Organizational Behaviour, Organizational Behaviour, 2008 Edition 2008 Edition
French, Rayner, Rees, French, Rayner, Rees, &Rumbles, &Rumbles,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Chapter 1Chapter 1 Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
Define organizational behavior (OB)Define organizational behavior (OB)• Get Get acquainted with basic OB terminologyacquainted with basic OB terminology
Describe what managers doDescribe what managers do
Understand why managers must know Understand why managers must know
about OBabout OB
Identify the three levels of analysis in OBIdentify the three levels of analysis in OB
My Best Manager exMy Best Manager ex
What is an Organization?What is an Organization?
An organization is a collection of people who work together to achieve individual and organizational goals.
ORGANIZATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCEPERFORMANCE
Depends on the organizations’ ability to Depends on the organizations’ ability to attain organizational goals in an attain organizational goals in an effectiveeffective and and efficient efficient manner.manner.
EffectivenessEffectiveness : the degree to which the : the degree to which the organization achieves a stated goalorganization achieves a stated goal
EfficiencyEfficiency : the use of minimal resources : the use of minimal resources to produce a desired volume of output.to produce a desired volume of output.
What is Management?What is Management?
Management is the Management is the process of planning, process of planning, organizing, leading, organizing, leading, and controlling an and controlling an organization’s organization’s resources to aresources to attattain in organizational goals organizational goals in an effective and in an effective and efficient mannerefficient manner ..
Prentice Hall, 2001Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 1Chapter 1 77
The Roles of The Roles of ManagementManagement
InformationalInformationalInterpersonalInterpersonal
DecisionalDecisional
TheThe monitormonitor = seeking current information = seeking current information from many sources.from many sources.
The The disseminatordisseminator = transmits information = transmits information to others both inside and outside the to others both inside and outside the organization.organization.
TheThe spokespersonspokesperson = to provide official = to provide official statements to people outside the statements to people outside the organization about company policies, organization about company policies, actions, or plans.actions, or plans.
Informational roles Informational roles = maintain & = maintain & develop information networkdevelop information network
The The figureheadfigurehead = ceremonial activities = ceremonial activities
TheThe leaderleader = motivation, communication, = motivation, communication, and influence of subordinates.and influence of subordinates.
The The liaisonliaison = = development of development of a web of a web of relationshipsrelationships both inside and outside the both inside and outside the organization.organization.
Interpersonal roles Interpersonal roles pertain to pertain to relationships with othersrelationships with others
The The entrepreneurialentrepreneurial = initiation of change. = initiation of change.
The The resource allocator resource allocator = how to allocate = how to allocate resources to achieve outcomes.resources to achieve outcomes.
TheThe negotiatornegotiator = negotiating and = negotiating and bargaining for unit of responsibility.bargaining for unit of responsibility.
The The disturbance handler disturbance handler = resolving = resolving conflicts between subordinates or other conflicts between subordinates or other departments.departments.
Decisional roles Decisional roles = make choice = make choice requiring conceptual & human skills.requiring conceptual & human skills.
http://www.ba.metu.edu.tr/user/pinarhttp://www.ba.metu.edu.tr/user/pinar
My Best ManagerMy Best Manager
Make a list of the attributes that describe Make a list of the attributes that describe the best manager you ever worked for.the best manager you ever worked for.
In groups of 4-5, share your lists.In groups of 4-5, share your lists.
As a group create one list that combines As a group create one list that combines all the unique attributes.all the unique attributes.
Each group will read its list to class.Each group will read its list to class.
Managerial SkillsManagerial SkillsConceptual SkillsConceptual Skills: The ability to : The ability to analyze and diagnose a situation analyze and diagnose a situation and distinguish between cause and distinguish between cause and effect.and effect.Human SkillsHuman Skills: The ability to : The ability to understand, work with, lead, and understand, work with, lead, and control the behavior of other control the behavior of other people and groups.people and groups.Technical SkillsTechnical Skills: Job-specific : Job-specific knowledge and techniques.knowledge and techniques.
The Management PyramidThe Management Pyramid
First-lineFirst-lineManagersManagers
MiddleMiddleManagersManagers
TopTopManagersManagers
What is Organizational Behavior?What is Organizational Behavior?
Organizational Organizational behavior (OB) is the behavior (OB) is the study of factors that study of factors that affect how individuals affect how individuals and groups act in and groups act in organizations and organizations and how organizations how organizations manage their manage their environments.environments.
Insert Figure 1.1 here
Organizational Behavior TerminologyOrganizational Behavior Terminology
Dependent Variables: Factors that Dependent Variables: Factors that you want to explain and that are you want to explain and that are affected by other factors.affected by other factors.
Prentice Hall, 2001Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 1Chapter 1 1818
The The DependentDependentVariablesVariables
ProductivityProductivityProductivityProductivity
AbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeism
Job SatisfactionJob SatisfactionJob SatisfactionJob Satisfaction
TurnoverTurnoverTurnoverTurnover
Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior TerminologyTerminology
IndIndependent Variables: ependent Variables: Determinants of Determinants of dependent factorsdependent factors
Individual levelIndividual level Group levelGroup level Organization levelOrganization level
Prentice Hall, 2001Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 1Chapter 1 2020
Independent VariablesIndependent Variables
Individual Group Organization
•Biographical Traits
•Personality
•Values & Attitudes
•Ability
•Perception
•Motivation
•Individual Learning
•Decision Making
•Communication
•Other Groups
•Conflict
•Power & Politics
•Group Structure
•Work Teams
•Leadership
•Decision Making
•Culture
•Structure
•Design
•Technology
•Work Processes
•Selection Processes
•Training Programs
•Appraisal Practices
OB FormulaOB Formula
Behavior, Attitudes = f( person, environment)Behavior, Attitudes = f( person, environment)
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Individual differencesIndividual differences
AgendaAgenda
Explain role of nature and nurture in determining Explain role of nature and nurture in determining personalitypersonality
Discuss the Big Five Personality ModelDiscuss the Big Five Personality Model
Explain individual personality factorsExplain individual personality factors
Explain role of the situationExplain role of the situation
Identify tIdentify threehree types of ability types of ability
Discuss valuesDiscuss values
Discuss 3 components of attitudesDiscuss 3 components of attitudes
Discuss attitude-behavior relationshipDiscuss attitude-behavior relationship
The Individual Performance The Individual Performance EquationEquation
Job performanceJob performance
==
Individual attributesIndividual attributes
XX
Work effortWork effort
X X
Organizational supportOrganizational support
Individual Performance FactorsIndividual Performance Factors
Individual attributesIndividual attributes
Work effortWork effort
Organizational supportOrganizational support
Demographic DifferencesDemographic Differences
GenderGender
AgeAge
Ethnic backgroundEthnic background
StereotypingStereotyping
Prejudice in our lives ex on page W91Prejudice in our lives ex on page W91
Differences in AbilitiesDifferences in Abilities
Cognitive abilitiesCognitive abilities
Physical abilitiesPhysical abilities
Emotional intelligenceEmotional intelligence
Prentice Hall, 2001Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 2Chapter 2 2828
The Ability-Job FitThe Ability-Job Fit
Abilities of the Abilities of the
employeeemployee
Requirements of Requirements of
the jobthe job
EQ testEQ test
Strongly disagree 1Strongly disagree 1Disagree 2Disagree 2Neither agree nor disagree 3Neither agree nor disagree 3Agree 4Agree 4Strongly agree 5Strongly agree 5For question 2 & 3: deduct your response For question 2 & 3: deduct your response from 6from 6Then calculate the sum of your responses Then calculate the sum of your responses
Personality DifferencesPersonality Differences
Personality is the overall profile or Personality is the overall profile or combination of traits that characterize the combination of traits that characterize the unique nature of a person.unique nature of a person.
Personality DeterminantsPersonality Determinants
The nature/nurture controversy is the The nature/nurture controversy is the argument over whether personality is argument over whether personality is determined by heredity, or genetic determined by heredity, or genetic endowment, or by one’s environment.endowment, or by one’s environment.
Key Dimensions of PersonalityKey Dimensions of Personality
Extroversion – introversionExtroversion – introversion
ConscientiousnessConscientiousness
AgreeablenessAgreeableness
Emotional stabilityEmotional stability
Openness to experienceOpenness to experience
Surgency means extroversionSurgency means extroversion
Adjustment means emotional stability Adjustment means emotional stability
Problem-Solving StylesProblem-Solving Styles
Sensation typeSensation type
Intuitive typeIntuitive type
Feeling typeFeeling type
Thinking typeThinking type
Occupational MatchesOccupational Matches
Locus of ControlLocus of Control
The extent to which people feel able to The extent to which people feel able to affect their livesaffect their lives
Internal locus of controlInternal locus of control
External locus of controlExternal locus of control
Authoritarianism / DogmatismAuthoritarianism / Dogmatism
AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism
Dogmatism Dogmatism
Type A vs. Type B PersonalityType A vs. Type B Personality
Type B: A person who tends to be easygoing and relaxed.
Type A: A person who has an intense desire to achieve, is extremely competitive, and has a strong sense of urgency.
MachiavellianismMachiavellianism
Machiavellians are people who view and Machiavellians are people who view and manipulate others for purely personal gain.manipulate others for purely personal gain.
Self-ConceptSelf-Concept
The concept individuals have of The concept individuals have of themselves as physical, social and themselves as physical, social and spiritual or moral beings.spiritual or moral beings.
Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem
The extent to which The extent to which people have pride in people have pride in themselves and their themselves and their capabilities.capabilities.– Can be high or low Can be high or low
– Not situation specificNot situation specific
Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring The extent to which The extent to which
people try to control the people try to control the way they present way they present themselves to others.themselves to others.– Can be high or lowCan be high or low
Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences
Recruitment and employment conditionsRecruitment and employment conditions
Education, training and developmentEducation, training and development
Rewards and promotionsRewards and promotions
Personality-Job FitPersonality-Job Fit
Personalities among individuals differPersonalities among individuals differ
Demands of jobs differDemands of jobs differ
Matching personality and job leads to Matching personality and job leads to higher satisfaction and lower turnover.higher satisfaction and lower turnover.
Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersRealize and accept that some workers are more likely than Realize and accept that some workers are more likely than others to be positive and enthusiastic because of their others to be positive and enthusiastic because of their personalities. Similarly, realize and accept that some workers personalities. Similarly, realize and accept that some workers are more likely than others to complain and experience stress are more likely than others to complain and experience stress because of their personalities.because of their personalities.Provide an extra measure of direct supervision to workers who Provide an extra measure of direct supervision to workers who don’t take the initiative to solve problems on their own and don’t take the initiative to solve problems on their own and always seem to blame someone or something else when always seem to blame someone or something else when things go wrong.things go wrong.Provide additional encouragement and support to workers with Provide additional encouragement and support to workers with low self-esteem who tend to belittle themselves and question low self-esteem who tend to belittle themselves and question their abilities.their abilities.Realize and accept that Type A individuals can be difficult to Realize and accept that Type A individuals can be difficult to get along with and sometimes have a hard time working in get along with and sometimes have a hard time working in teams.teams.Let subordinates who seem overly concerned about other Let subordinates who seem overly concerned about other people liking them know that sometimes it is necessary to give people liking them know that sometimes it is necessary to give honest feedback and be constructively critical (such as when honest feedback and be constructively critical (such as when supervising others).supervising others).
ValuesValues
Values are global beliefs that guide Values are global beliefs that guide actions and judgments across a variety of actions and judgments across a variety of situations.situations.
Classification SchemesClassification SchemesRokeachRokeach– TerminalTerminal– InstrumentalInstrumental
AllportAllport– TheoreticalTheoretical– EconoEconomicmic– AestheticAesthetic– SocialSocial– PoliticalPolitical– ReligiousReligious
Meglino & AssociatesMeglino & Associates– AchievementAchievement– Helping and concern for othersHelping and concern for others– HonestyHonesty– FairnessFairness
Work ValuesWork Values
A worker’s personal convictions about A worker’s personal convictions about what outcomes one should expect from what outcomes one should expect from work and how one should behave at work and how one should behave at work.work.Values can be Values can be intrinsicintrinsic (i.e., related to the (i.e., related to the nature of work itself) or nature of work itself) or extrinsicextrinsic (i.e., (i.e., related to the consequences of work).related to the consequences of work).
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Work ValuesIntrinsic vs. Extrinsic Work Values
Intrinsic ValuesIntrinsic Values
Interesting workInteresting work
Challenging workChallenging work
Learning new thingsLearning new things
Making important Making important contributionscontributions
Responsibility and Responsibility and autonomyautonomy
Being creativeBeing creative
Extrinsic ValuesExtrinsic Values
High payHigh pay
Job securityJob security
Job benefitsJob benefits
Status in wider Status in wider communitycommunity
Social contactsSocial contacts
Time with familyTime with family
Time for hobbiesTime for hobbies
Results of the Beutell and Brenner (1986) Results of the Beutell and Brenner (1986) Study (1 is the strongest ranking)Study (1 is the strongest ranking)
ItemItem MenMen Women Women Provides job securityProvides job security 2.52.5 2.02.0 Provides the opportunity to earn Provides the opportunity to earn
a high incomea high income 2.52.5 5.05.0 Permits advancement/responsibilityPermits advancement/responsibility 4.04.0 6.56.5 Is respected by other peopleIs respected by other people 5.55.5 3.03.0 Provides comfortable working Provides comfortable working
conditionsconditions 7.07.0 4.04.0 Rewards good performance with Rewards good performance with
recognitionrecognition 5.55.5 8.58.5 Encourages continued Encourages continued
development…development… 8.08.0 6.56.5 Is intellectually stimulatingIs intellectually stimulating 9.09.0 8.58.5
Advice to ManagersAdvice to Managers
Do not assume that most workers have Do not assume that most workers have strong intrinsic work values just because you strong intrinsic work values just because you do.do.Realize that any attempt you make to Realize that any attempt you make to improve attitudes, motivation, or improve attitudes, motivation, or performance will be most effective when the performance will be most effective when the change you implement is consistent with change you implement is consistent with workers’ values.workers’ values.
Values and national culture.Values and national culture.
Cultures vary in underlying patterns of Cultures vary in underlying patterns of values and attitudes.values and attitudes.Hofstede’s five dimensions of national Hofstede’s five dimensions of national culture:culture:– Power distance.Power distance.– Uncertainty avoidance.Uncertainty avoidance.– Individualism-collectivism.Individualism-collectivism.– Masculinity-femininity.Masculinity-femininity.– Long-term/short-term orientation.Long-term/short-term orientation.
Values and national culture.Values and national culture. Power distance.Power distance.
– The willingness of a culture to accept status The willingness of a culture to accept status and power differences among members.and power differences among members.
– Respect for hierarchy and rank in Respect for hierarchy and rank in organizations.organizations.
– Example of a high power distance culture Example of a high power distance culture — — Indonesia.Indonesia.
– Example of a low power distance culture Example of a low power distance culture — — Sweden.Sweden.
Values and national culture.Values and national culture.
Uncertainty avoidance.Uncertainty avoidance.– The cultural tendency toward discomfort with The cultural tendency toward discomfort with
risk and ambiguity.risk and ambiguity.– Preference for structured versus unstructured Preference for structured versus unstructured
organizational situations.organizational situations.– Example of a high uncertainty avoidance Example of a high uncertainty avoidance
culture culture — France.— France.– Example of a low uncertainty avoidance Example of a low uncertainty avoidance
culture culture — Hong Kong.— Hong Kong.
Values and national culture.Values and national culture.
Individualism-collectivism.Individualism-collectivism.– The cultural tendency to emphasize individual The cultural tendency to emphasize individual
or group interests.or group interests.– Preferences for working individually or in Preferences for working individually or in
groups.groups.– Example of an individualistic culture Example of an individualistic culture — United — United
States.States.– Example of a collectivist culture Example of a collectivist culture — Mexico.— Mexico.
Values and national culture.Values and national culture. Masculinity-femininity.Masculinity-femininity.
– The tendency of a culture to value stereotypical The tendency of a culture to value stereotypical masculine or feminine traits.masculine or feminine traits.
– Emphasizes competition/assertiveness versus Emphasizes competition/assertiveness versus interpersonal sensitivity/relationships.interpersonal sensitivity/relationships.
– Example of a masculine culture Example of a masculine culture — Japan.— Japan.– Example of a feminine culture Example of a feminine culture — Thailand.— Thailand.
Values and national culture.Values and national culture.
Long-term/short-term orientation.Long-term/short-term orientation.– The tendency of a culture to emphasize The tendency of a culture to emphasize
future-oriented values versus present-oriented future-oriented values versus present-oriented values.values.
– Adoption of long-term or short-term Adoption of long-term or short-term performance horizons.performance horizons.
– Example of a long-term orientation culture Example of a long-term orientation culture — — South Korea.South Korea.
– Example of a short-term orientation culture Example of a short-term orientation culture — — United States.United States.
Values and national cultureValues and national culture
AttitudesAttitudes
A predisposition to respond in a positive or A predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in negative way to someone or something in your environment.your environment.
Components of AttitudesComponents of Attitudes
Cognitive componentsCognitive components
Affective componentsAffective components
Behavioral componentsBehavioral components
Components of AttitudesComponents of Attitudes
Importance Importance of the Elementsof the Elements
Importance Importance of the Elementsof the Elements
CognitiveCognitiveDissonanceDissonanceCognitiveCognitive
DissonanceDissonanceDegree ofDegree of
Personal InfluencePersonal InfluenceDegree ofDegree of
Personal InfluencePersonal Influence
RewardsRewardsInvolvedInvolvedRewardsRewardsInvolvedInvolved
Types of AttitudesTypes of Attitudes
Job satisfaction: General attitude toward Job satisfaction: General attitude toward
one’s jobone’s job
Organizational commitment: a state in Organizational commitment: a state in
which one identifies with a particular which one identifies with a particular
organization and its goals and wishes to organization and its goals and wishes to
maintain membershipmaintain membership
Attitudes and BehaviorAttitudes and Behavior
Attitudes and behaviorAttitudes and behavior
Attitudes and cognitive consistencyAttitudes and cognitive consistency
Job satisfaction as an attitudeJob satisfaction as an attitude
Facets of Job SatisfactionFacets of Job Satisfaction
The workThe work
Quality of supervisionQuality of supervision
Relationship with co-workersRelationship with co-workers
Promotion opportunitiesPromotion opportunities
Pay Pay
Job Satisfaction and Workplace Job Satisfaction and Workplace BehaviorBehavior
PerformancePerformance
AbsenteeismAbsenteeism
Turnover Turnover
Relationship between Relationship between Satisfaction and PerformanceSatisfaction and PerformanceSatisfaction causes performance?Satisfaction causes performance?
Performance causes satisfaction?Performance causes satisfaction?
Rewards cause both performance and Rewards cause both performance and satisfactionsatisfaction
Potential ConsequencesPotential Consequencesof Job Satisfactionof Job Satisfaction
PerformancePerformance: Satisfied workers are only : Satisfied workers are only slightly more likely to perform at a higher level slightly more likely to perform at a higher level than dissatisfied workers.than dissatisfied workers.– Satisfaction is most likely to affect work behaviors Satisfaction is most likely to affect work behaviors
when workers are free to vary their behaviors and when workers are free to vary their behaviors and when a worker’s attitude is relevant to the when a worker’s attitude is relevant to the behavior in question. behavior in question.
AbsenteeismAbsenteeism: Satisfied workers are less : Satisfied workers are less likely to be absent than dissatisfied workers.likely to be absent than dissatisfied workers.TurnoverTurnover: Satisfied workers are less likely to : Satisfied workers are less likely to leave the organization than dissatisfied leave the organization than dissatisfied workers.workers.
Potential ConsequencesPotential Consequencesof Job Satisfactionof Job Satisfaction
Organizational citizenship behaviorOrganizational citizenship behavior (OCB): (OCB): Satisfied workers are more likely to engage Satisfied workers are more likely to engage in this behavior than dissatisfied workers.in this behavior than dissatisfied workers.– OCBOCB: Behavior that is above and beyond the call : Behavior that is above and beyond the call
of duty but is nonetheless necessary for of duty but is nonetheless necessary for organizational survival and effectivenessorganizational survival and effectiveness
Helping coworkers, spreading goodwillHelping coworkers, spreading goodwill
Worker well-beingWorker well-being: Satisfied workers are : Satisfied workers are more likely to have strong well-being than more likely to have strong well-being than dissatisfied workers.dissatisfied workers.– Worker well-beingWorker well-being: How happy, healthy, and : How happy, healthy, and
prosperous workers areprosperous workers are
Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersRealize that some workers are going to be more satisfied than Realize that some workers are going to be more satisfied than others with the same job simply because they have different others with the same job simply because they have different personalities and work valuespersonalities and work values. Also realize that you can take steps . Also realize that you can take steps to increase levels of job satisfaction because it is determined not to increase levels of job satisfaction because it is determined not only by personality but also by the only by personality but also by the work situationwork situation..Try to place newcomers in work groups whose members are Try to place newcomers in work groups whose members are satisfied with their jobs.satisfied with their jobs.Ask workers what facets of their jobs are important to them, and do Ask workers what facets of their jobs are important to them, and do what you can to ensure that they are satisfied with these facets.what you can to ensure that they are satisfied with these facets.Because job satisfaction has the potential to impact workers’ Because job satisfaction has the potential to impact workers’ behaviors in organizations and their well-being, use existing behaviors in organizations and their well-being, use existing measurement scales to periodically survey your subordinates’ measurement scales to periodically survey your subordinates’ levels of job satisfaction. When levels of job satisfaction are low, levels of job satisfaction. When levels of job satisfaction are low, follow the advice in the preceding step.follow the advice in the preceding step.Recognize that workers’ evaluations of job facets, not what you Recognize that workers’ evaluations of job facets, not what you think about them, determine how satisfied workers are and that think about them, determine how satisfied workers are and that changing some facets may have longer-lasting effects on job changing some facets may have longer-lasting effects on job satisfaction than changing others.satisfaction than changing others.
Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersDo not assume that poor performers are dissatisfied with their jobs or that Do not assume that poor performers are dissatisfied with their jobs or that good performers are satisfied with their jobs.good performers are satisfied with their jobs.Do not assume that workers who are absent are dissatisfied or that they Do not assume that workers who are absent are dissatisfied or that they were not motivated to come to work. Absence is also a function of ability were not motivated to come to work. Absence is also a function of ability to attend.to attend.Manage absenteeism. Don’t try to eliminate it, and keep in mind that a Manage absenteeism. Don’t try to eliminate it, and keep in mind that a certain level of absence is often functional for workers and organizations.certain level of absence is often functional for workers and organizations.Realize that turnover has both costs and benefits for an organization and Realize that turnover has both costs and benefits for an organization and that you need to evaluate both. In particular, before becoming concerned that you need to evaluate both. In particular, before becoming concerned about worker turnover, examine the performance levels of those who quit.about worker turnover, examine the performance levels of those who quit.If workers do only what they are told and rarely, if ever, exhibit If workers do only what they are told and rarely, if ever, exhibit organizational citizenship behavior, measure their levels of job organizational citizenship behavior, measure their levels of job satisfaction, identify the job facets they are dissatisfied with, and make satisfaction, identify the job facets they are dissatisfied with, and make changes where possible.changes where possible.Even if job satisfaction does not seem to have an effect on important Even if job satisfaction does not seem to have an effect on important behaviors in your organization, keep in mind that it is an important factor behaviors in your organization, keep in mind that it is an important factor in worker well-being.in worker well-being.
Doc Marten’s CaseDoc Marten’s Case
What specific things What specific things does does Doc Marten’sDoc Marten’s do do to raise levels of to raise levels of – Job satisfactionJob satisfaction– Organizational Organizational commitment?commitment?
Notice how Doc Marten’sNotice how Doc Marten’s manages manages differences in values.differences in values.
AgendaAgenda
Define perceptionDefine perception
Identify factors that affect perceptionIdentify factors that affect perception
Discuss pDiscuss perceptual distortionserceptual distortions
DiscussDiscuss aattributionttribution
DiscussDiscuss iimpression managementmpression management
PerceptionPerception
PerceptionPerception
People are not entirely objective People are not entirely objective information processorsinformation processors– Perception not necessarily the same as realityPerception not necessarily the same as reality– Perceptions of two people are not necessarily Perceptions of two people are not necessarily
the same when describing the same eventthe same when describing the same event
Perception is biased in a number of Perception is biased in a number of predictable wayspredictable ways
Factors Influencing PerceptionFactors Influencing Perception
The perceiverThe perceiver
The settingThe setting
The perceivedThe perceived
Factors Influencing PerceptionFactors Influencing Perception
Stages of PerceptionStages of Perception
Attention and selectionAttention and selection
OrganizationOrganization
InterpretationInterpretation
RetrievalRetrieval
Perceptual DistortionsPerceptual Distortions
StereotypesStereotypes
Halo effectsHalo effects
Selective perceptionSelective perception
Projection Projection
Advice to ManagersAdvice to Managers
Be careful not to jump to conclusions about coworkers, Be careful not to jump to conclusions about coworkers, superiors, and subordinates simply because they appear to superiors, and subordinates simply because they appear to fit your preexisting thoughts and opinions. Wait to form your fit your preexisting thoughts and opinions. Wait to form your opinions until you have gathered enough information to opinions until you have gathered enough information to make a fair judgment.make a fair judgment.Make sure your perceptions of workers are based on their Make sure your perceptions of workers are based on their skills, capabilities, accomplishments, on-the-job behaviors, skills, capabilities, accomplishments, on-the-job behaviors, and levels of job performance.and levels of job performance.Do not allow your perceptions to be influenced by Do not allow your perceptions to be influenced by characteristics of a target (such as race, age, and gender) characteristics of a target (such as race, age, and gender) that are unrelated to job behaviors and performance.that are unrelated to job behaviors and performance.Try to treat organizational members who stand out from Try to treat organizational members who stand out from others the same as you treat those who do not stand out.others the same as you treat those who do not stand out.
Advice to ManagersAdvice to Managers
Be careful not to let your first impressions have too Be careful not to let your first impressions have too strong an effect on your perceptions of others. Avoid strong an effect on your perceptions of others. Avoid categorizing workers until you have sufficient categorizing workers until you have sufficient information to form an accurate perception.information to form an accurate perception.When evaluating or interviewing a series of individuals, When evaluating or interviewing a series of individuals, do not let your evaluations of preceding individuals do not let your evaluations of preceding individuals influence your ratings of those that follow.influence your ratings of those that follow.Be careful not to be lenient in your perceptions of Be careful not to be lenient in your perceptions of people who are similar to you and overly harsh to people who are similar to you and overly harsh to those who are dissimilar to you.those who are dissimilar to you.
Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory
Prentice Hall, 2001Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 5Chapter 5 8484
Attribution of Cause
InterpretationObservation
Attribution Attribution
Theory andTheory and
IndividualIndividual
BehaviorBehavior
ExternalExternal
ExternalExternal
InternalInternal
InternalInternal
ExternalExternal
DistinctivenessDistinctiveness
ConsensusConsensus
ConsistencyConsistency
HighHigh
LowLow
HighHigh
LowLow
HighHigh
LowLow
InternalInternal
Fundamental Attribution ErrorFundamental Attribution Error
Tendency to explain other people’s Tendency to explain other people’s behavior with internal attributions and to behavior with internal attributions and to underemphasize plausible situational underemphasize plausible situational causes of the behavior in questioncauses of the behavior in question
Inhibits managers from fixing situational Inhibits managers from fixing situational problemsproblems
Self-Serving BiasSelf-Serving Bias
The tendency to deny personal The tendency to deny personal responsibility for poor performance but to responsibility for poor performance but to accept personal responsibility for high accept personal responsibility for high performance when explaining our own performance when explaining our own behaviorbehavior
Advice to ManagersAdvice to Managers
Make sure your attributions for other people’s behavior Make sure your attributions for other people’s behavior are as accurate as possible. are as accurate as possible. Consider external factors that may be responsible for Consider external factors that may be responsible for other people’s behavior, such as inadequate resources other people’s behavior, such as inadequate resources or supplies, an exceptionally difficult task, or chance or supplies, an exceptionally difficult task, or chance occurrences.occurrences.Consider internal factors that may be responsible for Consider internal factors that may be responsible for your own behavior, such as your personality, your your own behavior, such as your personality, your strengths and weaknesses, and your level of strengths and weaknesses, and your level of motivation.motivation.Be aware of the tendency in yourself and in others to Be aware of the tendency in yourself and in others to take credit for successes and avoid blame for errors.take credit for successes and avoid blame for errors.
Managing PerceptionsManaging Perceptions
Self-awarenessSelf-awareness
Seek informationSeek information
Be empathicBe empathic
Avoid common perceptual distortionsAvoid common perceptual distortions
Impression Management TacticsImpression Management Tactics
BehavioralMatching
The target of perception matcheshis or her behavior to that of theperceiver.
A subordinate tries to imitate her boss’sbehavior by being modest and soft-spokenbecause her boss is modest and soft-spoken.
Self-Promotion
The target tries to present herselfor himself in as positive a light aspossible.
A worker reminds his boss about his past accomplishments and associates with co-workers who are evaluated highly.
Conformingto SituationalNorms
The target follows agreed-uponrules for behavior in the organization.
A worker stays late every night even if she hascompleted all of her assignments becausestaying late is one of the norms of her organization.
Appreciatingor FlatteringOthers
The target compliments the per-ceiver. This tactic works best whenflattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension importantto the perceiver.
A coworker compliments a manager on his excellent handling of a troublesome employee.
BeingConsistent
The target’s beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreementbetween the target’s verbal andnonverbal behaviors.
A subordinate delivering a message to his bosslooks the boss straight in the eye and has a sincere expression on his face.
LearningLearning
Chapter 3Chapter 3
Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
Present behavior can be explained by past Present behavior can be explained by past environmental responses B = F(C).environmental responses B = F(C).
Thorndike’s Law of Effect:Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is
likely to be repeated; behavior that results in an likely to be repeated; behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.
• Behavior can be controlled by manipulating its Behavior can be controlled by manipulating its consequences (called operant conditioning)consequences (called operant conditioning)
• Organizational Behavior ModificationOrganizational Behavior Modification
OB Mod StrategiesOB Mod Strategies
Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement
Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement
PunishmentPunishment
ExtinctionExtinction
ReinforcementReinforcement
Positive Reinforcement:Positive Reinforcement: The administration The administration of positive consequences to workers who of positive consequences to workers who perform desired behaviors.perform desired behaviors.– Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise, Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise,
awardsawards
Negative Reinforcement:Negative Reinforcement: The removal of The removal of negative consequences when workers negative consequences when workers perform desired behaviors.perform desired behaviors.– Nagging, complainingNagging, complaining
Advice to Managers: Advice to Managers: ReinforcementReinforcement
Administer rewards only when workers perform desired behaviors or close approximations of them.
When using reinforcement, make sure you identify the right behaviors to reinforce (those that help the organization achieve its goals).
Because job performance is likely to vary across workers, administer rewards so that high-performing workers receive more rewards than low-performing workers.
Do not assume that a given reward will function as a positive reinforcer to all workers. Take individual preferences into account.
Make sure the consequences of a behavior are equal to the behavior.
Make sure that workers know what reinforcers are available for desired behaviors. Don’t just assume that they know.
Extinction and PunishmentExtinction and Punishment
Extinction: Extinction: Removing a consequence that Removing a consequence that is currently reinforcing an undesirable is currently reinforcing an undesirable behavior in an effort to decrease the behavior in an effort to decrease the probability that the behavior will occur again probability that the behavior will occur again in the future.in the future.
Punishment:Punishment: Administering negative Administering negative consequences to workers who perform consequences to workers who perform undesirable behaviors in an effort to undesirable behaviors in an effort to decrease the probability that the behavior will decrease the probability that the behavior will occur again in the future.occur again in the future.– Verbal reprimands, docking pay, loss of privilegesVerbal reprimands, docking pay, loss of privileges
Negative Reinforcement vs. Negative Reinforcement vs. PunishmentPunishment
These two concepts are often confused; however, These two concepts are often confused; however, they differ from each other in two important ways.they differ from each other in two important ways.First difference:First difference:– Punishment Punishment reducesreduces the probability of an the probability of an undesiredundesired
behavior.behavior.– Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement increasesincreases the probability of a the probability of a
desireddesired behavior. behavior.
Second difference:Second difference:– Punishment involves Punishment involves administeringadministering a a negativenegative
consequenceconsequence when an when an undesiredundesired behavior occurs. behavior occurs.– Negative reinforcement entails Negative reinforcement entails removingremoving a a negativenegative
consequenceconsequence when a when a desireddesired behavior occurs. behavior occurs.
Advice to Managers: PunishmentAdvice to Managers: Punishment
Remember that all behaviors, good and bad, are performed because they are reinforced in some way. Undesired behaviors can be eliminated by determining how the behavior is being reinforced and removing the reinforcer.
When feasible, use extinction rather than punishment to eliminate undesired behaviors.
When you use punishment, make sure workers know exactly why they are being punished.
Make sure the chosen negative consequence is indeed a punishment for the individual in question.
Downplay the emotional element in punishment, punish immediately after the undesired behavior, and do not punish in front of others.
Chapter 4Chapter 4
Motivation theoriesMotivation theories
AgendaAgenda
Define motivationDefine motivation
Discuss link between motivation & Discuss link between motivation & performanceperformance
Discuss link between motivation & rewardsDiscuss link between motivation & rewards
Content/Need theories of motivationContent/Need theories of motivation
Process theories of motivationProcess theories of motivation
Reinforcement theoryReinforcement theory
Motivating the WorkforceMotivating the Workforce
Motivation to work refers to forces within Motivation to work refers to forces within an individual that account for the an individual that account for the level, level, direction and persistencedirection and persistence of effort of effort expended at work.expended at work.
What are the determinants of an individual’s What are the determinants of an individual’s performance?performance?
→Individual attributes - capacity to performIndividual attributes - capacity to perform→Organizational support - opportunity to Organizational support - opportunity to
performperform→Work effort Work effort
MMotivation & Performanceotivation & Performance
Motivation
IndividualAbility
Work Effort
OrganizationalSupport
Work Performance
Motivation TheoriesMotivation Theories
Content Theories: Focus on understanding Content Theories: Focus on understanding individual needs - what motivates an individual.individual needs - what motivates an individual.
Process Theories: Focus on the thought Process Theories: Focus on the thought processes that give meaning to rewards and processes that give meaning to rewards and influence behavior - how a person becomes influence behavior - how a person becomes motivated.motivated.
Reinforcement Theory: Focuses on learning.Reinforcement Theory: Focuses on learning.
Content Perspectives Content Perspectives (Need Theory)(Need Theory)
Assumption: People are motivated to satisfy Assumption: People are motivated to satisfy their needs; if we know what they need, we’ll their needs; if we know what they need, we’ll know how to motivate them.know how to motivate them.Needs: Physiological or psychological Needs: Physiological or psychological deficiencies that people feel some compulsion to deficiencies that people feel some compulsion to eliminate.eliminate.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs TheoryMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs TheoryAlderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG TheoryAcquired Needs TheoryAcquired Needs TheoryTwo Factor TheoryTwo Factor Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs TheoryTheory
Higher order needsHigher order needs
Lower order needsLower order needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsNeeds
Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG TheoryExistence NeedsExistence Needs: Basic needs for human : Basic needs for human survival such as the need for food, water, survival such as the need for food, water, clothing, shelter, and a secure and safe clothing, shelter, and a secure and safe environment.environment.Relatedness NeedsRelatedness Needs: The needs to have : The needs to have good interpersonal relations, to share good interpersonal relations, to share thoughts and feelings, and to have open thoughts and feelings, and to have open two-way communication.two-way communication.Growth NeedsGrowth Needs: The needs for self-: The needs for self-development and creative and productive development and creative and productive work.work.
Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersDo not assume that all workers are motivated by Do not assume that all workers are motivated by
the same needs or desires. the same needs or desires. To determine what will motivate any given worker, To determine what will motivate any given worker,
determine what needs that worker is trying to determine what needs that worker is trying to satisfy on the job.satisfy on the job.
Make sure you have the ability to administer or Make sure you have the ability to administer or withhold consequences that will satisfy a worker’s withhold consequences that will satisfy a worker’s needs.needs.
Structure work situations so that workers can Structure work situations so that workers can satisfy their needs by performing behaviors that satisfy their needs by performing behaviors that enable the organization to achieve its goals.enable the organization to achieve its goals.
McClelland’s Acquired Needs McClelland’s Acquired Needs TheoryTheory
Need for achievementNeed for achievement
Need for affiliationNeed for affiliation
Need for powerNeed for power
Acquired Needs TheoryAcquired Needs Theory
Herzberg’s Two-factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-factor Theory
Hygiene factorsHygiene factors
Motivator factorsMotivator factors
Hygiene Factors found in work Hygiene Factors found in work settingssettings
Comparison of Content Comparison of Content TheoriesTheories
Process TheoriesProcess Theories
Focus on thought processes that underlie Focus on thought processes that underlie individual responses to work situations.individual responses to work situations.– Equity TheoryEquity Theory
– Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Negative inequityNegative inequity
Positive inequityPositive inequity
The Equity DynamicThe Equity Dynamic
Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersBecause inputs are likely to vary across workers, Because inputs are likely to vary across workers, outcomes should also vary. Do not give all workers at a outcomes should also vary. Do not give all workers at a given level or holding the same job title the same level of given level or holding the same job title the same level of outcomes unless their inputs are identical.outcomes unless their inputs are identical.Distribute outcomes to workers based on their inputs to Distribute outcomes to workers based on their inputs to their jobs and the organization. Because underpayment their jobs and the organization. Because underpayment inequity or overpayment inequity can have negative inequity or overpayment inequity can have negative organizational consequences, strive to maintain equity for organizational consequences, strive to maintain equity for maximum motivation.maximum motivation.Because it is the perception of equity or inequity that Because it is the perception of equity or inequity that drives motivation, frequently monitor and assess workers’ drives motivation, frequently monitor and assess workers’ perceptions about relevant outcomes and inputs, as well perceptions about relevant outcomes and inputs, as well as their own standing on these outcomes and inputs. as their own standing on these outcomes and inputs. Correct any inaccurate perceptions workers may have.Correct any inaccurate perceptions workers may have.Realize that failure to recognize above-average levels of Realize that failure to recognize above-average levels of inputs has major motivational implications.inputs has major motivational implications.
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
People will do…. People will do….
……..what they can do…. ..what they can do….
……..when they want to...when they want to.
Managerial Foundations of Managerial Foundations of Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Managerial Implications of Managerial Implications of Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
A manager must try to understand A manager must try to understand individual thought processes, then actively individual thought processes, then actively intervene in the work situation to influence intervene in the work situation to influence them.them.
Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersDetermine what outcomes your subordinates desire. More specifically, Determine what outcomes your subordinates desire. More specifically, identify outcomes that have high positive valence for your subordinates in identify outcomes that have high positive valence for your subordinates in order to motivate them to perform at a high level.order to motivate them to perform at a high level.Once you have identified desired outcomes, make sure that you have Once you have identified desired outcomes, make sure that you have control over them and can give them to subordinates or take them away control over them and can give them to subordinates or take them away when warranted.when warranted.Let subordinates know that obtaining their desired outcomes depends on Let subordinates know that obtaining their desired outcomes depends on their performing at a high level (raise instrumentalities). Administer the their performing at a high level (raise instrumentalities). Administer the highly valent outcomes only when subordinates perform at a high level (or highly valent outcomes only when subordinates perform at a high level (or engage in desired organizational behaviors).engage in desired organizational behaviors).Do whatever you can to encourage workers to have high expectancies: Do whatever you can to encourage workers to have high expectancies: Express confidence in subordinates’ abilities, let them know that others like Express confidence in subordinates’ abilities, let them know that others like themselves have been able to perform at a high level, and give them themselves have been able to perform at a high level, and give them guidance in terms of how to perform at a high level.guidance in terms of how to perform at a high level.Periodically assess workers’ beliefs concerning expectancies and Periodically assess workers’ beliefs concerning expectancies and instrumentalities and their valences for different outcomes by directly asking instrumentalities and their valences for different outcomes by directly asking them or administering a survey. Using these assessments, make different them or administering a survey. Using these assessments, make different outcomes available to workers, and clarify instrumentalities, or boost outcomes available to workers, and clarify instrumentalities, or boost expectancies when necessary.expectancies when necessary.
Chapter 5Chapter 5
Goal Setting & Job DesignGoal Setting & Job Design
Goal SettingGoal Setting
The process of developing, negotiating The process of developing, negotiating and formalizing objectives.and formalizing objectives.
Locke’s researchLocke’s research
A Goal-setting FrameworkA Goal-setting Framework
Source: Adapted from Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, ‘Work motivation and satisfaction: Light at the end of the tunnel’, Psychological Science, vol. 1, no. 4 (July 1990), p. 244. Reprinted by permission of Blackwell Publishers.
The MBO ProcessThe MBO Process
Job DesignJob Design
Job Design involves the planning and Job Design involves the planning and specification of job tasks, and the work specification of job tasks, and the work setting designated for their setting designated for their accomplishment.accomplishment.
Alternative Job Design Alternative Job Design StrategiesStrategies
Job simplificationJob simplification
Job enlargementJob enlargement
Job rotationJob rotation
Job enrichmentJob enrichment
Job SimplificationJob Simplification
Job simplification is standardizing work Job simplification is standardizing work procedures and employing people in procedures and employing people in clearly defined and specialized tasks.clearly defined and specialized tasks.
Job automationJob automation
Job Enlargement and Job Enlargement and Job RotationJob Rotation
Job Enlargement: combining two or more Job Enlargement: combining two or more tasks into one jobtasks into one job
Job Rotation: periodically shifting workers Job Rotation: periodically shifting workers among jobsamong jobs
Job EnrichmentJob Enrichment
The practice of building motivating factors The practice of building motivating factors into job contentinto job content
Vertical loadingVertical loading
Horizontal loading Horizontal loading
A Continuum of Job Design A Continuum of Job Design StrategiesStrategies
Job Characteristics TheoryJob Characteristics Theory
Skill varietySkill variety
Task identityTask identity
Task significanceTask significance
AutonomyAutonomy
Job feedbackJob feedback
Individual differences: Individual differences: moderators of job moderators of job
characteristics theorycharacteristics theory
The five core job characteristics do The five core job characteristics do not affect all people in the same not affect all people in the same way. There are three important way. There are three important individual difference moderators:individual difference moderators:– Growth-need strengthGrowth-need strength– Knowledge and skillKnowledge and skill– Context satisfactionContext satisfaction
Growth Needs and Core Job Growth Needs and Core Job CharacteristicsCharacteristics
Source: Adapted from J. Richard Hackman, Greg Oldham, Robert Janson and Kenneth Purdy, ‘A new strategy for job enrichment, California Management Review, vol. 17, no. 4 (1975), p. 60.
Socio-technical Job DesignSocio-technical Job Design
The design of jobs to optimize the The design of jobs to optimize the relationship between the technology relationship between the technology system and the social system.system and the social system.
Q & A – Job EnrichmentQ & A – Job Enrichment
Is it expensive?Is it expensive?
Can it be applied to groups and Can it be applied to groups and individuals?individuals?
Will people demand more pay?Will people demand more pay?
What do the unions say?What do the unions say?
Should everyone’s job be enriched?Should everyone’s job be enriched?
Chapter 6Chapter 6
Groups & TeamworkGroups & Teamwork
What is a Group?What is a Group?
Groups are collections of two or more Groups are collections of two or more people who work with one another people who work with one another regularly to achieve one or more common regularly to achieve one or more common goals.goals.
Purpose of Groups in Purpose of Groups in OrganizationsOrganizations
Meeting organizational needsMeeting organizational needs
Meeting individual needsMeeting individual needs
Benefiting organizations and individuals Benefiting organizations and individuals
Key Concerns for Key Concerns for Managing GroupsManaging Groups
Advantages of groupsAdvantages of groups
Disadvantages of groupsDisadvantages of groups
Formal GroupsFormal Groups
Permanent formal work groupsPermanent formal work groups
Temporary work groupsTemporary work groups
Informal GroupsInformal Groups
Friendship groupsFriendship groups
Interest groupsInterest groups
Groups and Groups and Task PerformanceTask Performance
Synergy The whole is different than the Synergy The whole is different than the sum of its parts.sum of its parts.Groups can make 2+2=5 or 2+2=3Groups can make 2+2=5 or 2+2=3
Positive Synergy – “Two heads are Positive Synergy – “Two heads are better than one.better than one.””
The creation of whole greater than sum of The creation of whole greater than sum of its parts.its parts.Groups accomplish more than the total of Groups accomplish more than the total of their members’ individual capabilities.their members’ individual capabilities.Occurs when:Occurs when:– A diverse set of skills is required.A diverse set of skills is required.– Division of labor and sharing of information Division of labor and sharing of information
are required.are required.– Creativity and innovation are required.Creativity and innovation are required.
Negative Synergy – “Too many cooks Negative Synergy – “Too many cooks spoil the broth.”spoil the broth.”
The creation of whole less than sum of its parts.The creation of whole less than sum of its parts.Social loafing (Ringelmann effect): The tendency of group Social loafing (Ringelmann effect): The tendency of group members to do less that they are capable of as individuals.members to do less that they are capable of as individuals.Ringlemann’s experiments – compared the results of Ringlemann’s experiments – compared the results of individual and group performance on a rope-pulling task.individual and group performance on a rope-pulling task.– Groups of 3 people – 2.5 times the solo rate.Groups of 3 people – 2.5 times the solo rate.– Groups of 8 people – less than 4 times the solo rate.Groups of 8 people – less than 4 times the solo rate.– Average productivity dropped as more people joinedAverage productivity dropped as more people joined..– Replications of Ringelmann’s experiments – People tend not to work Replications of Ringelmann’s experiments – People tend not to work
hard as in groups as they would individually. hard as in groups as they would individually.
Why?Why?The relationship between an individual’s input and the The relationship between an individual’s input and the group’s output is unclear. In such situations individuals are group’s output is unclear. In such situations individuals are tempted become “free riders”.tempted become “free riders”.Belief of inequity – individuals reduce their efforts to Belief of inequity – individuals reduce their efforts to reestablish equity.reestablish equity.
Characteristics of Characteristics of Group EffectivenessGroup Effectiveness
Effective groups are groups that achieve Effective groups are groups that achieve high levels of both task performance and high levels of both task performance and human resource maintenance.human resource maintenance.
Foundations of Foundations of Group EffectivenessGroup Effectiveness
The better the group inputs, the better the The better the group inputs, the better the chance of group effectiveness.chance of group effectiveness.
Organizational SettingOrganizational Setting
Goals, reward systems and technologiesGoals, reward systems and technologies
Cultures and structuresCultures and structures
General Membership General Membership CharacteristicsCharacteristics
Membership homogeneity/heterogeneityMembership homogeneity/heterogeneity
Interpersonal compatibilitiesInterpersonal compatibilities
Group sizeGroup size
Stages of Group DevelopmentStages of Group Development
FormingForming
StormingStorming
NormingNorming
PerformingPerforming
Adjourning Adjourning
The Forming StageThe Forming Stage
The first stage of group development, in The first stage of group development, in which the primary concern is the initial which the primary concern is the initial entry of members to the group.entry of members to the group.
The Storming StageThe Storming Stage
The second stage of group development The second stage of group development which is marked by a period of high which is marked by a period of high emotion and tension among group emotion and tension among group members.members.
The Norming StageThe Norming Stage
The third stage of group development, at The third stage of group development, at which the group begins to come together which the group begins to come together as a coordinated unit. as a coordinated unit.
The Performing StageThe Performing Stage
The fourth stage of group development The fourth stage of group development which sees the emergence of a mature, which sees the emergence of a mature, organized and well-functioning group.organized and well-functioning group.
The Adjourning StageThe Adjourning Stage
The last stage, in which members of the The last stage, in which members of the group disband when the job is done.group disband when the job is done.
GroupthinkGroupthink
The tendency of members in highly The tendency of members in highly cohesive groups to lose their critical, cohesive groups to lose their critical, evaluative capabilities.evaluative capabilities.
Symptoms of GroupthinkSymptoms of Groupthink
Illusions of group invulnerabilityIllusions of group invulnerability
Rationalizing unpleasant dataRationalizing unpleasant data
Belief in inherent group moralityBelief in inherent group morality
Negative stereotyping of outsidersNegative stereotyping of outsiders
Symptoms of GroupthinkSymptoms of Groupthink
Applying pressure to deviantsApplying pressure to deviants
Self-censorship of membersSelf-censorship of members
Illusions of unanimityIllusions of unanimity
Mind guardingMind guarding
Definition: A role is a set of expectations associated with a Definition: A role is a set of expectations associated with a position.position.
What is expected of the members and what they can expect What is expected of the members and what they can expect from others.from others.
Difficulties in defining and managing roles cause problems in Difficulties in defining and managing roles cause problems in groups:groups:
Role ambiguity: The members are uncertain about their roles.Role ambiguity: The members are uncertain about their roles. Role overload/underload: Too much/little is expected from Role overload/underload: Too much/little is expected from
members.members. Role conflict: Member is unable to comply with his/her role.Role conflict: Member is unable to comply with his/her role.
Conflicting expectations from a supervisorConflicting expectations from a supervisor Conflicting expectations from different people.Conflicting expectations from different people. One’s values and needs conflict with role expectations.One’s values and needs conflict with role expectations. Expectations of two or more roles conflict.Expectations of two or more roles conflict.
RolesRoles
NormsNormsNorms are acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by Norms are acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by
members of a group.members of a group. All groups have norms.All groups have norms. Typical group norms:Typical group norms: Norms that regulate social interaction, resource allocation, Norms that regulate social interaction, resource allocation,
punctuality, dressing, so on.punctuality, dressing, so on. Performance norms: Specify acceptable production behavior. Performance norms: Specify acceptable production behavior.
How hard should group members work?How hard should group members work? What is the acceptable level of output?What is the acceptable level of output? How should the work be done?How should the work be done? Can be significantly different than management Can be significantly different than management
expectations.expectations. Managerial Implication: Help groups adopt positive norms that Managerial Implication: Help groups adopt positive norms that
support organizational goals.support organizational goals.
NormsNorms
Characteristics of Norms:Characteristics of Norms: Developed only for things that have Developed only for things that have
significance for the group.significance for the group. Known by all group members.Known by all group members. Accepted by group members.Accepted by group members. Enforced by group members. Deviations Enforced by group members. Deviations
lead to punishments.lead to punishments. Influence the behavior of group members. Influence the behavior of group members.
i.e. members conform to group norms.i.e. members conform to group norms.
Conformity to NormsConformity to Norms
Asch studies:Asch studies: Conclusion: Groups can place strong pressures Conclusion: Groups can place strong pressures
on individual members to change their attitudes on individual members to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to group standards.and behaviors to conform to group standards.
Conformity: Why do employees conform to Conformity: Why do employees conform to group norms?group norms?
Desire for acceptanceDesire for acceptance Personal characteristicsPersonal characteristics Cohesiveness of the groupCohesiveness of the group
Team CohesivenessTeam Cohesiveness
The degree to which members are attracted to The degree to which members are attracted to and motivated to remain a part of a team.and motivated to remain a part of a team.
Determinants of Cohesiveness;Determinants of Cohesiveness;– Time spent together and physical proximityTime spent together and physical proximity– Group size Group size – HomogeneityHomogeneity– Charismatic leaderCharismatic leader– Standards for being a memberStandards for being a member– Previous successesPrevious successes– External threatsExternal threats
Is cohesiveness related to productivity?Is cohesiveness related to productivity?
Generally, highly cohesive groups display the following Generally, highly cohesive groups display the following qualities:qualities:– Members have positive relationshipsMembers have positive relationships– Members more energeticMembers more energetic– Members participate moreMembers participate more– Members are more involved with the success/failure of the Members are more involved with the success/failure of the
groupgroup– Such groups have low turnover, higher satisfaction and loyalty.Such groups have low turnover, higher satisfaction and loyalty.– Members’ level of conformity to group norms is higher.Members’ level of conformity to group norms is higher.
Whether or not cohesiveness leads to productivity Whether or not cohesiveness leads to productivity depends on the prevailing performance norms in the depends on the prevailing performance norms in the group.group.
Influencing Team PerformanceInfluencing Team Performance
Influencing Team CohesivenessInfluencing Team Cohesiveness
Chapters 9 & 10Chapters 9 & 10
Power & LeadershipPower & Leadership
What is Leadership?What is Leadership?
A special case of interpersonal influence A special case of interpersonal influence that gets an individual or group to do what that gets an individual or group to do what the leader wants done.the leader wants done.
Trait TheoryTrait Theory
The earliest approach to the study of The earliest approach to the study of leadershipleadership
Identified traits that differentiated the ‘great Identified traits that differentiated the ‘great person’ from the massesperson’ from the masses
Behavioral TheoriesBehavioral Theories
The Michigan studiesThe Michigan studies
The Ohio State studiesThe Ohio State studies
The Leadership GridThe Leadership Grid
The Leadership GridThe Leadership Grid
The Leadership Grid. (Reproduced by permission. From Leadership Dilemmas — Grid Solutions, 1995. Gulf Publishing
Company, Houston, Texas, 800 231 6275. All rights reserved.)
Situational Contingency Situational Contingency TheoriesTheories
Situational control is the extent to which Situational control is the extent to which leaders can determine what their group is leaders can determine what their group is going to do and what the outcomes of their going to do and what the outcomes of their actions will be.actions will be.
Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency Theory
Predictions from Fiedler’s Predictions from Fiedler’s TheoryTheory
Fiedler’s Cognitive Resource Fiedler’s Cognitive Resource TheoryTheory
Use of directive or nondirective behaviour Use of directive or nondirective behaviour depends on situational contingencies.depends on situational contingencies.
Fiedler’s TheoryFiedler’s Theory
EvaluationEvaluation
Application Application
Path-goal TheoryPath-goal Theory
Directive leadershipDirective leadership
Supportive leadershipSupportive leadership
Achievement-oriented leadershipAchievement-oriented leadership
Participative leadershipParticipative leadership
Path-goal RelationshipsPath-goal Relationships
Source: Adapted from Richard N. Osborn, James G. Hunt and Lawrence R. Jauch, Organizational Theory: An Integrated Approach (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980), p. 464. Reprinted with permission.
Path-goal TheoryPath-goal Theory
EvaluationEvaluation
ApplicationApplication
Situational LeadershipSituational Leadership
Focus is on the readiness of followers.Focus is on the readiness of followers.
Readiness: the extent to which people Readiness: the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to have the ability and willingness to accomplish tasks.accomplish tasks.
Situational LeadershipSituational Leadership
EvaluationEvaluation
Application Application
Substitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for Leadership
Organization, individual or task-situational Organization, individual or task-situational variables that substitute for leadershipvariables that substitute for leadership
Charismatic LeadershipCharismatic Leadership
Charismatic leaders are those leaders Charismatic leaders are those leaders who, by force of their personal abilities, who, by force of their personal abilities, are capable of having a profound and are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers.extraordinary effect on followers.
Transformational LeadershipTransformational Leadership
A leadership style by which the followers’ A leadership style by which the followers’ goals are broadened and elevated, and goals are broadened and elevated, and confidence is gained to go beyond confidence is gained to go beyond expectations.expectations.
Transactional LeadershipTransactional Leadership
A leadership style by which the leader A leadership style by which the leader exerts influence during daily leader-exerts influence during daily leader-subordinate exchanges without much subordinate exchanges without much emotion.emotion.
Transformational vs. Transformational vs. Transactional LeadershipTransactional Leadership
Transformational LeadershipTransformational Leadership
Individual considerationIndividual consideration
Intellectual stimulationIntellectual stimulation
Inspirational motivationInspirational motivation
Idealised influenceIdealised influence
Developing Charismatic SkillsDeveloping Charismatic Skills
Sensitivity to charismaSensitivity to charisma
VisioningVisioning
CommunicationCommunication
Impression managementImpression management
Empowering Empowering
Leadership and PowerLeadership and Power
Power: The ability to get someone else Power: The ability to get someone else to do something you want done.to do something you want done.Two sources of Power:Two sources of Power:
Position Power: based in the manager’s Position Power: based in the manager’s position of authority.position of authority.
Personal Power: based in the personal Personal Power: based in the personal qualities of managerqualities of manager
Managerial Power = Position Power + Managerial Power = Position Power + Personal Power.Personal Power.
Sources of Position PowerSources of Position PowerStems from the official position of the manager in the Stems from the official position of the manager in the chain of command.chain of command.
Anyone holding a managerial position has this power.Anyone holding a managerial position has this power. Reward Power - influence through rewards.Reward Power - influence through rewards.
Offer something of value.Offer something of value.
Coercive Power - influence through punishment.Coercive Power - influence through punishment.Verbal reprimands, pay penalties, termination, etc.Verbal reprimands, pay penalties, termination, etc.
Legitimate Power - influence through authority.Legitimate Power - influence through authority.Managers have the legal right to exercise control over persons Managers have the legal right to exercise control over persons
in subordinate positions.in subordinate positions.
Sources of Personal PowerSources of Personal Power
Stems from the unique personal qualities of the Stems from the unique personal qualities of the individual manager.individual manager.
Expert Power - influence through special expertise Expert Power - influence through special expertise and/or valuable information.and/or valuable information.Acquire relevant skills, competencies.Acquire relevant skills, competencies.Gain a central position in relevant information networks.Gain a central position in relevant information networks.
Referent Power - influence through charisma and Referent Power - influence through charisma and interpersonal attractiveness.interpersonal attractiveness.Develop and maintain good interpersonal relationsDevelop and maintain good interpersonal relations