i
,
Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Webmaster’s name
O = University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
Agboeze Irene E.
FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
VETERINARY PATHOLOGY AND MICROBIOLOGY
CUTANEOUS AND SYSTEMIC PATHOLOGIC
RESPONSES OF THE WEST AFRICAN DWARF GOAT TO
SARCOPTES SCABIEI INFESTATION
ONOJA, IBE REMIGIUS
PG/M.Sc/09/52104
i
CUTANEOUS AND SYSTEMIC PATHOLOGIC RESPONSES OF THE
WEST AFRICAN DWARF GOAT TO SARCOPTES SCABIEI INFESTATION
BY
ONOJA, IBE REMIGIUS
PG/M.Sc/09/52104
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY PATHOLOGY AND MICROBIOLOGY
FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
AUGUST, 2013
ii
CUTANEOUS AND SYSTEMIC PATHOLOGIC RESPONSES OF THE WEST
AFRICAN DWARF GOAT TO SARCOPTES SCABIEI INFESTATION
BY
ONOJA, IBE REMIGIUS
DVM (Nig)
PG/M.Sc/09/52104
A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY PATHOLOGY AND
MICROBIOLOGY, FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA, NSUKKA FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF
SCIENCE
AUGUST, 2013.
iii
DECLARATION
The work presented in this dissertation is original and was done by me under the
supervision of Prof. S. V. O. Shoyinka. References made to the works of other investigators
were duly acknowledged. No part of this dissertation has been submitted for any other
diploma or degree of this or any other University.
ONOJA, IBE REMIGIUS
__________________________
DATE
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
iv
CERTIFICATION
Dr. Onoja, Ibe Remigius, a postgraduate student in the Department of Veterinary
Pathology and Microbiology and with Reg. No. PG/M.Sc/09/52104 has satisfactorily
completed the requirements for the course and research work for the degree of Master of
Science in Veterinary Pathology. The work embodied in this dissertation is original and has
not been submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other
University.
________________________
Prof. S. V. O. Shoyinka (Supervisor)
____________________ ________________________
External Examiner Prof. K. F. Chah (Head of Department)
____________________________
Prof. S. V. O. Shoyinka (Dean, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine)
v
DEDICATION
This effort is dedicated to Almighty God who through various individuals made this
programme successful. The world is a time clock and no one ever achieves unless it is God’s
time for one to do so.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A lot of people have intentionally or unintentionally contributed to the success of this
programme and research work. Worthy of note in this regard is my wonderful mentor, teacher
and supervisor, Professor S. V. O. Shoyinka. He not only supervised this work but offered me
an informal scholarship to run this programme. He is second to God in my life and though I
am not fit to pay him back, his actions demands of me to reciprocate same to others.
Although an appreciation of my supervisor sums up my earnest wish for
acknowledgement, it is morally right that I recognize my wonderful teachers and colleagues
who had affected me positively. Thus, I will like to say thank you to Profs, C. N. Chineme, J.
I. Ihedioha, K. F. Chah, I. C. Nwaogu, V. O. Anosa, Dr. R. Antia (of the University of
Ibadan who kindly obliged my request to learn some aspects of Exfoliative cytology during
his College of Veterinary Surgeons, Nigeria lectures), A.O. Anaga and Drs C. Ezema, C.
Igbokwe, T. Nnaji, S. O. Udegbunam, W. S. Ezema, C. Okorie-Kanu, G. C. Okpe, D. C. Eze,
Idika K. Idika, C. Iheagwam, R. I. Obidike, Dr Obasi, C. N. Okoye and others too numerous
to mention.
I am also grateful to my brothers and sisters for their wonderful support and
encouragement.
vii
ABSTRACT The pathophysiology of Sarcoptes scabiei infestation in the West African Dwarf goat was
evaluated in a natural transmission study. Twenty- five adult male West African Dwarf
(WAD) goats consisting of 15 naturally infested goats assigned into three equal groups based
on severity of clinical disease as: A (mild infestation), B (moderate infestation), C (severe
infestation), and10 healthy WAD goats with no previous history of mange infestation
assigned into two equal groups as D (for contact transmission experiment) and uninfested
control (E) were used for this study. Parameters assessed at the beginning of the study (week
0) and every two weeks thereafter included packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin
concentration (Hb), erythrocyte count (EC), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean
corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC),
total leucocyte count (TLC), differential leucocyte count (DLC), total protein, serum
albumin, creatinine, adrenal and gonadal steroid hormones concentration (cortisol and
testosterone), serum copper, zinc and vitamin A concentrations. At week 6 of the study, goats
in the five groups were sacrificed and the testicular and epididymal sperm reserves were
determined. Tissue sections of the infested skin of goats from groups A, B, C, D, and the
normal control E were processed for histopathological studies. Data generated were analyzed
using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and variant means were separated using the
Duncan’s multiple range test. Significance was accepted at p < 0.05.
There was wide variation in the susceptibility and severity of infestation in the group
D goats (in-contact) as only three out of the five goats showed clinical signs of disease by the
6th
week while mite was only demonstrated in two out of five by the 6th
week. Lesions were
anterio-posterior in distribution. There were significant (p < 0.05) reductions in PCV, Hb and
EC mean values of the goats naturally infested with Sarcoptes scabiei in groups A, B and C
relative to uninfested control group E at weeks 0, 2 and 4, but at week 6 all the infested
viii
groups including in-contact group D had a significantly (p < 0.05) lower PCV, Hb and EC
compared to the control group E. There were no significant (p > 0.05) differences in some
erythrocytic indices (MCV, MCH, MCHC) among the five groups of WAD goats. However,
there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in mean TLC in groups B and C compared to
groups A, D and the control, E. The increase in TLC was accompanied by a significant (p <
0.05) increase in both the absolute neutrophil and lymphocyte counts in groups B and C
compared to groups A and E. Significant (p < 0.05) difference in the mean monocyte count
was only observed among the groups at week 6 in the group C compared to A, B, D and E.
There was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in mean eosinophil count in groups A and B
compared to groups C, D and E throughout the period of study. Serum biochemical assay
showed significant (p < 0.05) reduction in mean total protein in severely infested group C
compared to groups A, B, D and E. There was no significant (p > 0.05) variation in mean
serum albumin, globulin and creatinine levels among the groups throughout the period of
study. The serum copper concentration was significantly (p < 0.05) lower in the naturally
infested groups A, B and C when compared to in-contact group D and control group E. There
were no significant (p > 0.05) differences in the serum vitamin A and zinc levels between the
groups although their levels were lower in naturally infested groups A, B, and C when
compared to groups D and E. Although serum cortisol and testosterone concentrations were
lower in the naturally infested groups A, B and C when compared to the in-contact group D
and control group E, the differences were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). The mean
testicular and epididymal sperm reserves decreased significantly (p < 0.05) in all the
Sarcoptes scabiei-infested groups A, B, C and D when compared to the control group E. Skin
section of infested goats showed variable degrees of acanthosis, hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis
and intracorneal pustules while the dermis had variable degrees of cellular infiltrate
(neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes) and fibroblast proliferation.
ix
This study has established that sarcoptic mange in WAD goat led to decreased red
blood cell counts, haemoglobin, packed cell volume (anaemia) but increased total white
blood cell counts, neutrophils and lymphocytes. Serum biochemistry also indicated decreased
total serum protein, albumin, copper, zinc, and vitamin A levels but increased creatinine. The
most striking feature of the disease in WAD goats was the decreased testosterone levels and
spermatogenesis. Histopathologic investigations showed that sarcoptic mange was associated
with non-specific skin reactions such as parakeratosis, hyperkeratosis, acanthosis but most
importantly epidermal pustules with varying degrees of dermal/epidermal cellular infiltration
(neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes) and dermal fibrosis.
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page - - - - - - - - i
Declaration - - - - - - - - iii
Certification - - - - - - - - iv
Dedication - - - - - - - - v
Acknowledgement - - - - - - - vi
Abstract - - - - - - - - vii
Table of contents - - - - - - - x
List of tables - - - - - - - - xv
List of figures - - - - - - - - xvii
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION - - - - 1
1.1 Introduction - - - - - - - 1
1.2 Objectives of the study - - - - - - 3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW - - - 4
2.1The West African Dwarf Goats - - - - - 4
2.2 Mange - - - - - - - - 5
2.3 Sarcoptic mange - - - - - - - 5
2.4 Psoroptic,Chorioptic and Demodectic mange in goats - - 6
2.5 Etiology of sarcoptic mange - - - - - 8
2.6 Morphology of Sarcoptes scabiei - - - - - 8
2.7 Hosts - - - - - - - - 10
2.8 Transmission of Sarcoptes scabiei - - - - 11
2.9 Life cycle and epidemiology of Sarcoptes scabiei - - 11
2.10 Pathogenesis - - - - - - - 12
2.11 Clinical signs and features- - - - - 13
2.12 Host immune response - - - - - - 13
2.13 Pathology - - - - - - - 15
2.14 Diagnostic techniques - - - - - - 15
2.14.1 Clinical diagnosis - - - - - - 15
2.14.2 Light microscopy - - - - - - 16
xi
2.24.3 Therapeutic diagnosis- - - - - - 17
2.14.4 Dermatoscopy - - - - - - - 17
2.14.5 Antigen detection and PCR technique - - - - 18
2.14.6 Intradermal skin test for scabies - - - - 18
2.14.7 Antibody detection - - - - - - 18
2.15 Therapeutic management of sarcoptic mange - - - 18
2.16 Control and prevention - - - - - - 19
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS - - 20
3.1 Experimental animals and housing - - - - 20
3.2 Feeding - - - - - - - - 21
3.3 Experimental Design - - - - - - 21
3.4 Parasitological Examination - - - - - 21
3.5 Source of mite for in- contact transmission - - - 22
3.6 Clinical monitoring of in-contact transmission experiment - 22
3.7 Sample Collection - - - - - - 22
3.8 Haematological studies - - - - - - 23
3.7.4 Packed cell volume - - - - - - 23
3.7.5 Hemoglobin concentration - - - - - 23
3.7.6 Erythrocyte counts - - - - - - 23
3.7.7 Erythrocytic indices - - - - - - 24
3.7.7A Mean corpuscular volume - - - - - 24
3.7.7B Mean corpuscular hemoglobin - - - - 24
3.7.7C Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration - - - 24
3.7.8 Total leucocyte count - - - - - - 25
3.7.9 Differential leucocyte counts - - - - - 25
3.8 Determination of serum total protein - - - - 26
3.8.2 Procedure - - - - - - - 26
3.9 Determination of serum albumin - - - - - 27
3.9.2 Procedure - - - - - - - 27
3.10 Determination of serum creatinine - - - - 27
3.10.2 Procedure - - - - - - - 27
3.11 Determination of serum vitamin A - - - - 28
xii
3.11.2 Procedure - - - - - - - 28
3.12 Determination of serum zinc and copper - - - 2
3.12.2 Procedure - - - - - - - 29
3.13 Adrenal and gonadal steroid concentration - - - 29
3.13A Determination of serum testosterone - - - - 29
3.13B Procedure - - - - - - - 29
3.13C Determination of serum cortisol - - - - 30
3.13D Procedure - - - - - - - 30
3.14 Determination of gonadal and extra-gonadal sperm reserves - 31
3.14.2 Procedure - - - - - - - 31
3.14.2A Epididymal sperm reserve - - - - - 31
3.14.2B Testicular sperm reserve - - - - - 31
3.15 Histopathology - - - - - - - 32
3.15.2 Procedure - - - - - - - 32
3.16 Data Analysis - - - - - - - 32
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS - - - - - 33
4.1 Parasitological examinations - - - - - 33
4.2 Clinical evaluation of experimentally exposed goats - - 35
4.3 Haematology - - - - - - - 40
4.3.1 Packed cell volume - - - - - - 40
4.3.2 Haemoglobin concentraton - - - - - 41
4.3.3 Erythrocyte count - - - - - - 42
4.3.4 Erythrocytic indices - - - - - - 43
4.3.4A Mean corpuscular volume - - - - - 43
4.3.4B Mean corpuscular hemoglobin - - - - 44
4.3.4C Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration - - - 45
4.3.5 Total leucocyte count - - - - - - 46
4.3.6 Differential leucocyte counts - - - - - 47
4.3.6A Absolute neutrophil count - - - - - 47
4.3.6B Absolute lymphocyte counts - - - - - 48
4.3.6C Absolute monocyte counts - - - - - 49
4.3.6D Absolute eosinophil counts - - - - - 50
4.3.6E Absolute basophil counts - - - - - 51
xiii
4.4 Gonadal and extragonadal sperm reserve - - - 52
4.4.1 Caput epididymal sperm reserve - - - - 52
4.4.2 Corpus epididymal sperm reserve - - - - 53
4.4.3 Cauda epididymal sperm reserve - - - - 54
4.4.4 Total epididymal sperm reserve - - - - - 55
4.4.5 Right testicular sperm reserve - - - - - 56
4.4.6 Left testicular sperm reserve - - - - - 57
4.4.7 Combined testicular sperm reserve - - - - 58
4.5 Serum biochemical assay - - - - - 59
4.5.1 Serum vitamin A, zinc and copper concentrations - - 60
4.5.2 Gonadal and Adrenal steroid concentrations - - - 61
4.6 Histopathology - - - - - - - 62
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION - - 71
5.1 Discussions - - - - - - - 71
5.2 Conclusions - - - - - - - 75
REFERENCES - - - - - 76
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table1: Chronology of the appearance of clinical manifestations in the experimentally
exposed WAD goats of group E.
Table 2: Mean (±SEM) Packed Cell Volume of the naturally infested groups (A, B, C),
exposed group D and control WAD goats group E .
Table 3: Mean (±SEM) Haemoglobin Concentratio of the experimental groups A, B, C, D
and the control E .
Table 4: Mean (±SEM) Erythrocyte count of the experimental groups A, B, C, D and the
control group E.
Table 5: Mean (±SEM) Corpuscular Volume of the experimental groups A, B, C, D and
control groups E goats.
Table 6: Mean (±SEM) corpuscular Haemoglobin of the infested groups A, B, C, D and
control group E.
Table 7: Mean (±SEM) Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentrations of the experimental
groups A, B, C, D and control group E WAD goats.
Table 8: Mean (±SEM) Total Leukocyte counts of the experimental groups A, B, C, D and
control group E WAD goats.
Table 9: Mean (±SEM) Absolute Neutrophil count of the experimental groups A, B, C, D
and control group E WAD goats.
Table 10: Mean (±SEM) Absolute Lymphocyte count of the experimental groups A, B, C, D
and control group E WAD goat.
Table 11: Mean (±SEM) Absolute Monocyte count of the experimental groups A, B, C, D
and control group E WAD goats.
Table 12: Mean (±SEM) Absolute Eosinophil count of the naturally infested groups A, B, C,
exposed group D and control group E.
Table 13: Mean (±SEM) Absolute Basophil count of the experimental groups A, B, C, D and
control group E.
Table 14: Mean (±SEM) Serum Biochemical changes of the experimental groups A, B, C, D
and control group E.
Table 15: Mean (±SEM) Serum Vitamin A, Zinc and Copper concentrations of the
experimental groups A, B, C, D and control group E.
xv
Table 16: Mean (±SEM) Serum Testosterone and Cortisol concentrations of the experimental
groups A, B, C, D and control group E.
Table.17. Summary of histological lesions in the experimental groups A, B, C, D and control
group E.
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: A picture of adult Sarcoptes scabiei. Courtesy of S.J. Upton, Kansas State
University and Thomas Nolan, University of Pennsylvania.
Figure 2: Pictures of other mites (left to right) Psoroptic ear mite (Psoroptes cuniculi),
chorioptic scab mite (Chorioptes bovis) and goat follicle mite, (Demodex caprae)
Figure 3: Sarcoptes scabiei mite isolated from the infested goats, identified by its round
shape and short legs (10% potassium hydroxide preparation, x400 magnification)
Figure 4: Photomicrograph of an un hatched egg of Sarcoptes scabiei containing a larvae
(10% potassium hydroxide preparation, x400 magnification)
Figure 5: A picture of experimentally exposed goat showing lesions around the ears.
Figure 6: A picture of experimentally exposed goat showing lesions around the eyes.
Figure 7: A picture of experimentally exposed goat showing lesions around the ears and
eyes.
Figure 8: Mean (±SEM) Caput Epididynal Sperm Reserve of infested groups A, B, C, D and
control group E WAD goats.
Figure 9: Mean (±SEM) Corpus Epididymal Sperm Reserve count sperm reserve of infested
groups A, B, C, D and control group E WAD goats.
Figure 10: Mean (±SEM) Cauda Epididymal Sperm Reserve count of the naturally infected
group A (mild), B (moderate), C (severe infestation), in contact group D and control
group E WAD goats.
Figure 11: Mean (±SEM) Total Epididymal Sperm Reserve of naturally infected WAD goats
group A, B, C, in contact group D and control E. WAD goats
Figure 12: Mean (±SEM) Right Testicular Sperm Reserve count of naturally infected groups
A, B, C, in-contact group D and the control E.
Figure 13: Mean (±SEM) Left Testicular Sperm Reserve of infested groups A, B, C, D and
control group E WAD goats.
Figure 14: Mean (±SEM) Combined Testicular Sperm Reserve of infested groups A, B, C, D
and control group E WAD goats.
Figure 15: Photomicrograph of skin section from group E (control) goats showing normal
epidermis (black arrow), the dermis (D) and hair follicles (white arrow). H and E x 100.
Figure.16: Photomicrograph of a skin section from group A (mildly infested) goats showing
hyperkeratosis (H) and epidermal pustules (EP).H and E x 400.
xvii
Figure 17: Photomicrograph of skin section from group B (moderately infested) goats
showing degenerating section of the mite (black arrow), pustule (P), rete peg formation
(white arrow) and mononuclear cells infiltration of the papillary dermis (PD) .H and E x 100.
Figure 18: Photomicrograph of skin section from group B (moderately infected) goats
showing epidermal pustules (black arrow) and hyperplasia (white arrow).H and E x 400.
Figure 19: Photomicrograph of skin section from group C (severely infested) goats showing
a section of the parasite (black arrow), hyperplasic epidermis (H), severe mononuclear
cellular infiltration of the dermis (PD) and intracorneal pustules (white arrow). H and E x
100.
Figure 20: Photomicrograph of skin section from group C (severely infested) goats showing
intense granulation tissue formation (DF). Note the sloughed off epidermal area (arrow). H
and E x 100.
Figure 21: Photomicrograph of skin section from group D (in contact) goats showing
vacuolation of keratinocytes (black arrows) and epidermal parakeratosis (white arrow). H and
E x 400.
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The rapid changing pattern of demand for livestock and livestock products
emphasizes the importance of the livestock subsector to the agricultural economy of Nigeria.
Within the small ruminant husbandry, goat rearing plays an important role in the socio-
economic life of the rural people in a developing country like Nigeria. In southern Nigeria,
the West African Dwarf goat is the most predominant small ruminant reared and over 70% of
the rural community keeps them (ILCA, 1987; Olubunmi, 1995). They are often termed the
“poor man’s cow’’. Their small size permit them to be maintained on a limited area and they
consume a wide variety of grasses, weeds, shrubs, tree leaves and crop residues that
otherwise go waste and cause pollution (Kumar et al., 2010). Goat meat (Chevon) is
preferred over other meats because it is leaner and suffers no religious taboos. Thus, in
Nigeria, goats are kept for meat, as a source of cash income and manure among other socio-
economic, religious and cultural reasons (Olubumni, 1995; Adeloye, 1998; Ujjwal and Dey,
2010). In addition to the ability of the West African Dwarf goats to live and reproduce in
harsh environmental conditions kidding twins and triplets, they are also valued as insurance
or investment against crop failure (Devendra, 1976, Adeloye, 1998; ILRI, 1999; Jajasuriya,
1999; Minjauw and McLeod, 2003).
Disease problems in the small ruminants remains the major hurdle to the realization of
the full potential of goat production for better economic return and research in the livestock
industry, which need timely and effective intervention in management. (Francis, 1988;
Kumar, et al., 2010). Infectious and non-infectious diseases influence the economic
production of goats. Endo- and ectoparasitic diseases constitute a very important problem.
From within the ectoparasites, the mite Sarcoptes scabiei imposes major economic and health
threat to the production of West African Dwarf goats in southern Nigeria (Francis, 1988;
Olubunmi, 1995; Okewole, 1997; Shoyinka et al., 2009). The infestation by this mite
2
popularly called sarcoptic mange, scabies or sarcoptidosis is a parasitic skin disease that has
been described in more than 100 species of mammals including man (Ibrahim and Abu-
Samra, 1987; Scott, 1988; Bornstein et al., 2001).It is known to be the most common,
stubborn, unpleasant and difficult to treat of all mange infestations in the goat and there is
now documented reports of its resistance to commonly known therapeutic drugs such as the
avermectins (Jackson et al., 1983; Manurung et al., 1990; Smith and Sherman, 1994;
Okewole, 1997; Currie et al., 2004; Shoyinka et al., 2009). The disease is characterized by
intense pruritus, dermatitis, alopecia, emaciation, weakness, anorexia, very high morbidity
and mortality in domestic and farm animals (Amsalu et al., 2000; Walton et al., 2004;
Giadinis et al., 2011). The mite inflicts severe damage to the hosts’ skin by forming tunnels
within the upper epidermal layers (Morris and Dunstan, 1996) and transmission is believed to
be by direct contact with infested domestic or wild animals, formites, pasture and flies (Kral
and Schwartanan, 1964; Andrews, 1983; Jackson et al., 1983; Anderson et al., 2002; Curtis,
2004). Although, epidemiological studies on Sarcoptic mange of goats in Nigeria reported
prevalence rates of 17.27% and 15.66% in affected areas of southwestern and southeastern
Nigeria respectively (Olubunmi, 1995; Shoyinka et al., 2009), mortality rates of 57% to 60%
have been reported in some flock from different parts of the world (Amsalu et al., 2000;
Nektarios et al., 2011).
Despite the economic and health importance of Sarcoptes scabiei infestation in both
animal and human population, the pathogenicity, pathogenesis and pathology of the disease is
poorly understood (Bornstein and Zakrisson 1993, Skerrat et al., 1999; Rambozzi et al.,
2007). For instance, some studies reported that the lesions of Sarcoptes scabiei infestation are
not limited to the skin alone and includes lymphoid hyperplasia, generalized
lymphoadenopathy, hepatic and renal amyloidosis, hypothyroidism, bronchopneumonia as
well as gonadal degeneration in both domestic and wild animals (Anderson, 1981; Folz,
1984; Arlian et al., 1990; Little et al., 1998; Skerrat et al., 1999; Nakagawa et al., 2009).
These extra dermal lesions are thought to be due to the adverse effects of pro-inflammatory
cytokines or secretion of some toxins by mites that affects the vital organs. However, the role
of the highly reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the pathogenesis of ectoparasitic disease has
become an area of hot debates in recent years, as excess free radical generation due to
Sarcoptes scabiei infestation have been reported in goats and dogs (Camkerten et al., 2009;
Ujjwal and Dey, 2010) It is speculated that the combined effects of these free radicals and
3
products of mite activity may be associated with organs dysfunction in scabies-infested
animals (Ujjwal and Dey, 2010).
Available reports on the clinicopathology of sarcoptic mange in rabbits, dogs, foxes,
sheep, camels, goats, pigs, coyotes and wild raccoon are inconsistent (Sheahan, 1975; Arlian
et al., 1988a,1995; Dalapati et al., 1996; Gorakh et al., 2000; Parmar et al., 2005; Hafeez et
al., 2007; Shoyinka et al., 2009). Such inconsistencies are most probably the result of host
differences or severity of disease.
However, the tendency by previous workers to ignore the fact that the degree of
severity is most likely to be directly related to the degree of systemic involvement in
sarcoptic mange, adds to the difficulty of comparing the results of available and probably
conflicting reports. It is therefore necessary to have a better understanding of the
pathophysiology of Sarcoptes scabiei infestations of goats using hematologic, biochemical
and morphologic parameters based on the severity of clinical disease.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1. To establish experimental contact transmission of sarcoptic mange to susceptible WAD
goat.
2. To evaluate the effects of sarcoptic mange on the hematologic and some biochemical
indices (including trace minerals and vitamin A) of WAD goat.
3. To assess the effects of sarcoptic mange on spermatogenesis (gonadal and extra-
gonadal sperm reserves), adrenal cortisol and gonadal hormone concentrationin WAD goat.
4. To document the histomorphologic changes in the skin sections of natural and
experimental Sarcoptes scabiei-infested WAD goat.
4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THE WEST AFRICAN DWARF GOATS
Goats are small ruminants that belong to the Family Caprini. It is the earliest
domesticated animal. They are distributed worldwide but 74% of the world populations of
goats are reared in the tropical and subtropical countries (Devendra and Burns, 1983). The
West Africa Dwarf (WAD) goats are mainly found in the region of latitude 14oN across West
Africa in the coastal area, where they thrive well and reproduce with twins and triplets in the
ecological niche (Adeloye, 1998). In Nigeria and in West Africa, the West African Dwarf
goats are reared traditionally at subsistence level where they are allowed to scavenge and care
for their own nourishment (Adeloye, 1985).
In this region, they contribute significantly to the agricultural economy especially to
the landless peasants and small holder farmers (ILCA, 1987). Following scavenging and
browsing by the day, the WAD goats are sometimes kept in paddocks and sheds at night so
that their droppings are used as manure for enhancing crop yield since availability of
fertilizers are limited (Devendra and Burns, 1983). They are also kept for meat and skin in
addition to the income they generate when sold (Olubunmi, 1995).The WAD goats are also
used mainly for traditional ceremonies, celebration of festivals and performance of religious
rites in the region.
The major threats to improved goat production in Nigeria in particular and West
Africa in general are health problems such as Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR), Contagious
Pustular Dermatitis, Foot rot, Reproductive disorders (dystocia & abortions) and Mange
(Francis, 1988). Hence, it is necessary to increase research on these diseases to attain
improved productivity in the WAD goats.
5
2.2 MANGE
Mange is an important skin disorder that affects all animals such as dogs, cats and
goats (Terry, 2011, Nwoha, 2011). Mange affects all warm blooded animals and it is caused
by different mites which tunnel within the skin of infected animals to suck blood and lymph,
thereby causing ulcers and scabs which predispose the infested animals to infection that
spread rapidly without proper treatment and prevention (Lughano and Dominic, 2006; Terry,
2011). Goats are particularly infected by four types of mites, each morphologically distinct
from the other but with overlapping clinical presentations. They include those causing
Psoroptic, Chorioptic, Demodectic and Sarcoptic mange (Radostits et al., 2000).
2.3 SARCOPTIC MANGE
Sarcoptic mange or scabies is a highly contagious and pruritic acariosis (of the skin)
affecting more than 100 domestic and wild mammalian species including man (Ibrahim and
Abu-samra, 1987; Scott, 1988; Bornstein et al., 2001). The disease is reported to affect
mainly the traditional goat herds with newly purchased animals known to be the source of
contamination (Jackson et al., 1983; Scott, 1988; Anderson et al., 2002). The disease has
been described as a dreadful disease especially in the tropics (Soulsby, 1998). This form of
mange in goats is worldwide in distribution but it is of greatest economic importance in areas
where goats are the basic domestic ruminants kept. The condition is usually chronic
(Urquhart et al., 1996).
6
2.4 PSOROPTIC, CHORIOPTIC AND DEMODECTIC MANGE IN GOATS
Goats can be infested by several other species of mites, such as goat follicle mite
(Demodex caprae), , psoroptic ear mite (Psoroptes cuniculi), and chorioptic scab mite
(Chorioptes bovis). See figure 1 below. The goat follicle mite causes dermal papules and
nodules and this resulting condition is known as demodectic mange in goats. These papules
or nodules are caused by hair follicles or gland ducts becoming obstructed and producing
these swellings, trapping the mites within these lesions. These continue to enlarge as the
mites multiply, sometimes reaching several thousand mites per lesion. Cases of demodectic
mange occur most commonly in young animals, pregnant does, and dairy goats. Papules
usually appear on the face, neck, axillary region, or udder and these papules can enlarge to 4
cm in diameter as mites multiply. Nodules can rupture and exude the mites, resulting in
transmission of the mite to other animals. Transmission of the goat follicle mite to newborn
goats typically occurs within the first day following birth. Other possible means of transfer
are licking and close contact during mingling or mating (Soulsby, 1998; Tally and Sparks,
2012).
The psoroptic ear mite or ear mange mite causes lesions on or in the ear of the host
animal. These lesions cause crust formation, foul odor discharges in the external ear canal,
and behavioral responses such as scratching the ears, head shaking, loss of equilibrium, and
spasmodic contractions of neck muscles. Psoroptic ear mite lives its entire life under the
margins of scabs formed at infested sites. There the eggs are deposited and hatch in 4 days.
The complete life cycle takes about 3 weeks. All stages of this nonburrowing mite pierce the
outer skin layer. Transmission of this mite occurs between animals by direct contact. Goats
usually less than 1 year old generally exhibit higher infestation rates than do older animals.
Signs of the psoroptic ear mite in kids are often observed as early as 3 weeks after birth,
reflecting transfer of mites from mother to young. By 6 weeks of age, most kids in infested
7
goat herds are likely to harbor these mites. Chronic infestations have lead to anemia and
weight loss in goats (Soulsby, 1998)
The chorioptic scab mite causes chorioptic mange in domestic animals, especially in
cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. This mite occurs primarily on the legs and feet of its hosts,
where all of the developmental stages are likely to be found. Eggs are deposited singly at the
rate of one egg per day and are attached with a sticky substance to the host skin. Adult
females usually live for 2 weeks or more, producing about 14-20 eggs during this time. Eggs
hatch in 4 days and are often clustered as multiple females lay their eggs in common sites.
The immature stages last anywhere from 11 to 14 days and the entire life cycle is completed
in 3 weeks. Infestations of chorioptic scab mite tend to be higher in goats than in sheep, with
up to 80 to 90 percent of goats in individual herds being parasitized. The mites occur most
commonly on the forefeet of goats, where the largest numbers of mites and lesions are
usually associated with the accessory claws. However, they also can occur higher on the foot
(Tally and Sparks, 2012).
2.5 AETIOLOGY OF SARCOPTIC MANGE
The cause of sarcoptic mange is the mite Sarcoptes scabiei of the Family: Sarcoptidae
and Genus: Sarcoptes. The specie is believed to have a number of sub species or varieties
which are host specific and thus designated as Sarcoptes scabiei var bovis, Sarcoptes scabiei
var ovis and Sarcoptes scabiei var capri for cattle, sheep and goats respectively (Radostits et
al, 2000). The mange mite Sarcoptes scabiei was first identified and described by Aristotle
(384 to 322 BC) as “lice in the flesh” and utilizing the term “akari”. Subsequently, scabies
was mentioned by many writers, including the Arabic physician Abuel Hassan Ahmed el
Tabari, around 970BC, Saint Hildegard (1098 to 1179), and the Moorish physician Avenzoar
(1091 to 1162) (Ramos-e-Silva, 1998). In 1687, Bonomo and Cestoni accurately described
8
the causes of scabies in a report (Montesu and Cottoni, 1991). Their description recounting
the parasitic nature, transmission, possible cures and microscopic drawings of the mite and
eggs of Sarcoptes scabiei is believed to be the first mention of the parasitic theory of
infectious diseases. Nevertheless, it was not until 1868, two centuries later, that the cause of
scabies was established with the publication of a treatise by Hebra (Burgess, 1994).
2.6 MORPHOLOGY OF SARCOPTES SCABIEI
Sarcoptes scabiei is a creamy white microscopic parasite which is roughly circular
in outline.The female measures up to 330-600µm by 250 – 400µm and the male 200 -
400µm by 150 - 200µm. Thus, the male is smaller than the female. Larvae has six legs,
while nymphs and adults have eight legs, with stalked puvilli (suckers) present on legs 1 and
2 of both the male and female adult mites, enabling them to grip the substrate. Additionally,
mites bear spur – like claws, and they have six or seven pairs of spine – like projections on
their dorsal surfaces.
The adult male is distinguishable from the female by its smaller size, darker colour
and the presence of stalked puvilli on leg 4 while leg 4 in the adult female ends in a long
setae (Soulsby, 1998; Walton and Currie, 2007).
9
Figure 1. A picture of adult Sarcoptes scabiei. Courtesy of S.J. Upton, Kansas State
University and Thomas Nolan, University of Pennsylvania.
10
Figure 2. Pictures of other mites (left to right): Psoroptic ear mite (Psoroptes cuniculi),
chorioptic scab mite (Chorioptes bovis) and goat follicle mite, (Demodex caprae), Credits:
S.J. Upton, Kansas State University and Thomas Nolan, University of Pennsylvania.
11
2.7 HOSTS
Sarcoptic mange affects human, domestic animals and wildlife populations (Gross et
al., 1992; Pence and Ueckermann, 2002; Walton and Currie, 2007). The Sarcoptes scabiei
mite was known to be originally a parasite of primates that spread to domestic animals and
eventually to wild animals. Such spread was said to be influenced by ecological factors such
as deforestation and intrusion of people and domestic animals into the traditional habitat of
wildlife populations (Nakagawa et al., 2009).
Mite populations are primarily host specific, with little evidence of interbreeding
between strains. Cross-infection studies describe unsuccessful experimental attempts to
transfer scabies mites from dogs to mice, pigs, cattle, goats, and sheep (Arlian et al., 1984a).
This was supported by molecular genotyping studies that reveal genetically distinct dog and
human host associated mite populations in Australian indigenous communities where scabies
is endemic (Walton et al., 1999; Walton et al., 2004). Occasional cases of human scabies
have been reported following exposure to animal scabies, but were said to be self-limiting,
with no evidence of long-term reproduction occurring on the non-normal host (Beck, 1965).
Despite the above studies, it is still not clear whether the mites taken from different
hosts constitute different species or whether they are just varieties of a single species (Arlian,
1989). However, the consensus of opinion up to now has been that it is single species with
the ability to vary and adapt. Although, it is not known to what extent, cross-infection does
actually occur between some hosts (Arlian, 1989).
12
2.8 TRANSMISSION OF SARCOPTES SCABIEI
Sarcoptes scabiei transmission is mediated primarily by close, prolonged physical
contact with infected animal (Kral and Schwartzman, 1964). Also, rubbing against formites
or pasture to relieve the pruritus induced by the mite contributes to the transmission of the
disease in the herd (Yeruham et al., 1996). High density of animal populations also
facilitates transmission. All life stages of Sarcoptes scabiei may survive in the host’s
environment for days and even weeks, depending on the relative humidity and temperature
(Arlian et al., 1989). Gerasim off (1953), cited in Andrews, (1983) claimed that even
transmission of sarcoptic mites by flies is possible.
When mites are dislodged from their host, they can survive for 24 to 36 hours at room
temperature with normal humidity (210C and 40 to 80% relative humidity) and even longer at
lower temperatures with high humidity (Arlian et al., 1984a). However, the mites’ ability to
infest the host decreased with increased time off the host. The sightless mite uses odor and
thermal stimuli for active host taxis (Arlian et al., 1984b; Arlian et al., 1988b).
2.9 LIFE CYCLE AND EPIDEMIOLOGY OF SARCOPTES SCABIEI
According to Urquhart et al (1996), the fertilized female creates a winding burrow or
tunnel in the upper layers of the epidermis, feeding on lymph and epidermal tissues. The
eggs are laid in those tunnels and hatch in 3 – 5 days, and the six-legged larvae crawl unto the
skin surface. These larvae in turn burrow into the superficial layers of the skin to create
“moulting pockets” in which their moult to nymph and adult are completed. The male
emerges to seek a female either on the skin surface or in a moulting pocket. The male mite is
reported to die after mating, although this has been disputed (Heilesen, 1946; Alexander,
1984). After fertilization, the females produce new tunnels. The entire life cycle is completed
in 17 – 21 days. The mites are transmitted chiefly by direct contact between hosts. All the
13
developmental stages of the life cycle (larvae, nymph and adult) are capable of migration.
Formites also serve as carriers (Radostits et al., 2000). The adults are usually susceptible to
dryness and do not survive for more than few days off their host, though under optimal
laboratory conditions, mites may live for three weeks (Soulsby, 1998). Studies have shown
that animals in poor body condition appear to be most susceptible to Sarcoptes scabiei
infection. Also overcrowding, poor nutrition, poor husbandry and general mismanagement
predisposes animals to mange (Okewole, 1997; Radostits et al., 2000). Mange is known to
be most active in the rainy season but improve slightly during the dry season (Chineme et al.,
1979; Olubunmi, 1995; Soulsby, 1998).
2.10 PATHOGENESIS OF SARCOPTIC MANGE.
According to Soulsby (1998) the parasite Sarcoptes scabiei pierces the skin of the
host to suck lymph and may also feed on young epidermal cells. Their activities produce a
marked irritation which causes intense itching and scratching. The resulting inflammation of
the skin is accompanied by exudates which coagulates and forms crusts on the surface. This
is further characterized by excessive keratinization, proliferation of connective tissue which
results in thickened and wrinkled skin. There is concomitant loss of hairs which may be
widespread. The intense pruitus caused by the activities of those mites leads to excoriations
and secondary bacterial infections of the skin. In untreated cases, systemic effects such as
anorexia, emaciation, weakness and death may occur (Dorny et al., 1994; Radostits et al.,
2000; Leon-Vizcaino et al., 2001; Rehbein et al., 2003; Nektarios et al., 2011).
14
2.11 CLINICAL SIGNS/FEATURES OF SARCOPTIC MANGE.
In small ruminants, clinical presentation of primary infection with Sarcoptes scabiei
is reported to take place in 4 to 6 weeks after infection (Kambarage, 1992). Presentation is
with generalized itching, which is frequently reported to be more intense at night. The intense
irritation caused by the activities of the mite leads to the rubbing of the animal on hard
surfaces resulting in partial or complete alopecia. The alopecia is evident on the medial
aspect of the hindlimbs, axillae, brisket, abdomen, trunk, udder and teats (Kambarage, 1992;
Olubunmi, 1995) There is appearances of dry and bran-like scales on the face, around the
nostrils and ears which later become hard crusts extending from the muzzle to the area
between the eyes and nostrils, region between the eyes and horn, inner and outer parts of the
ears. The skin then becomes thickened and wrinkled with cracks and fissures on the hock
joint, scrotum and pinnae with heavy dandruff evident on hairy areas covering the neck and
abdominal regions (Chineme et al., 1979; Kambarage, 1992; Olubunmi, 1995; Karin, 2005;
Lughano and Dominic, 2006; Merck’s, 2011; Nwoha, 2011).
2.12 HOST IMMUNE RESPONSE
Although published data on the immunologic responses of goats to scabies is limited
or non-existent, considerable studies have been done on other species. Despite the fact that
the mite resides in dead skin tissue, mite antigens enter the lower epidermal and dermal skin
layers and induce both a circulating antibody and a cell-mediated immune response in the
vicinity of the scabietic lesion (Hancock and Milford-Ward, 1974; Fernandez et al., 1977;
Falk, 1980, 1981; Falk and Bolle, 1980 a, b; Hoefling and Schroeter, 1980; Chevrant-Breton
et al., 1981; Falk and Eide, 1981; Rantanen et al., 1981; Van Neste and Lachapelle, 1981;
Falk and Matre, 1982; Reunala et al., 1984; Van Neste and Staquet, 1986; Van Neste, 1987;
Morsy and Gaafar, 1989; Cabrera et al., 1993; Arlian et al., 1994 a, b; Lastras et al., 2000).
15
Thus, studies of the symptoms and signs of scabies point to the development of host
immunity but until the scabies Gene Discovery Project (Fischer et al., 2003), only a small
number of the antigens responsible for the immune reactions to scabies had been sequenced
and characterized ( Mattsson et al., 2001; Harumal et al., 2003). However, there is still dearth
of literature reporting scabies specific humoral or cellular immunity. Limited past
investigations of humoral immunity in scabietic patients show contradictory results and have
used whole-mite scabietic extracts from other hosts, such as dogs (Morgan et al., 1997).
Immunoblotting studies demonstrate that sera from crusted scabies patients showed strong
IgE binding to over 21 S. scabiei var canis proteins (Arlian et al., 2004). However, the
identity of these allergens was unknown but patients with scabies are known to have
extremely high serum levels of IgE and IgG (Roberts et al., 2005).
Cell mediated host immune responses have been identified primarily by
histopathological examination of skin biopsy specimens from mange lesions. Mite burrows
were found to be surrounded by inflammatory cell infiltrates comprising lymphocytes,
neutrophils, eosinophils, plasma cells, mast cells, macrophages and other mononuclear cells
in rabbits, pigs, humans, and wombats (Hejazi and Mehregan, 1975; Sheahan, 1975;
Fernandez et al., 1977; Falk and Eide, 1981; Van Neste and Lachapelle, 1981; Falk and
Matre, 1982; Reunala et al., 1984; Morsy and Gaafar, 1984 ;Van Neste and Staquet 1986;
Van Neste, 1987; Arlian et al., 1994b; Skerrat, 2003).
Although, experimental studies showed that dogs previously infested with S. scabiei
var canis developed protective immunity to subsequent parasite challenge, the mechanism of
such resistance is not known (Arlian et al., 1996). This was also reported by Mellanby,
(1944) that scabietic patients were resistant to subsequent reinfestation just as immunization
with extracts of house dust mites (D. farinae and D. pteronyssius) containing antigens that
16
cross react with S. scabiei var canis induced protective immunity in 71% of vaccinated hosts
(Arlian et al., 1995).
2.13 PATHOLOGY
The common gross skin lesions usually associated with mange in domestic animals
include patches of erythema, alopecia, scaling and crusts (Thomson, 1988). According to
Kambarage (1992) characteristic skin lesions of sarcoptic mange in goat include crusty and
alopecic patches on the muzzle, neck region, scrotum, medial aspect of thigh and the hock
region or sometimes extending to the whole of scrotal-thigh-hock region. He also observed
that cracks and fissures were evident among lesions at the hock joint and that there is usually
a high degree of thickening and wrinkling of skin in the affected areas. Besides, the crusty
and alopecic areas, heavy dandruff was evident in hairy areas where there was little evidence
of alopecia and crusty materials.
Histologically, there is epidermal hyperplasia with marked hyperkeratosis,
perivascular leucocytic infiltration, hyperemia and edema with foci of epidermal necrosis in
sarcoptic mange (Thomson, 1988). There are reports of histological examination of skin
biopsy from affected animals that revealed adult mites and their eggs buried deep in the
epidermis especially at the Malpighian and granulosum layers (Chineme et al., 1979; Darzi et
al., 2007).
2.14 DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES
2.14.1 Clinical Diagnosis
Currently, there is no efficient means of diagnosing animal or human scabies. To
date, diagnosis is through clinical signs and microscopic examination of skin scrapings, but
experience has shown that the sensitivity of these traditional tests is less than 50% (Walton
and Currie, 2007).Visible lesions are not characteristic as they are often obscured by eczema
or impetigo or are atypical. Detection of mite burrows with Indian ink was advocated more
17
than 20 years ago (Woodley and Saurat, 1981), but the test is often impractical hence not
used routinely. Presumptive diagnosis can be made on the basis of a typical history of
pruritus, the distribution of inflammatory papules, and a history of contact with other mange
cases (McCarthy et al., 2004). Most problematic is the situation with early and atypical cases
where gross skin lesions are either absent or exaggerated.
2.14.2 Light Microscopy
Definitive diagnosis of sarcoptic mange is based on the isolation and identification of
the mites, the eggs, eggshell fragments or mite fecal pellets from skin scrapings. One or two
drops of mineral oil are applied to the skin lesion, which is then scraped or shaved, and the
specimens examined after digestion in 10% KOH using a light microscope under low power.
This method provides excellent specificity but has low sensitivity for cases with low mite
burden (Walton and Currie, 2007). However, several factors may influence the level of
sensitivity. For example, the clinical presentation (unscratched lesions are more valuable),
the number of sites sampled and/or repeated scrapings, and the sampler’s experience. A skin
biopsy may confirm the diagnosis of scabies if a mite or parts of it can be demonstrated.
However, in most cases, the histological appearance is that of non-specific, delayed
hypersensivity reaction characterised by superficial and deep perivascular mononuclear cell
infiltrates with variable numbers of eosinophils, papillary edema, and epidermal spongiosis
(Chineme et al., 1979; Falk and Eide, 1981; Gorakh et al., 2000; Nakagawa et al., 2009).
In practice, identifying or demonstrating a mite is challenging, and a negative result,
even when done by an expert, does not rule out scabies. In the absence of confirmed mites,
diagnosis is currently based entirely on clinical and epidemiological findings. Due to the
extensive differential diagnosis, the specificity of clinical diagnosis is poor, especially for
18
those inexperienced with scabies. Also, there are difficulties in distinguishing among active
infestation, residual skin reaction and reinfestation (Walton and Currie, 2007).
2.14.3 Therapeutic Diagnosis.
Presumptive therapy can be used as a basis for diagnosis, but its value is questionable
and confounded by the variable delay until resolution of symptoms following therapy. A
positive response to treatment cannot exclude the spontaneous disappearance of a
dermatological disease other than scabies, and a negative response does not exclude scabies,
especially in resistant mites. (Chosidow, 2006; Walton and Currie, 2007).
2.14.4 Dermatoscopy.
A non-invasive technique that could be used in the diagnosis of scabies is the use of
epiluminescence microscopy and high resolution videodermatoscopy. This allows detailed
inspection of the patient’s skin from the surface to the superficial papillary dermis
(Argenziano et al., 1997; Haas and Sterry, 2001; Micali et al., 2004). Diagnosis is by
observation of a “jet with contrail” pattern in the skin representing a mite and its burrow.
This method is limited by the high cost of the equipment and requires expertise.
2.14.5 Antigen Detection and PCR Technique
A key weakness of PCR in scabies diagnosis is that it requires the presence of a mite
or its part in the sample. Thus it is unlikely to become a useful test in patients with low mite
burden. The method is also labour intensive and time consuming (Bezold et al., 2001).
2.14.6 Intradermal skin test for Scabies
The intradermal skin test for scabies is currently not feasible to use due to the inability
to culture sufficient quantities of Sarcoptes scabiei. Furthermore, whole mite extracts
obtained from animal models contain a heterogeneous mixture of host and parasite
19
antigens.However, purified, well characterized recombinant scabies mite allergens with
standardized protein contents could be of potential benefit in the future for scabies skin test
assays especially in cases clinically difficult to diagnose and for immunotherapy (Walton et
al.,2004).
2.14.7 Antibody Detection
Studies document that scabies mite infestation causes the production of measurable
antibodies in infested host species (Falk and Bolle, 1980a; Arlian et al., 2004). Also, host IgG
has been demonstrated in the anterior midgut and esophagus of fresh mites (Rapp et al.,
2006; Willis et al., 2006). Thus, ELISA techniques are now available for the detection of
antibodies to scabies in pigs and dogs (Bornstein et al., 1996; Bornstein and Wallgren. 1997;
Hollanders et al., 1997), but not in goats.
2.15 THERAPEUTIC MANAGEMENT OF SARCOPTIC MANGE
A number of drugs and medicaments have been used for the treatment of mange in
domestic animals. Some of these drugs are topically applied and examples include 0.3%
Coumphos, 0.15 – 0.25%, Phosmet, 0.03 – 0.1%, Diazinon, 2% Hot lime sulphur (Merck’s,
2011). In Nigeria, the common topical acaricides used are Diazinon, Benzyl Benzoate,
Asuntol® solution, used engine oil with 15% efficacy and sulphr oiltment with 25% efficacy
( Prashad, 1984; Olubummi, 1995).
Recently, Ivermectin, a macrocyclic lactone produced from Streptomyces avermitilis
has become the preferred drug of choice for the treatment of Sarcoptic mange and other mite
infestations in domestic animals. A single dose of 0.2mg/kg of the drug given parenterally
can control light infestation in goats but heavier infestations require a second dose at 10-14
days interval following the first injection (Radostits et al., 2000).
20
2.16 CONTROL AND PREVENTION
For effective control and prevention of sarcoptic mange in goat herds and other
domestic animals, the following steps have been recommended (Okewole, 1997).
- Vigorous treatment of all infested and in- contact animals.
- Disinfection of the environment with appropriate insecticide or the surrounding left for
at least 3 weeks before re-stocking.
- Culling of infected animals from the flock.
- Supportive nutrition
- Non-utilization of infected animals for breeding.
- Good hygiene in animal houses
21
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS AND HOUSING
A total of twenty five (25) male West African Dwarf (WAD) goats between 8 and 12
months of age were divided into two groups of fifteen (15) naturally infested (Batch
A) goats with varying degrees of alopecia/dermatitis and 10 healthy (Batch B) goats
were used in this study.
Mite infestation was clearly demonstrated in Batch A goats before being selected for
the study while batch B goats were selected because they were free of mites and signs
associated with scabies.
The Batch A goats were procured from different households/livestock farms with
diagnosed outbreaks of sarcoptic mange, and sarcoptes scabiei demonstrated in their
skin scrapings. Such goats had varying degrees of itching, dermatitis, excoriation,
alopecia and crusts on affected areas of the body.
The Batch B goats were purchased from households/livestock farms that had no
clinical history of sarcoptic mange infestation over the previous one year. The two
groups of WAD goats were housed separately at the Experimental Animal House Unit
of the Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka.
The group B goats were acclimatized for two weeks during which they were
dewormed with levamisole hydrochloride and clinically evaluated to ensure that they
were free of cutaneous/systemic infectious/non-infectious disease conditions.
22
3.2 FEEDING
The animals were fed daily with freshly cut grasses tied in bundles and suspended in
each pen using a wire loop.
3.3 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The fifteen (15) naturally infested WAD goats were purposively selected and assigned into
three (3) groups (A, B and C) of five (5) goats each, based on the degree of skin lesions while
the ten (10) healthy goats were randomly divided into two groups (D and E) of five (5) goats
each as follows:
Group A - (Mild-grade 1). Infested, with gross lesion affecting ≤ 1/3 of body
surface.
Group B - (Moderate – grade2). Infested, with gross lesion affecting > 1/3 but ≤
2/3 of body surface.
Group C - (Severe-grade3). Infested, with gross lesion affecting more than 2/3
of body surface
Group D - Healthy goats for in-contact exposure.
Group E -Healthy (no skin lesion) control.
3.4 PARASITOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
Skin scrapings from infested WAD goats were examined for mites as previously described by
Soulsby, (1998)
3.4.1 Methodology.
A dull scapel blade was held perpendicular to the area of affected skin and used with
moderate pressure to scrape the edges of lesions into a petri dish. The scraped samples were
then transferred into a test-tube, and 10% KOH was added. Samples were mildly heated for
5-6 minutes until it dissolved. It was then centrifuged at 10,000g for 5 minutes. Obtained
23
precipitates were examined under a light microscope at low and high power for presence of
mites or its eggs. Positive cases were classified as clinical sarcoptic mange based on the
presence of mites with long non-jointed pedicels
3.5 SOURCE OF MITE FOR IN-CONTACT TRANSMISSION EXPERIMENT.
Two female goats with severe sarcoptic mange were purchased from an infested farm.
The goats were used to infest healthy goats of group D by housing them together in the same
pen at the animal house as described by Elbers et al., (2000) and Tarigan, (2002).
3.6 CLINICAL MONITORING OF EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS.
The naturally infested animals were monitored once every week for the progression of
the disease. The in-contact animals in group D were monitored once every week for clinical
manifestations such as pruritus after which they were individually restrained and examined
closely for presence of skin lesions such as erythema, papules, crusts, and alopecia. Skin
scrapings were collected weekly for parasitological examination in each case.
3.7 SAMPLE COLLECTION.
Blood sample (5ml) was collected from each of the goats in groups A to E at the
beginning of the experiment (week 0) and every two weeks, via jugular venipuncture using
sterile needles and syringes. In each case, 2ml of the blood sample was transferred into tubes
containing EDTA for hematological analysis while the remaining 3ml was transferred into
plane test tubes and allowed to clot. Supernatant sera were centrifuged at 10,000g for 10
minutes. Clean sera were extracted, stored at -200C for about 24hrs before they were used for
biochemical and hormonal assay.
The animals were sacrificed humanely at the end of the experiment. The testes and
epididymides were dissected out for epididymal and testicular sperm reserve counts while
skin sections were collected from affected areas of the skin for histopathological studies.
24
3.8 HAEMATOLOGICAL STUDIES
3.8.1 Packed cell Volume( PCV): The microhaematocrit tubes were filled with blood
samples up to three quarter level, via capillary action. One end of the tube was sealed with
plasticein and the tube with its blood content placed in the microhaematocrit centrifuge and
centrifuged at 10,000g for 5 minutes. The PCV was read off as a percentage using the
Microhaematocrit reader (Coles, 1986).
3.8.2 Haemoglobin concentration (Hb): Drabkin’s reagent (ICSH, 1965) assay for Hb
concentration.
Blood sample (0.22ml) was added to 5 ml of Drabkin’s reagent held in a test tube,
and mixed properly. After 5 minutes, the mixture of blood sample and the Drabkin’s solution
was poured into a cuvette, paired with another cuvette, containing only the Drabkin’s reagent.
The absorbance of the diluted blood sample was measured in a spectrophotometer at a
wavelength of 540nm. The haemoglobin concentration in grams per litre was then derived
from the absorbance value by matching against pre-determined reference standards and
calibration curves.
3.8.3 Erythrocyte counts (EC): This was determined using the haemocytometer method
(Coles, 1986). Here, 0.02 ml of blood sample drawn with a micropipette was added to 4 ml
of erythrocyte diluting fluid held in a test tube. A drop of the diluted blood sample was used
to charge the Neubauer chamber before counting the erythrocytes under the microscope at x
40 objective using the tally counter. Erythrocytes in the five small squares of the middle
square of the Neubauer chamber were counted. A factor of 10,000 was used to multiply the
number of cells counted in the five small squares, to get the absolute number of erythrocytes
per microlitre of blood.
25
3.8.4 Erythrocytic indices (erythron values):
These indices were calculated based on the earlier laboratory assay results of PCV,
Hb concentration, and EC (Coles, 1986).
i. Mean corpuscular volume (MCV): This was determined by dividing the PCV by the
EC value determined as described above and then multiplied by a constant of 10.
Values obtained were expressed in femtolitre.
MCV = PCV (%) 10 (in femtolitre)
EC 1
ii. Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH): This was calculated by dividing the
haemoglobin concentration by the EC, already determined, and then multiplied by a
factor of 10. The values were expressed in pictogram.
Hb (gm/dl) x 10
MCH = EC 1 (in picogram)
iii. Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC): This was calculated by
dividing the haemoglobin concentration by the PCV value already obtained, and the
multiplied by 100. The values were expressed in grams per litre.
Hb (g/dl) x 10
MCH = PCV (%) 1 (in gram per litre)
3.8.5 Total Leucocyte Count (TLC):
This was determined using the haemocytometer method (Coles, 1986). Here, 0.02 ml
of the blood sample collected with a micropipette was mixed with 0.38 ml of white blood cell
diluting fluid held in a test tube. A drop of the diluted blood sample was used to charge the
Neubauer chamber, placed on the microscope stage. White blood cells (leucocytes) were
counted in the four corner squares of the Neubauer chamber under x 40 objective using the
tally counter. The number of leucocytes counted in the four corner squares was multipled by
a factor of 50, to get the total number of leucocytes per microlitre of blood.
26
3.8.6 Differential Leucocyte Counts (DLC):
This was carried out using the stained blood film (Coles, 1986). With the aid of a
micropipette, a drop of the blood sample was placed on a clean microscope slide. The end of
a second slide (spreader) was placed against the surface of the first slide at a 30o angle, and
drawn back into the drop of blood. This action made the drop of blood to spread along most
of the width of the spreader slide (2nd slide). The spreader slide was then pushed forward,
with a steady even rapid motion to make a thin blood smear (film). The prepared smear was
air dried and subsequently stained with May Grounwald-Giemsa stain (Strumia, 1963). The
stained slides were observed under the microscope using the oil immersion objective (x
1000). The differential leucocyte counter was used to count a total of a hundred different
leucocyte cells. Each cell type was recorded as a percentage of the total. The different
percentages of the cells were converted to absolute number of cells per microlitre of blood
using the formula below:
Percentage number of cell type x TLC
100 1
27
3.9 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SERUM PROTEIN
The determination of Total Serum Protein was carried out using the direct biuret
method as described by Lubran, (1978) for the in vitro determination of total protein in serum
or plasma.
3.9.1 Procedure:
Five clean test tubes were arranged and labeled according to sample identifications.
Also labeled were two test tubes for standards (SD) and two test tubes for blanks (BL)
i.e. SD1, SD2, BL1, and BL2. Added to each sample labeled test tube was 0.02 ml (20
microlitres) of each serum sample.Also added to the test tube labeled standard was
0.02 ml of the standard (SD1 and SD2). Nothing was added to the two blank test
tubes. Thereafter, 1.0ml of Biuret reagent was added to the two blank test tubes.
The content of each test tube was properly mixed and allowed to stand for 10 minutes
at room temperature (20- 25oC).The absorbance of samples and standards were read
off against the blank in a spectrophotometer at 540 nm wavelength.
Total protein concentration for each sample was calculated thus:
Absorance of sample x 5 (g/dl)
Absorbance of standard 1
28
3.10 DETERMINATION OF SERUM ALBUMIN
This was carried out using the Bromocresol green method as described by Dourmas et al.,
1971.
3.10.1 Procedure:
1n each test tube, 0.01ml of serum samples were added for the groups
respectively, while nothing was added to the two blank test tubes. Thereafter,3ml of
the Bromocresol green reagent was added to all the test samples, the standard and
blank tube.The content of each test tube was properly mixed and allowed to incubate
for 5 minutes at 25oC.The absorbance of the test samples and of the standard were
measured against the reagent blank in a spectrophotometer at 540nm wavelength The
albumin concentration for each sample was calculated thus:
Absorbance of sample x Concentration
Absorbance of standard of standard
3.11 DETERMINATION OF SERUM CREATININE
Determination of serum creatinine was based on the modified Jaffe method (Blass et
al, 1974) for the in vitro determination of creatinine in serum, plasma or urine, using the
Quimica Clinica Applicada (QCA) Creatinine test kit (QCA, Spain).
3.11.1 Procedure:
Into each 0.1 ml of serum sample held in a test tube, 1.0 ml of the working reagent
(equal volumes of reagents A and B i.e. 0.5ml of reagent A and 0.5 ml of reagent B) was
added. A stop watch was started before reading off the absorbance of the test sample at the
20th
and 80th
second against a working blank in a spectrophotometer at 546 nm wavelengths.
In the same manner, 0.1 ml of the standard (Reagent C) held in a test tube was mixed with 1.0
ml of the working reagent. The mixture of the standard (Reagent C) and the working reagent
was later transferred into a cuvette.
29
With the aid of a stop watch, the absorbance of the standard was read at the 20th
and
80th
second against a working reagent blank in a spectrophotometer al 546 nm wavelength.
Serum creatinine concentration of each sample was calculated using the formula below:
Change in absorbance (80th
– 20th
) of sample x 2
Change in absorbance (80th
– 20th
second) of sample 1
3.12 DETERMINATION OF SERUM VITAMIN A
Here we employed the colormetric method using Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) as
described by Neeld and Pearson, (1963).
3.12.1 Procedure:
Duplicate 2 ml aliquots of serum or plasma were pipetted into glass suppressed test
tubes. An equal volume (2 ml) of ethanol is added dropwise with mixing to give a 50%
solution (v/v). At this concentration the protein-retinol bond was disrupted, the protein
precipitated and free retinol and retinyl esters were available for extraction by addition of 3
ml hexane (or pretroleum ether). The tube was stoppered and the contents mixed vigorously
on the vortex mixer for 2 minutes to ensure complete extraction of carotene and vitamin A;
then centrifuged for 5 – 10 minutes at 1000g to obtain a clean separation of phases. Two
mililitres of the upper hexane (or petroleum ether) extract was pipetted into cuvettes and the
cuvettes were capped. Absorbance due to carotenoids at 450 nm is read against a hexane (or
petroleum ether) blank (A450).
After determining A450 the cuvettes were removed and the hexane (or petroleum
ether) was evaporated just to dryness under a gentle stream of nitrogen in a 40 – 60oC water
bath while avoiding splashing on the test tube wall. Just at the point of dryness, the residue
was immediately redissolved and dehydrated by addition of 0.1ml of a mixture chloroform-
acetic anhydride (1:1 v/v).The cuvette containing the sample was placed in the
30
spectrophotometer and 1.0 ml TFA chromagen reagent was added to the cuvette from a rapid
delivery pipette. The absorbance reading (A450) at exactly 15 seconds (t15) and at 30 seconds
(t30) after addition of the reagent were recorded.
3.13 DETERMINATION OF SERUM ZINC AND COPPER.
This is done using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy as described by Annio, (1964)
and Fernandez and Kahn, (1971).
3.13.1 Procedure:
The blood sample was thoroughly mixed by shaking. The sample was then aspirated
into the oxidizing air-acetylene flame or nitrous oxide acetylene flame. When the aqueous
sample was aspirated, the sensitivity for 1% absorption was observed.
3.14 ADRENAL AND GONADAL STEROID CONCENTRATIONS
3.14.1 Serum Testosterone Determination.
These were determined using ELISA techniques as described by Tiez (1995)
3.14.1A Procedure.
Before proceeding with the assay, all reagents, serum references and controls were
brought to room temperature .The microplate wells for each serum reference, control and test
specimens were formatted to be assayed in duplicate. About 0.010 ml (10µl) of the
appropriate serum reference, control or test specimen were assigned into the respective wells
after which 0.050 ml (50µl) of the working Testosterone Enzyme Reagent was added to all
the wells .The microplate was swirled gently for 20-30 seconds to mix.0.050 ml (50µl) of
Testosterone Biotin Reagent was added to all wells. The microplate was swirled gently for
20-30 seconds to mix and then covered followed by incubation for 60 minutes at room
31
temperature. The contents of the microplate was discarded by decantation and blotted dry
with absorbent paper after which 350µl of wash buffer was added and decanted. This was
repeated for two (2) additional times for a total of three (3) washes followed by addition of
0.100 ml (100µl) of working substrate solution to all wells without shaking. This was
incubated at room temperature for 15 minutes while 0.050ml (50µl) of stop solution was then
added to each well and gently mixed for 15 – 20 seconds. The absorbance in each well was
read at 450nm (using a reference wavelength of 630nm to minimize well imperfections)
using a microplate reader. The results were read within thirty (30) minutes of adding the stop
solution.
3.14.2 Serum Cortisol Determination
This was done as described by Foster and Dunn, (1974)
3.14.2A Procedure
Before proceeding with the assay, all reagents, serum references and controls were
brought to room temperature (20 – 270C). The microplates’ wells were formatted for each
serum reference, control and patient specimen to be assayed in duplicate. 0.025 ml (25µL)
of the appropriate serum reference, control or specimen was poured into the assigned well.
0.050 ml (50µ) of the working Cortisol Enzyme Reagent was added to all wells.The
microplate was swirled gently for 20-30 seconds to mix. 0.050 ml (50µl) of Cortisol Biotin
Reagent was added to all wells. The microplate was swirled gently for 20-30 seconds to mix.
These were covered and incubated for 60 minutes at room temperature. The contents of
the microplate were discarded by decantation and blotted dry with absorbent paper. 350µl of
wash buffer was added decanted. This was repeated for two (2) additional times for a total of
three (3) washes. 0.100 ml (100µl) of working substrate solution was added to all wells
32
without shaking. It was then incubated room temperature for 15 minutes. 0.050ml (50µl) of
stop solution was added to each well and gently mixed for 15 – 20 seconds. The absorbance
in each well at 450nm (using a reference wavelength of 620-630nm to minimize well
imperfections) was read using a microplate reader. The results were read within thirty (30)
minutes of adding the stop solution.
3.15 GONADAL AND EXTRA-GONADAL SPERM RESERVES
The epididymides and the testes were used to assess the sperm reserves of these
organs using the standard haemocytometric method (Amman and Almquist, 1961; Oishi,
2002).
3.15.2 Procedure:
3.15.2A Epididymal Sperm Reserve (ESR):
The epididymides (right and left sides), were dissected out of the testes (right and left
sides), and divided into caput (head), corpus (body), and cauda (tail) segments. Each segment
was transferred into individual clean test tubes, where the epididymal segments (caput,
corpus, and cauda) were minced with ophthalmologic scissors and homogenized for 1 minute
using mortar and pestle, in 20 ml of phosphate buffered saline (Amman and Almquist, 1961;
Oishi, 2002). The homogenate was later filtered using a nylon mesh sieve and 20 µl aliquots
of the filtered homogenate fluid were used in charging the Neubauer chamber for the
appropriate counting of the number of sperms/mg of tissue sample.
3.15.2B Testicular Sperm Reserve (TSR):
With the aid of scalpel blade, a section of each testis was cut off and transferred into a
clean test tube, minced with ophthalmologic scissors and homogenized for 1 minute using
33
mortar and pestle in 10 ml of phosphate buffered saline (Amman and Almquist, 1961; Oishi,
2002). The homogenate was later filtered through a nylon mesh, and 20 µl aliquots of the
filtered homogenate fluid were used in charging the Neubauer haemocytometer for the
appropriate counting of the number of sperms/mg of testis).
3.16 HISTOPATHOLOGY.
This was carried out as described by Bancroft and Stevens, (1977).
3.16.1 Procedure:
Skin sections from S. scabiei infested and control groups of WAD goats were fixed in
10% formol saline and dehydrated in ascending grades of ethanol. Thereafter, the tissues
were cleared in chloroform overnight, infiltrated and embedded in molten paraffin wax. The
blocks were later trimmed and sectioned at 5 – 6 microns. The sections were deparaffinized
in xylene, taken to water and subsequently stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin (H and E)
for light microscopy.
3.17 DATA ANALYSIS
Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and variant means
were separated by the least significant difference (LSD) method, using SPSS statistical
package. Significant differences were accepted at p < 0.05 probability level.
34
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
4.1: PARASITOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
Skin scrapings collected from infested goats revealed eggs, nymphs, larvae and oval
shaped adult mites that were identified as Sarcoptes scabiei on the basis of a rounded body
with four pairs of short legs that scarcely project beyond the body margin and long non-
jointed pedicels as shown in Fig. 3 below.
Figure 3: Sarcoptes scabiei mite isolated from the infested goats, identified by its round
shape, short legs and long non-jointed pedicels (10% potassium hydroxide preparation, x400
magnification)
35
Figure 4: Photomicrograph of an unhatched egg of Sarcoptes scabiei from skin scraping
containing larva (arrow) (10% potassium hydroxide preparation, x 400 magnification).
36
4.2: CLINICAL EVALUATION OF EXPERIMENTALLY EXPOSED GOATS
The chronological sequence of the appearance of clinical signs and lesions for the
experimentally exposed goats is as presented in Table 1 below. Only three of the exposed
(group D) goats developed lesions characteristic of sarcoptic mange. While one died in the
course of the experiment, the 5th
had no visible lesions.
None of the exposed goats showed any clinical sign until day 14 at which time two of
the goats showed signs of pruritus. From day 21 till the end of the study, three(3) goats
presented signs of pruritus. Two of the goats showed areas of erythema, papules and crusts
formation at days 21 and 28 while three showed same at days 35 and 42 of the experiment.
Only one of the goats had focal areas of alopecia at day 21, two at day 28 while the three had
alopecia at days 35 and 42. Mites were not detected in any of the skin scrapings from exposed
goats until day 35 when mite was seen in scrapings from one of the goats and then in two of
the pruritic goats at day 42.
Lesion appeared anterio-posteriorly from the face, nose, ears, around the eyes and the
neck as shown in Figs. 5-7.
37
Table1: Chronology of the appearance of clinical manifestations in the experimentally
exposed WAD goats of group D.
Days post
exposure
Pruritus Erythema Papules Crusts Alopecia Mites in
scraping
0 0/5 0/5 0/5 0/5 0/5 0/5
7 0/5 0/5 0/5 0/5 0/5 0/5
14 2/5 0/5 0/5 0/5 0/5 0/5
21 3/4 2/4 2/4 2/4 1/4 0/4
28 3/4 2/4 2/4 2/4 2/4 0/4
35 3/4 ¾ 3/4 3/4 3/4 1/4
42 3/4 ¾ 3/4 3/4 3/4 2/4
38
Figure 5: A picture of experimentally exposed goat showing crusty,alopecic and lichenified
skin lesions around the ears (arrows) at day 42.
39
Figure 6: A picture of experimentally exposed goat showing scabby, crusty and alopecic
lesions around the eyes (arrows) at day 42.
40
Figure 7: A picture of experimentally exposed goat showing similar lesions around both the
ears and eyes (arrows) at day 42.
41
4.3: HAEMATOLOGY
4.3.1: Packed cell volume, PCV (%)
The mean (± SE) PCV (%) for the infested groups A,B,C,D and control group E
WAD goats is as presented in Table 2. At week 0, all the naturally infested groups had PCV
values significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the control but groups A,B and C were not
significantly (p > 0.05) different although B and C were significantly (p < 0.05) lower than
group D. However, at week 2, the PCV values of groups B and C were still significantly (p <
0.05) lower than the other groups.
At week 4, the group B and C goats which were moderately to severely infested with
Sarcoptes scabiei had a significantly (p < 0.05) reduced mean PCV values relative to groups
D and E. At week 6, the mean PCV values of all the infested groups A, B, C and D were
significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the control group E.
4.3.2: Haemoglobin concentration ,Hb (g/dl)
Table 3 shows the mean (± SE) haemoglobin concentration (Hb) for groups A, B, C,
D and control group (E) WAD goats. At week 0 only the mean Hb values of group B was
significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the control (group E). By week 2, the groups B and C Hb
values were significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the control while at week 4, only the mean Hb
values of group B was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the control group E, but at week 6,
the Hb values of groups A, B and C WAD goats became significantly (p < 0.05) lower than
the control group E.
4.3.3: Erythrocyte count, EC (x 106
µL)
Table 4 shows the mean (mean ± SE) erythrocyte count (EC) of the naturally infested
groups A, B, C, the experimentally exposed group D and the control group E WAD goats.
The mean EC values of groups B and C were significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the control
group E at week 0. At week 2, there was no significant (p > 0.05) difference among the
groups, although, the mean EC of groups A, B and C were lower than groups D and E.
However, by week 4, the results were similar to what obtained at week 0. By week 6, there
42
was a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in the mean EC values of groups B and C compared to
groups D and E.
4.3.4: Erythrocytic indices
4.3.4A: Mean corpuscular volume, MCV (fl)
Table 5 shows the result of the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) for all the groups. There
was no significant difference between the groups throughout the period of study. However,
the mean MCV values of the infested were lower than the control groups.
4.3.4B: Mean corpuscular Haemoglobin, MCH (pg)
The results of the mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) ( ± SE) of the experimental groups
A, B, C, D and the control (E) WAD goats are presented in table 6.There was no significant
(P>0.05) variation in the mean MCH values of the experimental groups and the control WAD
goats at week 0, 2, and 4. At week 6, the mean MCH of infested groups A, C and D were
lower than the control except that of group B which was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than
the control.
4.3.4C: Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration, MCHC (mg/dl)
The mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentrations (MCHC) for all the five groups is
as presented in table 7. No significant (p > 0.05) change was observed at weeks 0 and 2. At
week 4, a significant (p < 0.05) increase in MCHC was observed in group C compared to the
other groups. However at week 6, the MCHC of group B goats became higher than the other
groups (p > 0.05).
4.3.5: Total leucocyte counts, TLC (x 103 cells/µl)
The mean (± SE) TLC of the groups are presented in table 8. The mean TLC values of
the WAD goats in groups B and C increased significantly (p < 0.05) relative to groups A, D
and E throughout the period of study.
43
3.3.6: Differential Leucocyte Counts (DLC)
3.3.6A: Absolute Neutrophil count values (x 103/µl)
Table 9 shows the mean ( ± SE) absolute neutrophil count of the groups of WAD
goats. At weeks 0, 2 and 4 the mean neutrophil count of groups B and C were significantly (p
< 0.05) higher than the other groups.
However, at week 6, the mean values for group C was significantly higher than the other
groups.
3.3.6B: Absolute Lymphocyte Count (x 103µl)
Table 10 shows the mean (±SE) absolute lymphocyte count of the experimental
groups A, B, C, D and control (E) WAD goats. The absolute lymphocyte counts of groups B
and C were higher than the rest of the groups throughout the experimental period.
3.3.6C: Absolute Monocyte Count (x 103µl)
The mean (x ± SE) absolute monocyte count of the groups is presented in Table 11.
There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference among the groups at weeks 0, 2 and 4.
However, by week 6, the mean monocyte count of group C WAD goats was significantly
higher (p < 0.05) than the rest of the groups which were not significantly (p > 0.05) different
from others.
3.3.6D: Absolute Eosinophil Count (x 103/µl)
Table 12 shows the mean ( ± SE) absolute eosinophil count of the experimental
groups. At week 0, the mean eosinophil values of group C goats were significantly higher (p
< 0.05) than groups D and E. Although the eosinophil counts of infested groups remained
higher throughout the period of the experiment, it was not significant ( p > 0.05 ).
3.3.6E: Absolute Basophil Count (x 103/µl)
Table 13 shows the mean ( ± SE) absolute basophil count of the five groups of WAD
goats. All through the period of the study, there was no significant (p > 0.05) difference or
variation in the mean absolute basophil count values of the five experimental groups.
44
Table 2: Mean (± SEM) Packed cell volume values of WAD goats naturally infested and
experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Values on the same row with different super scripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different.
Experimental
Period
(weeks)
Packed cell volume (%)
Group A
(Mildly infested)
Group B
(Moderately
infested)
Group C
(Severely
infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 24.25±1.38bc
22.00±1.08c
21.50±0.65c
26.75±1.70ab
28.25±0.85a
Week 2 25.50±0.87a
21.75±0.63b
20.75±0.48b
26.50±1.55a
28.25±0.85a
Week 4 22.75±1.65bc
21.25±0.85c 20.00±1.22
c 25.00±1.41
ab 28.00±0.41
a
Week 6 23.25±1.11b
22.00±1.08bc
19.25±0.85c
25.00±1.44b
28.50±0.66a
45
Table 3: Mean (± SEM) haemoglobin concentration of WAD goats naturally infested and
experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Values on the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different.
Experimental
period
(weeks)
Haemoglobin concentration (g/dl)
Group A
(Mildly
infested)
GroupB
(Moderately
infested)
Group C
(Severely
infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 9.65±0.53abc
8.15±0.47c
8.60±0.43ac
9.25±0.70ac
10.05±0.36ab
Week 2 9.18±0.38ab
7.75±0.36b
8.10±0.55b
8.95±0.63ab
9.85±0.40a
Week 4 8.35±0.43ab
7.50±0.54b
8.53±0.66ab
8.83±0.61ab
9.88±0.38a
Week 6 7.35±0.50bc
8.15±047bc
6.85±0.25b
8.55±0.67ac
10.03±0.64a
46
Table 4: Mean (± SEM) Erythrocyte count of WAD goats naturally infested and
experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Values on the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different
Experimental
period
(weeks)
Erythrocyte count (x 106
µL)
Group A
(Mild
infested)
Group B
(Moderately
infested)
Group C
(Severely
infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 11.60±0.56ab
10.13±0.25b
10.05±0.44b
11.93±0.95ab
12.63±1.03a
Week 2 11.05±1.06 10.18±0.49 9.95±0.46 12.13±0.74 12.08±1.05
Week 4 10.23±0.41ab
10.05±0.28b
9.88±0.46b
11.60±0.80ab
11.90±0.87a
Week 6 10.40±0.35bc
9.48±0.46b
9.13±057b
11.53±0.87ac
12.53±0.77a
47
Table 5: Mean (± SEM) Mean corpuscular volume of WAD goats naturally infested and
experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Mean corpuscular volume (fl)
Experimental
period
(weeks)
Group A
(Mildly
infested)
Group B
(Moderately
infested)
Group C
(Severely
infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 21.13±1.79 21.70±0.79 21.43±0.35 22.53±0.49 22.68±1.36
Week 2 23.43±1.33 21.48±0.83 20.98±0.91 21.88±0.36 23.88±1.99
Week 4 22.20±1.07 21.25±1.27 20.33±1.48 21.60±0.36 23.93±1.82
Week 6 22.33±0.54 23.23±0.28 21.30±1.45 21.80±0.84 22.90±0.88
No significant difference between the groups (p > 0.05)
48
Table 6: Mean (± SEM) mean corpuscular haemoglobin of WAD goats naturally infested
and experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Values on the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different
Mean corpuscular Haemoglobin (Pg)
Experimental
period
Group A
(Mildly
infested)
Group B
(Moderately
infested)
Group C
(Severely
Infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 8.33±0.49 8.05±0.31 8.63±0.66 7.75±0.24 8.05±0.38
Week 2 8.43±0.57 7.65±0.48 8.25±0.84 7.40±0.15 8.28±0.40
Week 4 8.18±0.28 7.50±0.51 8.63±0.50 7.63±0.05 8.38±0.46
Week 6 7.03±0.25a
8.60±0.18b
7.60±0.61ab
7.40±0.24a
8.03±0.38ab
49
Table 7: Mean (± SEM) Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration of WAD goats
naturally infested and experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration (mg/dl)
Experiment
al period
(weeks)
Group A
(Mildly
infested)
Group B
(Moderately
infested)
Group C
(Severely
infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 40.50±3.77 37.50±0.65 40.25±2.75 34.50±0.65 35.50±0.87
Week 2 36.00±1.68 35.75±0.85 39.25±3.42 33.75±0.75 35.00±1.68
Week 4 37.25±2.56ab
35.25±2.02a
42.75±2.50b
33.00±0.71a
35.25±1.49a
Week 6 31.50±0.87a
37.00±0.41b
36.25±2.90ab
34.00±0.71ab
35.00±1.91ab
Values on the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different
50
Table 8: Mean (± SEM) total leucocyte counts of WAD goats naturally infested and
experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Total leucocyte counts (x 103 cells/µl )
Experimental
period
(weeks)
Group A
(Mildly
infested)
Group B
(Moderately
infested)
Group C
(Severely
infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 13.35±1.31a
19.63±1.14b
17.55±0.35b
13.88±0.66a
13.93±0.66a
Week 2 12.43±1.58a
19.30±1.10b
18.28±1.92b
13.55±0.45a
14.05±0.85a
Week 4 14.38±1.09a
20.35±1.04b
18.35±1.10b
14.63±0.72a
13.75±0.75a
Week 6 15.00±0.69ac
19.63±1.14b
19.98±0.40b
17.25±0.40c
13.85±0.99a
Values on the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different
51
Table 9: Mean (± SEM) Absolute Neutrophil count values of WAD goats naturally infested
and experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Absolute Neutrophil count (x 103/µl)
Experimental
period
(weeks)
Group A
(Mildly
infested)
Group B
(Moderately
infested)
Group C
(Severely
infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 5.73±0.65a
9.10±0.78b
7.55±0.54b
5.48±0.04a
5.23±0.36a
Week 2 5.24±0.97a
9.09±0.61b
8.59±1.13b 5.71±0.22
a 5.56±0.60
a
Week 4 6.17±0.71a
10.02±0.65b
8.93±0.88b
6.40±0.61a
5.33±0.35a
Week 6 6.47±0.33a
8.65±1.32ab
10.68±1.31bc
7.81±0.31ab
5.42±0.59a
Values on the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different
52
Table 10: Mean (± SEM) Absolute Lymphocyte count values of WAD goats naturally
infested and experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Absolute Lymphocyte Count (x 103µl)
Experimental
period
(weeks)
Group A
(Mildly
infested)
Group B
(Moderately
infested)
Group C
(Severely
infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 6.77±0.62a
9.65±0.70b
9.05±0.67bc
7.51±0.50ac
8.10±0.21abc
Week 2 7.08±0.63a
9.90±0.74b
9.33±0.36bc
7.94±0.57ac
8.30±0.38ab
Week 4 7.73±0.59a
9.95±0.58b
8.48±0.28a
7.80±0.32a
8.00±0.42a
Week 6 7.96±0.48a
9.83±0.22b
8.75±0.65ab
8.58±0.30ab
7.98±0.49a
Values on the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different
53
Table 11: Mean (± SEM) Absolute Monocyte Count values of WAD goats naturally infested
and experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Experimental
period
Absolute Monocyte Count (x 103µL)
Group A
(Mildly
infected)
Group B
(Moderately
infected)
Group C
(Severely
infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 0.20±0.04 0.34±0.09 0.23±0.9 0.28±0.07 0.29±0.07
Week 2 0.23±0.03 0.25±0.10 0.35±0.13 0.20±0.04 0.26±0.09
Week 4 0.14±0.01 0.15±0.05 0.29±0.14 0.25±0.11 0.28±0.07
Week 6 0.20±0.11a 0.35±0.11
a 0.70±0.11
b 0.39±0.10
a 0.27±0.05
a
Values on the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different
54
Table 12: Mean (± SEM) Absolute Eosinophil Count values of WAD goats naturally infested
and experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei
Absolute Eosinophil Count (x 103/µl)
Experimental
period
(weeks)
Group A
(Mildly
infected)
Group B
(Moderately
infected)
Group C
(Severely
infested)
Group D
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 0.31±0.06ab
0.29±0.04ab
0.40±0.11b
0.18±0.04a
0.11±0.07a
Week 2 0.18±0.05 0.29±0.06 0.29±0.08 0.14±0.05 0.14±0.05
Week 4 0.29±0.07 0.30±0.05 0.24±0.06 0.17±0.07 0.14±0.06
Week 6 0.30±0.07 0.29±0.06 0.35±0.16 0.43±0.06 0.19±0.07
Values on the same row with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0.05) different
55
Table 13: Mean (± SEM) Absolute Basophil Count values of WAD goats naturally infested
and experimentally exposed to Sarcoptes scabiei.
Absolute Basophil count (x 103/µl)
Experimental
period
(weeks)
GroupA
(mildly
infested)
GroupB
(moderately
infested)
GroupA
(Severely
infested )
GroupD
(Experimentally
Exposed)
Group E
(Control)
Week 0 0.04±0.04 0.00±0.00 0.05±0.05 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00
Week 2 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00
Week 4 0.04±0.04 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00
Week 6 0.04±0.04 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.04±0.04 0.00±0.00
No significant difference between the groups (p > 0.05)
56
4.5: Serum Biochemical Assay
Statistical analysis showed that the mean total protein was lower in the severely infested
group C (p > 0.05) compared to the rest of the groups while the mean total protein of mildly
infested WAD goats of group A was higher than the rest of the groups (p > 0.05). There was
also no significant variation in the mean total protein of the exposed group D (p > 0.05).
There was no significant variation in mean albumin, globulin and creatinine levels
among the groups (p > 0.05). However, the mean albumin level was lower in the moderate
and severely infested group C (p > 0.05). while the level of creatinine was higher in the
severely infested group C (p > 0.05).. See figures 8 and 9.
57
Figure 8: Mean (±SEM) Serum proteins in WAD goats naturally and experimentally infested
with Sarcoptes scabiei.
Group A- Mildly infested
Group B- Moderately infested
Group C- Severely infested
Group D- Experimentally Exposed (week 0-D0, week 2-D2, week 4-D4, week6-D6)
Group E-(Control)
58
Figure 9. Mean (±SEM) Serum Creatinine in WAD goats naturally and experimentally
infested with Sarcoptes scabiei.
Group A- Mildly infested
Group B- Moderately infested
Group C- Severely infested
Group D- Experimentally Exposed (week 0-D0, week 2-D2, week 4-D4, week6-D6)
Group E-(Control)
59
4.5.3: Serum vitamin A, copper and zinc concentrations
Figures 10 and 11, shows the mean serum vitamin A, copper and zinc concentrations. There
was no significant variation in the mean serum vitamin A levels among the groups (p > 0.05)
but the mean value of the severely infested group C WAD goats were lower (p > 0.05) than
the other groups followed by group A and then B. There was a significant (p < 0.05)
reduction in mean serum copper of group C (p < 0.05) WAD goats compared to the rest of
the groups. Although there was no significant (p > 0.05) variation in mean copper values
between A and B they were still lower than that of group D and E. There was no significant
(p > 0.05) variation in mean serum zinc concentration among the groups. However, the mean
values of the naturally infested groups were lower than groups D and E with values in group
C (severely infested) been the lowest (p > 0.05).
2
Figure10. Mean (±SEM) Serum vitamin A levels in WAD goats naturally and
experimentally infested with Sarcoptes scabiei.
Group A- Mildly infested
Group B- Moderately infested
Group C- Severely infested
Group D- Experimentally Exposed (week 0-D0, week 2-D2, week 4-D4, week6-D6)
Group E-(Control)
3
Figure11. Mean (±SEM) Serum Copper and Zinc levels in WAD goats naturally and
experimentally infested with Sarcoptes scabiei.
Group A- Mildly infested
Group B- Moderately infested
Group C- Severely infested
Group D- Experimentally Exposed (week 0-D0, week 2-D2, week 4-D4, week6-D6)
Group E-(Control)
4
4.5.3 Gonadal and Adrenal Steroid Concentrations.
There was no significant variation (p > 0.05) in mean serum testosterone values
among the groups. However, the mean values of the naturally infested groups A, B, and C
were lower (p > 0.05) than the mean values for the groups D and E with mean
testosterone levels of group C having the lowest value. The result shows that there was no
significant (p > 0.05) variation in the mean serum cortisol concentration among the
groups. However, while the mean cortisol values in groups A and B were higher (p >
0.05) than the rest of the groups, the mean levels in group C was lower (p > 0.05). See
figures 12 and 13.
5
Figure 12. Mean (±SEM) Serum testosterone concentration in WAD goats naturally and
experimentally infested with Sarcoptes scabiei.
Group A- Mildly infested
Group B- Moderately infested
Group C- Severely infested
Group D- Experimentally Exposed (week 0-D0, week 2-D2, week 4-D4, week6-D6)
Group E-(Control)
6
Figure 13. Mean (±SEM) Serum cortisol concentration in WAD goats naturally and
experimentally infested with Sarcoptes scabiei.
Group A- Mildly infested
Group B- Moderately infested
Group C- Severely infested
Group D- Experimentally Exposed (week 0-D0, week 2-D2, week 4-D4, week6-D6)
Group E-(Control)
7
4.4: GONADAL AND EXTRAGONADAL SPERM RESERVE.
4.4.1: Caput epididymal sperm reserve (x 108/ml)
Mean (±SEM) caput epididymal sperm reserve of the five groups of WAD goats
are presented in Fig 14 above. The mean caput epididymal sperm reserves of the naturally
infested WAD goats of groups A, B, C and the experimentally infested group D decreased
significantly (p < 0.05) relative to the mean value of the control group E goats, similarly,
the mean value of group C was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the values of the other
infested groups. Although the mean value of experimentally infested group D WAD goats
was not significantly (p > 0.05) different from that of groups A and B, it was still
significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the mean caput epididymal sperm reserve of control
group E.
4.4.2: Corpus epididymal sperm reserve (x 108/ml)
Mean (±SEM) corpus epididymal sperm reserve of the five groups of WAD goats
are presented in Fig.15 above. The mean corpus epididymal sperm reserves of the
naturally infested WAD goats of groups A, B, C and experimentally infested group D
were significantly (p < 0.05) lower relative to the mean values of control group E goats.
The mean values of group C was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the other groups.
Although the mean values of in contact group D WAD goats was not significantly (p >
0.05) different from that of groups A and B.
4.4.3: Cauda epididymal sperm reserve (x 108/ml)
Figure16 represents the mean (±SEM) cauda epididymal sperm reserve of the
experimental WAD goats. The observed reduction in the cauda epididymal sperm reserve
values of the goats in groups A, B and C differed significantly (p < 0.05) from the mean
values of in- contact group D and control group E. There were no observed significant
differences in the mean cauda epididymal sperm reserves of goats in the three naturally
infested WAD groups A, B and C, but mean values reduced with increased severity of
lesion. Although the mean value of in-contact group D WAD goats was lower than the
control, it was not statistically significant (p > 0.05).
8
4.4.4: Mean total epididymal sperm reserve (ESR) (x 108/ml)
The mean (±SEM) epididymal sperm reserve is presented in Figure 17. The
naturally infested WAD goats (groups A, B, C) had significantly (p < 0.05) lower mean
epididymal sperm reserve relative to the in-contact group D and control group E.
Although the mean values of the in-contact group D was significantly (p < 0.05) higher
than groups A, B and C, it was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the control group E.
The mean values of the naturally infested groups B and C decreased significantly (p <
0.05) based on the degree of skin lesion.
4.4.5: Right testicular sperm reserve (x 108/ml)
The mean right testicular sperm reserve decreased significantly (p < 0.05) in
groups A, B and C relative to the control group E. The mean values of the right testicular
sperm reserve in groups A, B and C were not significantly (p > 0.05) different although
there was a decrease that correlates with the degree of skin lesion. There was a higher
mean right testicular sperm reserve in in-contact groups relative to the control although
this was not significant (p > 0.05).See figure 18.
4.4.6: Mean left testicular sperm reserve
There was a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in mean left testicular sperm reserve in
group C WAD goats (severely infested group) compared to groups D and E. Although
the mean values of left testicular sperm reserve in groups A and B were not significantly
different (p > 0.05) they were still lower than the mean values for the groups D and E.
There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference in the mean values of in-contact group D
and the control E. See figure 19.
4.4.7: Mean combined testicular sperm reserve
Figure 20 shows the mean combined testicular sperm reserve. There was no
significant (p > 0.05) difference in values of CTSR among the naturally infested groups
A, B, and C, but they were significantly (p < 0.05) lower than groups D and E. There was
also no significant difference between the in-contact group D and control group E.
9
Experimental groups.
Figure 14: Mean (± SEM) caput epididymal sperm reserve of WAD goats infested with
Sarcoptes scabie and the control E.
Mean (±SEM) caput
epididymal sperm
reserve (x108/ml)
10
Figure 15: Mean (± SEM) corpus epididymal sperm reserve of WAD goats infested with
Sarcoptes scabie and the control E.
Mean (±SEM)
corpus epididymal
sperm reserve
(x108/ml)
11
Figure 16: Mean (± SEM) cauda epididymal sperm reserve of WAD goats infested with
Sarcoptes scabie and the control E.
Mean (±SEM) cauda
epididymal sperm
reserve (x108/ml)
12
Figure 17: Mean (± SEM) total epididymal sperm reserve of WAD goats infested with
Sarcoptes scabie and the control E.
Mean (±SEM) total
epididymal sperm
reserve (x108/ml)
13
Figure 18: Mean (± SEM) right testicular sperm reserve of WAD goats infested with
Sarcoptes scabie and the control E.
Mean (±SEM) right
testicular sperm
reserve (x108/ml)
14
Figure 19: Mean (± SEM) left testicular sperm reserve of WAD goats infested with
Sarcoptes scabie and the control E.
Mean (±SEM) left
testicular sperm
reserve (x108/ml)
15
Figure 20: Mean (± SEM) combined testicular sperm reserve of WAD goats infested
with Sarcoptes scabie and the control E.
.
Mean (±SEM)
combined testicular
sperm reserve
(x108/ml)
62
4.6 HISTOPATHOLOGY.
Sections from control goats showed a normal epidermis overlying a normal
dermis with sebaceous glands and hair follicles (Fig.21). Sections from Sarcoptes scabiei-
infested goats showed non-specific skin lesions such as hyperkeratosis and hyperplastic
epidermis with elongation of the dermal papillae/acanthosis. These changes were more
prominent in moderate and severely infested groups (Figs.23-25).There were
subcorneal/intracorneal epidermal pustules (Figs.22-25) which in most cases were
sloughed off along with the keratinized layer of the epidermis mostly in groups with
moderate and severe infestation. In many animals, there were sections of mites and
severe polymorphonuclear and mononuclear infiltration of the papillary dermis and
epidermis (Figs.22-24). Intense papillary dermal fibrosis was observed in severely
infested goats which led to granulation tissue deposition (Fig.26). Affected hair follicles
were empty (devoid of shaft) and filled with keratin in many of the sections. Summary of
histologic changes in the skin of various groups is as presented in Table 17. Vacuolation
of keratinocytes was more in mild and in-contact groups (Fig.27) while hyperaemia of the
papillary dermis was more prominent in moderate and severely infested groups.
Inflammatory cells infiltration of the papillary dermis was more in the moderate and
severely infested groups and consisted of plasma cells, macrophages, polymorphs,
lymphocyte and mast cells. Section of parasites was more evident in moderate and severe
infestations.
63
Table.17. Summary of histologic lesions in the five groups of experimental animals.
S/No. Experimental Group
Group A
(Mild)
Group B
(Moderate)
Group C
(Severe)
Group D
(In-
contact)
Group E
(Control)
Lesion
1 Parakeratosis ++ ++++ +++ ++ *
2 Hyperkeratosis ++ ++++ +++ ++ *
3 Acanthosis/epidermal
hyperplasia
++ +++ ++++ ++ *
4 Fibroblasia
(Scarring)
+ +++ ++++ + *
5 Hyperaemia + +++ +++ ++ *
6 Vacuolation of
keratinocytes
+++ + + +++ *
7a Plasma cell + ++ +++ ++ *
-b Macrophages + ++ +++ ++ *
-c Polymorphs ++ +++ ++ ++ *
-d Lymptrocytes + ++ +++ ++ *
-e Mast cells + +++ ++ ++ *
8 Pustules + +++ ++ + *
9 Sections of parasite + +++ ++ + *
*Not Noticeable
+ mild
++ moderate
+++ severe
++++ Very severe
64
Figure 21: Photomicrograph of skin section from group E (control) goats showing normal
epidermis (black arrow), the dermis (D) and hair follicles (white arrow). H and E x 100.
.
D
65
Figure.22: Photomicrograph of a skin section from group A (mildly infested) goats
showing hyperkeratosis (H) and epidermal pustules (EP). H and E x 400.
H
EP
66
Figure 23: Photomicrograph of skin section from group B (moderately infested) goats
showing degenerating section of the mite (black arrow), pustule (P), rete peg formation
(white arrow) and mononuclear cellular infiltration of the papillary dermis (PD).H and E
x 100.
PD P
67
Figure 24: Photomicrograph of skin section from group B (moderately infected) goats
showing epidermal pustules (black arrow) and hyperplasia (white arrow).H and E x 400.
68
Figure 25: Photomicrograph of skin section from group C (severely infested) goats
showing a section of the parasite (black arrow), hyperplastic epidermis (H), severe
mononuclear cell infiltration of the dermis (PD) and pustules (white arrow).H and E x
100.
P H
PD
H
PD
H
69
Figure 26: Photomicrograph of skin section from group C (severely infested) goats
showing intense granulation tissue formation (DF). Note the sloughed off epidermal area
(arrow).H and E x 100.
DF
70
Figure 27: Photomicrograph of skin section from group D (in-contact) goats showing
vacuolation of keratinocytes (black arrows) and epidermal parakeratosis (white arrow).H
and E x 400.
E
D
71
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 DISCUSSION
This study has shown that a wide variation exist in the susceptibility of the WAD
goats (group D) to natural Sarcoptes scabiei infestation. Only three out of the five goats
introduced to the two seeder goats showed gross lesions. Although, one of the goats died
due to circumstances that we do not consider to be directly related to scabies, the reason
for non-infestation or lack of clinical disease in the fourth goat is not discernable. Some
factors have been speculated to facilitate transmission of Sarcoptes scabiei in flocks.
They include immunological state of the animals, nutritional status, stocking density,
dominance interaction, frequency of contact and pen size. (Hawkins et al., 1987; Thoday,
1993; Davies, 1995; Wondwossen et al., 2010).There was no indication that the goats
used for this experiment suffered from any immune-deficiency, but we did not assess
immune status before the study. The pen size was moderate but dominance interaction
may be a factor as the five goats were males while the seeder goats were female. This was
intentionally done to increase the frequency of contact.
The gross and histologic lesions distribution on the in-contact goats that
developed clinical disease was similar to those earlier described (Wondwossen et al.,
2010; Nektarios et al., 2011).This work showed that the gross lesions of Sarcoptic mange
in the in-contact goats started from the head region beginning with the nose, face, ears,
eye lashes, and lateral neck in all the three infested goats. Although site predilection of
Sarcoptes scabiei has been described in pigs and humans (Johnson and Mellanby, 1942;
Davies and Moon, 1990), the factors affecting the site predilection in these goats are not
apparent. The distribution of the lesions may be due to the fact that bucks or goats in
general explore their pen mates more using the head. Thus, the lesions were anterio-
72
posterior in distribution (i.e. progressively from the head to the tail region).This study has
established that experimental contact transmission of scabies in WAD goats is possible
as seen in a field situation when one or more infested animal(s) are introduced into
susceptible population. Mites were only demonstrated in two out of the four (50%)
remaining goats by day 42 of the study. It has also shown that in the WAD goats,
demonstration of mites in skin scraping of infested goats is most likely to reveal mites in
moderate to severely infested animals. Cargill and Dobson (1979) were the first to
undertake a contact transmission experiment in pigs where they observed that skin
scrapings were of value only in the chronic form of sarcoptic mange.
The marked reduction in PCV, Hb and EC values seen in the naturally infested
goats of group A, B and C throughout the period of study and in group D by the 6th
week
of the study compared to the control shows that mange is associated with anaemia at later
stages of infestation. Similar results have also been reported in rabbits and dogs with
severe and short term advanced sarcoptic mange (Arlian et al; 1988a, 1995), experimental
sarcoptic mange in camels (Parmar et al., 2005), sheep (Hafeez et al.,2007) and goats
(Ujjwal and Dey, 2010), even though they did not relate such changes in erythrocytic
indices to the severity of mange. However, this result is in contrast to that of Chineme et
al., (1979) who observed no change in the blood of sheep suffering from sarcoptic mange.
It could be that the sheep they studied were under one form of supplementation or the
other during the course of the disease since this was not highlighted in the case report.
The increase in TLC which was accompanied by a significant (p < 0.05) increase in both
the neutrophil and lymphocyte counts in groups B and C compared to groups A and E, is
indicative of a systemic inflammatory status in mange infestation. This could be due to
invasion of bacteria from cutaneous lesions or immunomodulatory activity of mange
products. However, the increased monocyte count in group C at week 6 may be due to
73
increased need for phagocytosis of dead cellular debris in the severely affected animals.
The increase in eosinophil counts of infested groups A, B and C compared to the control
as observed in this study has been reported in sarcoptic mange infested wombats (Skerrat
et al., 1999), red foxes (Little et al., 1998), raccoon dogs (Kido et al., 2011) and dogs
(Arlian et al., 1995). This increase might have been induced by parasites in the skin as
eosinophils are known to be the common cellular response in many parasitic infestations.
It is also an indication of type I hypersensitivity reaction.
The marked reduction in total protein values of the severely infested group C
goats compared to the rest has also been reported (Kido et al., 2011). This was attributed
to loss of appetite and resultant malnutrition usually associated with debilitated sarcoptic
mange infested animals. The observation was further substantiated from necropsy
findings in most of the animals in group C in which there was serous atrophy of the
pericardial and subcutaneous fats. The mean albumin and globulin values decreased with
increasing severity of infestation. The reductions could also be due to loss of plasma
proteins from the exudative dermatitis as has been previously reported (Pence et al.,
1983; Kamboj, 1991; Dadlich and Khanna, 2008).The A/G ratio was not clinically
significant except that of the moderately infested group B which was less than 1 and
might be attributed to malnutrition. The high creatinine concentration observed in the
severely infested group C WAD goats could be due to glomerulonephritis usually
associated with complicated sarcoptic mange infestation (Svartman, et al., 1972; Burgess,
1994; Nakagawa, 2009; Kido et al., 2011) or false elevations resulting from non-
creatinine chromogens such as acetoacetic acid (Ketone body) due to chronic malnutrition
or debilitation. There were reductions in serum vitamin A, zinc and copper concentrations
in all the infested groups compared to the control. Although, there is no report available
to me in the literature on the status of vitamin A, zinc or copper concentrations in
74
Sarcoptes scabiei-infested animals, recent debates have associated sarcoptic mange with
increased free radical generation (Dimri et al., 2008; Camkerten et al., 2009; Ujjwal and
Dey , 2010;) . Carotenoids, zinc and copper are well known nutritional antioxidants in
addition to their other functions in the body (Bickers and Athar, 2006; Dimri et al., 2008).
Observations on the adrenal and gonadal steroid concentrations showed that sarcoptic
mange did not affect cortisol concentration while testosterone concentration decreased
with the severity of mange. The initial perception was that infested animals would be
severely stressed and that such stress could impact on the immune system consequent
upon cortisol release. One can only assume or attribute this fact to the innate ability of the
WAD goats to withstand harsh conditions, as information in the literature is presently not
available to me if any. An interesting part of this work was the reduction in epididymal
and testicular sperm reserves in all the infested groups of WAD goats compared to the
control. Scrotal dermatitis which is sometimes associated with mange could also result in
increased testicular temperature. Testicular degeneration with consequent spermatogenic
arrest has been reported in a ram with scrotal acariasis (Rhodes, 1976) just as Skerrat et
al., (1999) reported that gonads of mature wombats with sarcoptic mange had minimal
activity. The testicular degeneration and associated low sperm reserves indicate that
sarcoptic mange may be able to hinder reproduction. This was also speculated by
Overskaug, (1994) and Little et al., (1998).
The histopathologic changes observed in the skin in this study were non-specific
but the presence of sections of mites and granulation tissues seen in severely infested
goats are noteworthy. These were related to the severity of infestation and thus could
serve as markers for grading the severity of the disease. This has also been reported in
raccoon dogs suffering from sarcoptic mange (Ninomiya and Ogata, 2005).
75
5.2 CONCLUSION.
This study has evaluated the pathophysiology of sarcoptic mange in male West
African Dwarf goats and has indeed established that:
i. Sarcoptic mange can induce abnormal hematological and biochemical changes
based on the severity of disease which is also dependent on duration of infestation.
ii. The disease leads to possible nutritional deficiency (as seen in low total
protein, copper, zinc and vitamin A levels) thus giving a clue on the possible
relevance of nutritional/antioxidant incorporation in management and control
regimens.
iii. Sarcoptic mange can be experimentally transmitted by contact without
modification of skin or nutrition of susceptible goats.
iv. Sarcoptic mange can impair reproductive function in male goats.
v. Skin scraping is of little diagnostic value at the early stage of the disease (i.e.
when less than 30% of the body surface is affected).
In the light of the above, there is need to carry out further studies on the effect of various
treatment regimen and control measures on the observed changes.
76
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Ilorin, Nigeria: 7-8.
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