounds of trickling mountain streams and thundering
waterfalls. Outdoor recreation may indeed tantalize the
outdoor recreationist.
Finally, outdoor recreation can provide an individual
with a deviation from routine and conformity. Kaplan
observes recreationists' main purpose as one of recreating
or revitalizing people so that they may efficiently return
to activities which are not recreational but are econom-
ically gainful (Seeley, 1973). Driver and Tocher (197~}
state that,
. • • our recreational engagements are underlaid in .a large part (and others to a lesser degree) by our desires to escape temporarily, to disengage, to leave the structured and non-random . . • into an environment which is less demanding into one that is in many ways more predictable and less threatening_
25
Clark, Hendee and Campbell's (1974) camping survey indicates
that 65 percent of the campers experience an emotional sat
isfaction from the solitude and tranquility of camping.
Outdoor recreation remains an excellent way of deviating
from a standard routine.
Critique of the Findings
Participation in various outdoor recreation activities
apparently fulfills six of the seven basic psychological
needs of man and does not simply serve to occupy the hours
not devoted to the so-called essential requirements for
existence and subsistence. The psychological need of
security is apparently not satisfactorily fulfilled by most
26
outdoor recreation activities and many such activities in
fact may detract from satisfying this need. For example,
mountain climbing does provide physical danger. Instead of
freeing the mountain climber from fear of physical danger,
this fear is enhanced. Therefore, the security need is
attacked instead of being satisfied.
The remaining six basic psyGhological needs are satis
fied by participating in specific outdoor recreation activ
ities. However, it should not be interpreted that the
psychological needs cannot be fulfilled in other ways. For
example, the affiliation need could be fulfilled through
participation in Greek organizations, church groups, and
political organizations.
Table 1 illustrates which psychological needs are
satisfied by participating in the twenty-five outdoor recre
ation activities established by the 1974 nationwide outdoor
recreation plan.
TABLE 1
PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS SATISFIED BY PARTICIPATION IN OUTDOOR RECREATION
Attending concerts and plays Camping Fishing Driving for pleasure Sightseeing Swimming Water. skiing Bicycling Pleasure walking Playing outdoor games/sports Sailing Canoeing Hunting l-1ountain climbing Hiking with a pack Horseback riding Bird watching Wildlife and bird photography Ice skating Attending sporting events General boating Sledding Snow skiing Nature walks Picnicking
0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 +
0
0
0 0 0 0
+ + + + +
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 d 0 + 0 +
+ 0
0
0 + 0 +
s Q) Q) +l til ~ I
4-4 ...-! Q) til
+ + + 0
0
+ + 0
0
+ + + + + + + + + + 0
0
+ + + 0
0
0 0
0
0
+ + 0
0
+ + + + + + + 0
0
+ 0
+ + + 0
0
+ + + + + 0
0
+ + 0
0
+ + + + + + + 0
0
+ 0
+ + 0
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 0
+ + 0
+ + +
+ + + 0
0
+ + 0
0
+ + + + + + + + + + 0
+ + + 0
+
+: indicates that the outdoor recreation activity does satisfy the basic psychological need.
a: indic~tes that the outdoor recreation activity does not benefit or detract from satisfying the basic psychological need.
-: indicates that the outdoor recreation activity tends to detract from satisfying the psychological need.
27
CHAPTER V
OUTDOOR RECREATION SERVICES
Introduction
In this chapter, the results obtained from the previous
portions of this thesis will be used in order to provide out
door recreation leaders with information which will help
them develop satisfying outdoor recreational services for
the public.
Problems
Participation in outdoor recreation has been substan
tially increasing since 1960. The major reasons for Amer
ica's continued increase in outdoor recreation participation
have been increases in leisure time, personal income, trans
portation mobility, and man's urbanization. America's out
door recreation participation increased by 53 percent
between 1960 and 1965. At the present rate of increase, the
participation by the year 2000 may be 142 percent greater
than in 1965. With more and more Americans turning to out
door recreation, pressures on public and private recreation
resources and £acilities have been substantially increased
(Jackson, 1974).
Outdoor recreation leaders who are involved in provid-
ing recreation resources and programs for the general public
have used many divergent means to resolve problems of
28
29
inadequate outdoor resources and facilities. Table 2 illus-
trates some managerial solutions used to control the use of
outdoor recreation areas (Stankey, Lucas, and Lime, 1974).
-~hemanagerial solutions for the most part are not a
panacea for overuse problems. Participation by recreation
ists is still increasing. Much of the pressure on partic
ular outdoor recreation resources is derived from people
attempting to satisfy their psychological needs by partici
pating in familiar outdoor recreation activities. The over
use problems in outdoor recreation areas may be due in part
to the presence of people seeking leisure satisfactions
which might be, but are not, met elsewhere. According to
Neumeyer and Neumeyer (1958), the choice of individuals in
outdoor recreation is influenced by access or means and
knowledge of alternatives. The inadequate resource problem
probably can be solved by providing the general public with
accessible alternative c~oices and information about the
alternative choices.
:Inthepast, pragmatic recreation leaders believed that
providing a maximum range of choices for recreationists
would be the key to satisfying needs and desires. Because
of rising cost due to inflation and the diminishing recre
ational land areas, it is becoming difficult to follow the
pragmatic recreation leader's solution. However, all is not
Typ
e o
f C
on
tro
l
Dir
ect
(Em
phas
is
on
reg
ula
tio
n
of
beh
av
ior-
-In
div
idu
al
ch
oic
e r
estr
icte
d.
Hig
h d
egre
e o
f co
ntr
ol)
.
TA
BL
E
2
MA
NA
GE
RIA
L
SOL
UT
ION
S U
SED
TO
C
ON
TRO
L U
SE
Met
hods
Incre
ase
po
licy
en
forc
emen
t
Zo
nin
g re
gu
lati
on
s
Rest
ricti
on
on
U
se In
ten
sity
Rest
ricti
on
A
cti
vit
ies
Sp
ecif
ic C
on
tro
l T
ech
niq
ues
Impo
se
fin
es
Incre
ase
su
rveil
lan
ce o
f are
a
Sp
ati
al
zon
ing
of
.in
com
pat
ible
use
s (H
iker
: o
nly
zo
nes
, etc
.)
Tem
po
ral
zon
ing
of
use
s L
imit
ca
mpi
ng in
so
me
cam
psi
tes
to o
ne
nig
ht,
o
r so
me
oth
er
lim
it
Ro
tati
ng
use
(o
pen
or
clo
se access
p
oin
ts,
trail
s,
cam
psi
tes)
R
equ
ire
rese
rvati
on
s A
ssig
n cam
psi
tes
an
d/o
r tr
av
el
rou
tes
to e
ach
cam
per
gro
up
L
imit
ed u
sag
e v
ia a
ccess
p
oin
t L
imit
gro
up
si
zes
Lim
it
cam
pin
g t
o d
esi
gn
ate
d c
am
psi
te
on
ly
Lim
it st
ay
in
are
a m
ax/m
in
Rest
ricti
on
on
bu
ild
ing
ca
rnp
fir.
es
Rest
ricti
on
s o
n
Hu
nti
ng
or
Fis
hin
g
Ind
irect
(Em
ph
asis
on
in
flu
en
cin
g
or
mo
dif
yin
g b
eh
av
ior.
In
div
idu
al
reta
ins fr
ee
dom
to
ch
oo
se.
Co
ntr
ol
less
com
ple
te,
mor
e v
ari
ati
on
in
use
p
oss
ible
).
Ph
ysi
cal
Alt
era
tio
ns
Info
rmati
on
dis
pers
al
Eli
gib
ilit
y
Req
uir
emen
ts
Impr
ove
(or
no
t)
access
ro
ad
s an
d
cam
psi
tes
Ad
ver
tise
men
t v
ia m
edia
co
mm
un
icat
ion
Id
en
tify
th
e
ran
ge
of
op
po
rtu
nit
ies
in
surr
ou
nd
ing
are
a
Ad
vert
ise
un
der
use
d a
reas
and
gen
era
l p
att
ern
of
use
Ch
arg
e co
nst
an
t u
se
fee
Ch
arg
e d
iffe
ren
tial
fees
Req
uir
e p
roo
f o
f ca
mp
ing
an
d e
co
log
ical
kn
ow
led
ge
an
d/o
r sk
ills
SOU
RC
E:
G.
H.
Sta
nk
ey
, R
. c.
L
ucas,
an
d
D.
W.
Lim
e.,
"P
att
ern
s o
f W
ild
ern
ess
U
se as
Rela
ted
to
C
on
gest
ion
an
d S
oli
tud
e."
In
P
ap
er
pre
sen
ted
to
A
nn
ual
Meeti
ng
o
f th
e A
sso
cia
tio
n o
f A
meri
can
G
eo
gra
ph
ers
. S
eatt
le,
Wash
ing
ton
: A
sso
cia
tio
n o
f Amer~can
Geo
gra
ph
ers
, 1
97
4,
p.
15
, ta
ble
3
.
w
1--'
_) . 32
hopeless. The substitution of some outdoor recreational
activities for others may be the answer to the American pub
lic's dilenuna.
Solution of Substitution
Hendee and Burdge (1974) state that activities with
common characteristics may be "substitutable" for each other
with little loss in psychological satisfaction. They
conclude,
Since participation in activities within . . • clusters is highly intercorrelated, it may be that, at least at a highly generalized level, activities in the same cluster provide similar satisfaction. Thus, for many people, some of these activities may be substitutable with little loss in satisfaction.
Hendee and Burdge divide 69 recreation activities obtained
from personal interviews in metropolitan Pittsburgh into
five."activity types" based on the similarity of participa-
tion pattern and activity of the participants. These
"activity types" include "cultural hobbies," "organized
competition," "domestic maintenance," "social leisure," and
"outdoor activities" and are defined as follows:
Cultural hobbi~s--talent is required; rewards are depend~nt on internal satisfaction and situational power ~here the activities are of an organized nature.
Organized competition--activities char~c~erized by skillful physical action, group compet~t:on, and structured social organization with publ~c and peer recognition as an apparent goal.
Domestic maintenance--includes passive activities with low energy requirements derived from present or former
domestic necessities and involvement related to services or traditions rather than status.
Social leisure--heavily dependent on peer group and family interaction.
33
Outdoor activities--predominantly male-oriented outdoor recreation and related facilitating activities.
Hendee and Burdge cluster "activity types" according to the
homogeneous nature of the activities. Theoretically, in-
stead of clustering activities in this manner, activities
could be clustered according to the psychological needs
which are satisfied by participating in the activity.
By clustering the activities in Table 1 according to
the psychological needs satisfied by activity participation,
fifteen groups are developed. These groups are:
Group A Attending concerts and
plays Camping Fishing
Group B Driving for pleasure Sightseeing
Group C Swimming Water skiing
Group D Bicycling Pleasure walking
Group E Playing outdoor games/
sports Sailing
Group F Canoeing Hunting Mountain climbing
Group G: Hiking with a pack !lor seback riding
Group H Bird watching Wildlife and bird
photography
Group I Ice skating
Group J Attending sporting
events
Group K General boating
Group L Sledding
Group .t-1 Snow skiing
Group N Nature walks
Group.Q Picnicking
34
By determining clusters according to satisfied psycho-
logical needs, the relationship between the leisure activity
and the recreationist can be better understood. Alternative
recreation activities which similarly satisfy the psychologi
cal needs of a particular activity can then be identified.
In some circumstances, the outdoor recreation leader
may not be able to supply alternative activities within a
group which provide identical psychological satisfactions.
Figure 3 illustrates the intercluster relationships in terms
of psychological satisfactions. Activity substitution can
be identified on the basis of these relationships. Although
the interclusters are not identical in terms of psychological
satisfaction, they are highly similar.. For example, the acti v
i ties hunting, canoeing, and mountain climbing are directly
interchangeable in terms of the psychological needs ful
filled, and would therefore be ideal substitutions for one
another. However, the activities of general boating, play
ing outdoor games and sports, sailing, and snow skiing could
also be selected as substitute activities. The difference
between these activities is a single element of loss in
terms of needs satisfaction. Further substitution could
occur between the activities of horseback riding and hiking
with a pack with a difference of only two psychological need
fulfillments.
- -
f<~ I \ I
I \
I I AI \ ~~
I E I I - ; , '
\
'
, ,
, , I \
1 I I I
I
----..:.. __ _ \ H,
' I \
\ I
\ 1
' ... 'D ....
... ..
Solid lines indicate psychological clusters which satisfy six of the seven basic psychological needs of man.
Dash lines indicate psychological clusters which satisfy five of the seven psychological needs of man.
Figure 3. Interrelationship of Psychological Clusters.
35
36
Outdoor recreation leaders who are involved in provid-
ing recreation resources and programs for the general public
should first determine what outdoor recreation activities
are being overused. They should then determine what activ
ities can be efficiently and economically substituted to
lessen the detrimental impact on the overused areas and
facilities.
After the outdoor recreation leader determines what
outdoor recreation activities can be substituted to meet the
needs and desires of the recreationist, he must inform the
public about the alternative activities and motivate the
public into following alternat~ve recommendations.
Studies of user responses show that recreationists
generally have at least partial information about the nature
of the experience expected (Driver and Tocher, 1974). This
information may come from friends, relatives, and media
communications.
Dissemination of Information
The dissemination of information should have three
specific goals:
1. To provide accurate information regarding the
alternative services, facilities, and programs.
2. To demonstrate what benefits are involved in par
ticipating in the alternative activities.
3. To inform the public as to how they can increase
the present recreation facilities by their finan
cial and legislative support.
37
There are many channels for disseminating information.
These channels include: newspapers, magazines, newsletters,
brochures, television, radio, slide presentations, speaking
-----engagements and exhibits.
Newspapers seem the most economical way of "getting
the word out." This form of media provides sustained cov-
erage for activities and can be used to transmit information
daily.
Magazines can be used to provide information to local,
state, or regional recreationists. Magazines provide a
good opportunity to use color photographs. They are written
to be read by specific portions of the public. Therefore,
the magazines used will determine what type of reader will
be reached. While magazines can be used to react. a specific
audience, more general coverage can result from newsletters
and brochures.
Newsletters and brochures may range from simple mimeo
graphed handouts to elaborate full-color brochures. This
type of media should include a description of all major
locations where programs will be held and a listing of pro-
An grammed activities to be offered during a given season.
even more general coverage can be derived from television.
38
Television provides a useful means for reaching all
age groups and making a strong public impact. News programs
provide direct coverage of events or interviews with per
sonalities. Thirty minute shows depicting the different
recreation activities offered at the recreation site could
be shown during public service times which all stations
customarily transmit.
Radio is still another means of communicating recre
ation activities to the public. Radio time is more accessi
ble than television time and can provide similar coverage.
Outdoor recreation leaders may want to use radio as a means
of informing the public about upcoming events. An even more
direct means of informing the public uses the human element
of public speakers.
Public speakers prOvide a close personal contact with
the target organization. Public speakers allow the organi
zation to ask questions and receive information directly
from a knowledgeable source. Another means of informing
the public is through exhibits. These displays or demon
stra.tions may be given in varied settings. Central points
in shopping malls, schools, libraries, municipal buildings,
hotels, or·theater lobbies are excellent places for setting
up exhibits where large numbers of people may be influenced
(Kraus and Curtis, 1973).
39
Besides providing information on alternative recreation
choices for the public, outdoor recreation leaders should
use information channels to encourage economic and legisla
tive support from the public. The emphasis today seems to
be "let the government provide the recreation resources for
the public ... The problems of·today's supply and demand
demonstrate that the government is not adequately responsive
to meet public recreation needs. People want to meet their
basic psychological needs in a variety of ways. If the
public can be shown how they can help to increase and im
prove recreation areas and facilities for themselves and
their children through channels mentioned, it is possible
they will respond in a positive manner.
CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The three objectives for this thesis were:
1. To review literature and determine the basic
psychological needs of man;
2. To review literature and ascertain if outdoor rec
reation satisfied these basic psychological needs;
3. To provide relevant information for outdoor recre
ation leaders so they can develop satisfying out
door recreation services for the public.
Seven psychological needs of man were determined to be
basic. These needs were: (1) security, (2) affiliation,
(3} self-esteem, (4) self actualization, (5) sensory grati
fication, (6) exploration, and (7) freedom from routine and
conformity-
Of the seven psychological needs, only security needs
were found not to be satisfied by several outdoor recreation
activities.
By using the information obtained from the first two
obje~tives., it was de~ermined that outdoor recreation leaders
could substitute outdoor recreation activities to relieve
participant pressure in the most heavily used activities
without loss of the recreationists psychological satisfac
tion. In determining which activities could be substituted,
40
the activities were checked against the basic
needs to determine which needs were satisfied
41
psychologica~ by partici- J
pating in the activity. The activities which provided simi
lar satisfactions were then substituted. For example, the
activities of swimming and water skiing could be inter-
changed without a single loss of psychological satisfaction.
These two activities could also be interchanged between the
activities of sledding, playing outdoor games and sports,
sailing, and snow skiing and still fulfill six of the seven
psychological needs. The activities of hiking with a pack,
horseback riding, hunting, mountain climbing, and canoeing
could be interchanged with swimming and water skiing. This
activity interchange would fulfill five of the seven basic
psychological needs. After determining which activities
could be substituted, various media channels such as radio,
television, and newspapers could be used to inform the pub-
lie about alternative ac~ivities.
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Clark, R. M.; Hendee, J. C.; and Campbell, F. L. 1971. "Values, Behavior, and Conflict in r.1odern Camping Culture." Journal of Leisure Research 3 (Summer): 146-59.
Danford, H. G. 1953. "My Philosophy on Recreation." Recreation 46a (December): 389.
Driver, B. L., and Tocher, S. R. 1975. "Toward a Behavioral Interpretation of Recreational Engagements, with Implications for Planning." In Elements of Outdoor Recreation Planning, pp. 9-28. Edited by B. L. Driver. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
Freud, Sigmund. 1924. Beyond the Pleasure Principle. Bani and Liveright, New York. 97 p.
~ Guralnik, David B., and Friend, Joseph, H. 1966. Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language. The World Publishing Co., Cleveland. 1724 p.
Hebb, Donald. 1958. A Textbook of Psychology. W. B. Saunders Co., London. 276 p.
Hendee, John C., and Burdge, Rabel J. 1974. "The Substitutability Concept: Implications for Recreation Researc_h and Management." Journal of Leisure Research
'
6(2): 189-201.
Hersey, Paul, and Blanchard, Kenneth H. 1972. Management of Organizational Behavior, Util~zing Human Resources.
! Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cllff, New Jersey. \ 209 p. -
Hollender, John W. 1977. Camping Experience." (2) :133-141.
"Motivational Dimensions of the Journal of Leisure Research 9
"How One Company Trains in the Great.Outdoors." 1971. Business Week 24 (July): 40-41.
42
ughes, Ann H., and Dudley, ~arold K. 1973. "An Old Idea for a New Problem: Camp~ng as A Treatment for th Emotionally Disturbed in our State Hospitals " e Adolescence 8 (Spring): 45-47. ·
43
Isaacson, Robert L.; Hu~t, Max L.; and Blum, Milton. 1956. Psychology: The Sc~ence of Behavior. Harper and Row Pub., New York. 389 p.
fJackson, Henry M. 1974. The Recreation Imperative: A Draft of the Nationwijd~e~~O~u~t~d~o~o~r~R~e~c~r~e~a~t~i~o~n~P~l~a~n~. Department of Interior. u.s. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 4~0 p.
~ensen, Clayne R •. 1~70. Outd~or Recreation in America. ''/~ Burgess Publ~sh~ng Co., M~nneapolis, Minn. 285 p.
Kennedy, H. W. 1956. "Philosophy of Recreation. n.
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u.s.
Kitchen, James W., and James, John M. 1969. An analysis of Consumer Expenditures on Recreation 1929-1980. Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas. 25 p.
Kraus, Richard G., and Curtis, Joseph E. 1973. Creative Administration in Recreation and Parks. The C. V.
~. Mosby Co., St. Louis. 232 p.
,11
11ndgren, Henry C., and Byrne, Donn. 1961. Psychology: LA An Introduction the the Study of Human Behavior. John
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Martin, Alexander Reid. 1958. Leisure Time as a Basic Health Resource. American Psychiatric Association, New York. 20 p •
• 1962. "A Philosophy of Recreation." In The ------=D-o-ctors and Recreation in the Hospital Setting,
Bulletin No. 30, pp. 8-11. North Carolina Recreation Commission, North Carolina.
McClelland, ri. c. 1958. "The Importance ~f Ea~ly Learning in the Formation of t1otives. '' In Mot1ves 1n Fant~sy, Action, and Society, p. 521. Edited by J. W. Atk1nson. D. Van Nostrand Company Inc., Princeton.
Miller, Norman P., and Robinson, Duane M. ~963. Leisure Age, Its Challenges to Recreat1on. Publishing Co., B~lmont. 497 P·
The ~>loodsworth
44
~organ, Cliffc:>rd T. 1956. Introduction to Psychology. ~·· McGraw H111 Book Company Inc., New York. 676 p.
' Nash, Jay B. 1965. Philosophy of Recreation and Leisure.
Brown Company Pub., Dubuque, Iowa. 222 p.
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Neumeyer, Martin H., and Neumeyer, Esther s. 1958. Leisure and Recreation: A Study of Leisure and Recreation in The1r Sociological Aspects. The Ronald Press Co., New York. 473 p.
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Ringness, Thomas A.i Klausmeier, Herbert J.i and Singer, Arthur J., Jr. 1959. Psychology in Theory and Practice. The Riverside Press Cambridge, Boston. 258 p.
Romney, Ott. 1945. Off the Job Living. Barnes and Co., New York. 250 p.
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Scolfield, c. I. 1945. The Scolfield Reference Bible. Oxford University Press, New York. 1628 p.
Seeley, Ivor H. Environment. 235 p.
1973. The
Outdoor Recreation and the Urban MacMillan Press Ltd., London.
Seidell, B. 1938. "Looking into the Recreational Past." Recreation 32 (October): 401.
Stankey, George H.i Lucas, Robert C.i and Lime, David W. 1974. "Patterns of Wilderness Use as Related to Congestion and Solitude." In Paper presente~ to the Annual Meeting of the Asso~ia~ion of Ame:lcan Geographers, p. 15. Assoclat1on of Amerlcan Geographers, Seattle, washington.
Sussman, Marvin B. 1956. "Leisure:_Bane or Blessing.~ Social work 1(3): 11-18.