One Giant Leap Preface
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The Apollo Program
ONE GIANT LEAP
One Giant Leap Preface
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0. “Earthrise” – William Anders: Apollo 8 - 1968
One Giant Leap Preface
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Owain Bates
ONE GIANT LEAP
The Apollo Program: 1961 – 1975
And how it changed the World
One Giant Leap Preface
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1. The first human steps on The Moon
Preface
In August 2012, Neil Armstrong, the first
man to walk on The Moon, passed away.
He had been part of the crew of Apollo 11,
the first manned vessel to land on The
Moon, now a whole lifetime ago. That
landing was the result of decades of work
and research by thousands of people, all
with one common vision: to free ourselves
from the bounds of our planet.
NASA wants to return to the Moon someday soon. Not to collect samples, but
to see if we could survive there for long periods. And after that, they want to
use it as a stepping-stone to Mars, and beyond. Without the Apollo Program,
these plans would simply be dreams, but thanks to what we learned in the
1960s, they could become reality.
In this book, I am going to explore how the Apollo Program was devised, how it
was carried out, and how it changed the world. I will see what problems faced
NASA and how they overcame them to reach their ultimate goal.
Strap in and prepare for launch!
Owain Bates
One Giant Leap Contents
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Contents PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................. 4
CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 11
AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA.................................................................................................... 13
Early Aeronautics ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Hot Air Travel ................................................................................................................................................... 14
The First Planes ................................................................................................................................................ 15
Controlled and Powered Flight ........................................................................................................................ 17
The World at War .......................................................................................................................................... 18
The First World War ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Between the Wars ............................................................................................................................................ 19
The Second World War .................................................................................................................................... 21
THE CREATION OF NASA ............................................................................................................. 22
NACA ............................................................................................................................................................. 23
The Cold War ................................................................................................................................................. 24
The Space Race .............................................................................................................................................. 25
Space Race Milestones ..................................................................................................................................... 25
The Establishment of NASA ........................................................................................................................... 27
EARLY NASA PROGRAMS ............................................................................................................ 28
X-Plane Program ............................................................................................................................................ 29
Notable Early X-Planes ..................................................................................................................................... 29
Project Mercury ............................................................................................................................................. 30
Project Gemini ............................................................................................................................................... 31
THE MOON ....................................................................................................................................... 33
Formation ......................................................................................................................................................... 34
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Physical Features .............................................................................................................................................. 35
Geography .................................................................................................................................................... 35
Internal Structure and Composition ............................................................................................................ 36
Atmosphere ................................................................................................................................................. 36
Gravitational Field ........................................................................................................................................ 36
ROCKETS ........................................................................................................................................... 37
What is a rocket? ........................................................................................................................................... 38
Solid-Fuel Rockets ............................................................................................................................................ 38
Liquid-Fuel Rockets .......................................................................................................................................... 39
The History of the Rocket .............................................................................................................................. 41
Early Rocketry................................................................................................................................................... 41
Early Manned Rocketry .................................................................................................................................... 42
Modern Rocketry ............................................................................................................................................. 43
APOLLO HARDWARE .................................................................................................................... 44
Apollo Rockets ............................................................................................................................................... 45
Little Joe II ........................................................................................................................................................ 46
Saturn I ............................................................................................................................................................. 47
Saturn IB ........................................................................................................................................................... 48
Saturn V ............................................................................................................................................................ 49
Apollo Spacecraft .......................................................................................................................................... 51
Launch Escape System ..................................................................................................................................... 51
CSM .................................................................................................................................................................. 52
Lunar Module ................................................................................................................................................... 53
Terrestrial Equipment .................................................................................................................................... 54
Crawler-Transporter ......................................................................................................................................... 54
Mobile Launcher Platform................................................................................................................................ 55
Mobile Quarantine Facility ............................................................................................................................... 55
Lunar Equipment ........................................................................................................................................... 56
ALSEP ................................................................................................................................................................ 56
Lunar Flag Assembly ......................................................................................................................................... 57
Apollo TV Camera ............................................................................................................................................. 57
Modular Equipment Transporter ..................................................................................................................... 58
Lunar Roving Vehicle ........................................................................................................................................ 58
Apollo A7L ........................................................................................................................................................ 59
Fallen Astronaut ............................................................................................................................................... 60
APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION ................................................................................................. 61
Saturn I Missions ........................................................................................................................................... 62
SA-1 .................................................................................................................................................................. 62
SA-2 .................................................................................................................................................................. 63
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SA-3 .................................................................................................................................................................. 64
SA-4 .................................................................................................................................................................. 65
SA-5 .................................................................................................................................................................. 66
A-101 ................................................................................................................................................................ 67
A-102 ................................................................................................................................................................ 68
A-103 ................................................................................................................................................................ 69
The Pegasus Satellite Program ..................................................................................................................... 69
A-104 ................................................................................................................................................................ 70
A-105 ................................................................................................................................................................ 71
Launchpad LES Abort Tests ............................................................................................................................ 72
Pad Abort Test 1 ............................................................................................................................................... 72
Pad Abort Test 2 ............................................................................................................................................... 73
Little Joe II LES Abort Tests ............................................................................................................................ 74
QTV ................................................................................................................................................................... 74
A-001 ................................................................................................................................................................ 75
A-002 ................................................................................................................................................................ 76
A-003 ................................................................................................................................................................ 77
A-004 ................................................................................................................................................................ 78
Unmanned Missions ...................................................................................................................................... 79
AS-201 .............................................................................................................................................................. 79
AS-203 .............................................................................................................................................................. 80
AS-202 .............................................................................................................................................................. 81
Apollo 1 ............................................................................................................................................................ 82
Crew ............................................................................................................................................................. 82
Mission Background ..................................................................................................................................... 83
Accident ....................................................................................................................................................... 83
Investigations ............................................................................................................................................... 85
Apollo 4 ............................................................................................................................................................ 86
Apollo 5 ............................................................................................................................................................ 87
Apollo 6 ............................................................................................................................................................ 88
Manned Missions .......................................................................................................................................... 89
Apollo 7 ............................................................................................................................................................ 89
Crew ............................................................................................................................................................. 89
Mission Objectives ....................................................................................................................................... 90
Flight ............................................................................................................................................................ 90
Issues in Space ............................................................................................................................................. 91
After the Flight ............................................................................................................................................. 93
Apollo 8 ............................................................................................................................................................ 95
Crew ............................................................................................................................................................. 95
Before the Flight .......................................................................................................................................... 96
The Outbound Trip ....................................................................................................................................... 96
Lunar Orbit ................................................................................................................................................... 97
Apollo 9 ............................................................................................................................................................ 99
Crew ............................................................................................................................................................. 99
Mission Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 100
Apollo 10 ........................................................................................................................................................ 101
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Crew ........................................................................................................................................................... 101
Mission Overview ....................................................................................................................................... 102
Apollo 11 ........................................................................................................................................................ 104
Launch and TLI ........................................................................................................................................... 105
Lunar Descent and Landing ........................................................................................................................ 105
Lunar Surface Operations .......................................................................................................................... 109
“In Event of Moon Disaster” ...................................................................................................................... 112
Return to Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 113
Apollo 12 ........................................................................................................................................................ 115
Launch, TLI and Lunar Landing ................................................................................................................... 116
Lunar Surface Operations .......................................................................................................................... 117
Return ........................................................................................................................................................ 118
Apollo 13 ........................................................................................................................................................ 119
Launch and TLI ........................................................................................................................................... 120
Oxygen tank explosion ............................................................................................................................... 120
Crew survival and return journey .............................................................................................................. 121
Re-entry and splashdown .......................................................................................................................... 122
Apollo 14 ........................................................................................................................................................ 124
Launch, TLI and Descent ............................................................................................................................ 125
Lunar Surface Operations .......................................................................................................................... 126
Return to Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 127
Apollo 15 ........................................................................................................................................................ 128
Pre-Mission Training .................................................................................................................................. 129
Launch, TLI and Descent ............................................................................................................................ 129
Lunar Surface Operations .......................................................................................................................... 130
Return to Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 131
Apollo 16 ........................................................................................................................................................ 132
Launch, TLI and Descent ............................................................................................................................ 133
Lunar Operations ....................................................................................................................................... 133
Return to Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 135
Apollo 17 ........................................................................................................................................................ 136
Launch, TLI and Descent ................................................................................................................................. 137
Lunar Surface Operations .......................................................................................................................... 137
Return to Earth .......................................................................................................................................... 140
APOLLO IN HINDSIGHT ............................................................................................................. 141
Legacy of Apollo .......................................................................................................................................... 142
Later Missions ................................................................................................................................................ 142
Skylab ......................................................................................................................................................... 142
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project .......................................................................................................................... 143
Apollo Spin-off Technologies: ............................................................................................................................. 143
Medical Technology ................................................................................................................................... 143
Safety Equipment ....................................................................................................................................... 143
Industrial Technology ................................................................................................................................. 143
Cultural Legacy……………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………………….144
Conspiracy Theories ....................................................................................................................................... 146
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................ 147
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BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................... 150
Websites ......................................................................................................................................................... 150
Media ............................................................................................................................................................. 152
Books .............................................................................................................................................................. 152
GLOSSARY ..................................................................................................................................... 154
Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................. 158
TABLE OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................... 159
INDEX .............................................................................................................................................. 163
One Giant Leap Contents
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2b. The patch of the Apollo Program
One Giant Leap Introduction
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Introduction “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for Mankind”
Neil Armstrong – 21st July 1969
The Apollo Program was one of the most
inspirational human achievements in
history. During its fifteen years,
humanity’s first cautious steps on another
celestial body were made, and, in doing
so, history was made too.
The program was first conceived during
Dwight Eisenhower’s presidency. It was to
be a three-man spacecraft to follow the
one-man Project Mercury, which put the
first American in space, Alan Shepard.
Following his assassination, Apollo was
later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy's national goal of "landing a man
on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" which he wanted to
achieve before 1970.
Apollo was the third Human
Spaceflight Program, preceded by
Project Mercury (mentioned above)
which ran from
In total, six manned crafts have landed
on The Moon’s surface, and twelve
men have walked there. All of these
astronauts were participants in the
Apollo program, which was, and still is,
the most successful lunar exploration
3. Apollo 12 launches from the Kennedy Space Center
4. Buzz Aldrin near a solar wind experiment
One Giant Leap Introduction
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5. Gus Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee, the Apollo 1 crew who died in a launchpad fire and became the first astronauts to die in service.
project in the history of our species.
In today’s money, the program cost around $170 billion. Around 450,000
people were directly involved with the program, with countless other millions
building rockets, computer systems and equipment. Every person in America
paid extra tax to fund the launches. The result? The most amazing journeys
ever made by humans. 382kg of moon rock was brought back to Earth,
providing us with valuable information about the composition of our only
moon. The six space flights returned 2200 separate rock samples from six
different exploration sites on the Moon. On top of this, the astronauts took
hundreds of photographs and many pieces of video footage.
The quotation at the head of this introduction is so very apt: for indeed it was a
single step that brought humankind into the future.
Many sacrifices were made during the
Apollo Program. Most notable of these were
the deaths of three astronauts, Virgil “Gus”
Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee.
They were the Apollo 1 crew whom were
tragically killed when their capsule was
destroyed in a fire during a launchpad test.
There were also several failed missions and
therefore millions of dollars lost.
But what we have gained surely outweighs
the losses. All children know about
Armstrong’s moonwalk. Most people have
heard of Alan Shephard’s famous round of
golf on the Apollo 14 mission. And the
famous film “Apollo 13” was hugely popular
among everyone, winning 13 awards.
Whether in the field of geology, aeronautics or popular culture, it is
indisputable that the Apollo Program has changed humanity forever.
One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA
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AERONAUTICS
BEFORE NASA
One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA Early Aeronautics Hot Air Travel
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Early Aeronautics
Hot Air Travel
On 19 October 1783, the
Montgolfier brothers launched the
first manned flight, a tethered
balloon with humans on board, at
the Folie Titon in Paris. The
aviators were the scientist Jean-
François Pilâtre de Rozier, the
manufacture manager Jean-
Baptiste Réveillon, and Giroud de
Villette. They were the world’s first
aeronauts. On the 23rd of
November in the same year, they launched the first free, untethered flight of a
balloon, with humans onboard. King Louis XVI had originally decreed that
condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier and the Marquis François d'Arlandes, successfully asked for the honour.
They drifted 8 km (5.0 mi) in a balloon powered by a wood fire.
On 1 December, Jacques Charles and Nicolas-Louis Robert launched their
manned hydrogen balloon from the Jardin des
Tuileries in Paris, amid a crowd of 400,000. This
was an early ancestor of the zeppelin. They
ascended to a height of about 500m and
landed at sunset in Nesles-la-Vallée after a
flight of 2 hours that covered 36km. After
6. An artist's impression of the first Montgolfier flight in Paris.
7. Henri Giffard's airship
One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA Early Aeronautics The First Planes
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Robert alighted, Charles decided to ascend alone. This time he ascended
rapidly to an altitude of about 3,000 metres, where he suffered extreme pain
in his ears, and never flew again.
Ballooning became a fashion in Europe in the late 1700’s, providing the first
detailed understanding of the atmosphere.
Work on developing a steerable balloon (now dubbed an “airship”) continued
slowly through the 19th century. The first powered, controlled and sustained
flight is believed to have taken place in 1852 when Henri Giffard flew 24km in
France, with a steam engine driven craft.
Another major advance was made in 1884, when
the first fully controllable flight was made in a
French Army electric airship. It was named “La
France”, and was flown Charles Renard and Arthur
Krebs. The 52m long airship covered 8 km in 23
minutes with the help of an 8½ horsepower
electric motor.
The First Planes
The first published paper on aviation was "Sketch of a Machine for Flying in the
Air" by Emanuel Swedenborg published in 1716. His “plane” was made of a
light frame covered with strong canvas and provided with two large wings
moving up and down, arranged so that the upstroke met with no resistance
while the downstroke provided lifting power. Swedenborg knew that the
machine would not fly, but suggested it as a start and was confident that the
problem would be solved.
8. "La France": the first fully controllable airship
One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA Early Aeronautics
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During the last years of the 18th century, Sir
George Cayley experimented with planes that used
both internal and external combustion engines,
sometimes fuelled by gunpowder. Later Cayley
turned his research to building a full-scale version,
first flying it unmanned in 1849. In 1853, his
coachman made a short unpowered gliding flight.
In 1848, John Stringfellow made a successful indoor
test flight of a steam-powered model, in Chard,
Somerset, England.
In 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made a big
jump forward by making the first flight higher than
his point of departure, by having his glider
"L'Albatros artificiel" pulled by a horse on a beach. He reportedly achieved a
height of 100 metres, over a distance of 200 metres.
In 1874, Félix du Temple built the "Monoplane", which was a large plane made
of aluminium with a wingspan of
13 metres. Several trials were
made with the plane, and it
achieved lift off under its own
power after a ski-jump run, glided
for a short time and returned
safely to the ground, making it the
first successful powered flight in
history, however short and quick. This flight was still not controlled: this was
the next thing to be developed.
9. Sir George Cayley’s design for a "governable parachute"
10. Felix du Temple's "Monoplane"
One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA Early Aeronautics Controlled and Powered Flight
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Controlled and Powered Flight Some of the greatest advances in human flight occurred at the beginning of the
20th century. Balloons, known as “blimps” had already been used for controlled
powered flights, but they were all unmanned, and therefore lighter than air.
The first flight that was heavier than air was reputed to have been made by a
man known as Gustave Weißkopf
Gustave Weißkopf was a
German who emigrated to
the U.S. On August 14th,
1901, two and a half years
before the Wright Brothers'
flight, he claimed to have
carried out a controlled,
powered flight in his
“Number 21” monoplane
at Fairfield, Connecticut.
Many people do not accept
his flight as the first
controlled and powered
flight, instead giving the honour to the Wright Brothers.
The Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier-than-air
manned flight at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, four miles (8 km) south of Kitty
Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903.
The first flight by Orville Wright, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was
recorded in a famous photograph. In the fourth flight of the same day, Wilbur
Wright flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59 seconds.
11. The Wright Brothers' First Flight
One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA The World at War
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The World at War The First World War
In 1914, the First World War began. This
was the first major military event that
involved planes. They were extensively
used for reconnaissance, helping generals
to spot enemy artillery and map enemy
trenches. Later, they were used as
bombers. Typically, however, 1914
aircraft could carry only very small loads –
the bombs themselves, and their
stowage, were still very basic, and effective bomb sights were still to be
developed. Nonetheless, the beginnings of strategic and tactical bombing date
from the beginnings of the war.
One problem that faced commanders
was the lack of weaponry on planes.
This was solved by a Frenchman called
Roland Garros in late 1914. He needed
to make sure that the machinegun did
not hit the propeller: he did this using
a cam attached to the propeller shaft.
Adolphe Pegoud became the first “ace” (killing at least five enemies) and the
first pilot to be shot down in action. The German aviator, Lieutenant Kurt
Wintgens was first to shoot down an enemy plane from his own plane, on the
1st July 1915. Manfred von Richthofen, famously known as “The Red Baron”
(and subject of many books and films) managed to shoot down 80 planes in
air-to-air combat before he was killed in 1918.
12. The Sopwith Camel, the most successful Allied fighter plane in the First World War
13. A Fokker plane, similar to the one used by The Red Baron
One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA The World at War Between the Wars
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Between the Wars The years between World War I and World
War II saw great advancements in aircraft
technology. Airplanes evolved from low-
powered biplanes made from wood and fabric
to sleek, high-powered monoplanes made of
aluminium. The age of the great, rigid,
hydrogen and helium airships came and went.
After the First World War, pilots who had been
fighting were eager to show off their new
talents. Some American pilots became known
as “barnstormers”. They would tour the
country, doing performances and taking
passengers for rides. Eventually the
barnstormers grouped into more organized displays, sometimes known as a
“flying circus”. Air shows sprang up around the country, with air races,
acrobatic stunts, and feats of air superiority. Amelia Earhart was perhaps the
most famous air show pilots. She was also the first female pilot to successfully
cross both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. High prizes were offered at these
shows, which encouraged plane manufacturers to build faster and stronger
planes.
Other prizes, for distance and speed records, also drove development
forwards. The first aerial crossing of the South Atlantic was made by the
Portuguese naval aviators Gago Coutinho
and Sacadura Cabral in 1922, from
Lisbon, Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Five years later Charles Lindbergh took
the Orteig Prize of $25,000 for the first
solo non-stop crossing of the Atlantic.
By 1929, airship technology had
advanced to the point that the first
14. Amelia Earhart, a famous barnstormer
15. The Hindenburg Disaster
One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA The World at War Between the Wars
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round-the-world flight was
completed by the Graf
Zeppelin in September and in
October, the same aircraft
inaugurated the first
commercial transatlantic
service. However , this period
ended following the
destruction by fire of the
zeppelin Hindenburg just
before landing in New Jersey
on May 6th, 1937, killing 35
of the 97 people aboard.
Meanwhile in Germany, which was restricted by the Treaty of Versailles
(instated after WW1) in its development of powered aircraft, instead
developed gliding as a sport, which now has over 400,000 participants across
the world.
1929 saw the first flight of, by far, the largest plane ever built until then: the
Dornier DO X with a wingspan of 48 m, sometimes referred to as a “flying
boat”. On its 70th test flight on October 21st, there were 169 people on board,
a record that was not broken for 20 years.
Less than a decade after
the development of the
first rotorcraft was
created, in the Soviet
Union, Boris N. Yuriev and
Alexei M. Cheremukhin,
two engineers ,
constructed and flew the
TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter, which used an open tubing framework, a
four blade main rotor.
In the 1930s development of the jet engine began in Germany and in Britain –
both countries would go on to develop jet aircraft by the end of World War II.
16. The gigantic Dornier DO X seaplane.
17. The TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter
One Giant Leap AERONAUTICS BEFORE NASA The World at War The Second World War
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The Second World War World War II saw a drastic increase
in aircraft development. All
countries involved in the war
constructed aeroplanes, and new
types of aircraft went into
production such as the long distance
bomber. New technologies like
radar allowed more coordinated
and controlled deployment of air
defence. The main differences
between the aircraft of the inter-
war period and the aircraft of WW2
were a massive increase in speed and range.
Helicopters also underwent massive development in the Second World War,
but these are less relevant to the age of space exploration.
The first functional jet plane was the “Heinkel He 178”, flown in August 1939
for the first time along with the first (and to date the only) operational rocket-
powered combat aircraft the “Me 163” was a major development that led
towards space exploration. However, jet fighters had only limited impact due
to their late introduction and hunger for fuel.
18. The Me 163, the first and only rocket-powered combat plane.
One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA
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THE CREATION OF
NASA
One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA NACA
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NACA The NACA (The National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics) was a U.S. Government agency
found in March 1915 to undertake and
promote aeronautical research and the
predecessor of NASA. It was pronounced as
individual letters, not an acronym. The
agency was dissolved on October 1st, 1958
and its staff and assets were transferred to
NASA.
NACA made several notable achievements: they
claimed credit for having the first aircraft to break
the sound barrier (although the aircraft, the Bell X-1,
was controlled by the Air Force). They also claim credit for the first aircraft (the
Bell X-15) that eventually flew to the "edge of space". NACA aerofoils are still
used on modern aircraft, and their research with air tunnels was invaluable
during The Second World War.
The main difference between the NACA and NASA is that the NACA was strictly
federal and military based, whereas NASA was more public and designed for
peaceful operations.
19. The NACA's logo
One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA The Cold War
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The Cold War
The Cold War was the tense
relationship between the United
States (and its allies) and the Soviet
Union (USSR) (and its allies) between
the end of World War II and the
collapse of the Soviet Union. This war
was unlike other wars in that the two
sides never clashed directly in battle.
There was considerable fear that the
relationship would end in nuclear
war, but fortunately, this did not
happen.
America’s allies consisted mainly of NATO members, and Russia’s allies were
mainly Asian and Eastern European.
This intense showdown between the US and the USSR lead to “The Space
Race”, which was a race to put a man in orbit, and then to put a man on the
Moon. This is explored on the next page.
After the United States tried to invade Cuba and, the Soviet Union attempted
to supply Cuba with nuclear missiles. These missiles in Cuba would have
allowed the Soviet Union to effectively target almost the entire United States.
In response, the United States sent a large number of ships to blockade Cuba
thus preventing the Soviet Union from delivering these weapons. This was the
highest period of tension during the Cold War and it was the closest the world
came to a nuclear war, with possible global conflict to follow.
20. A map of European Cold War Alliances
One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA The Space Race
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The Space Race The Space Race was the competition between the Soviet Union (USSR) and the
United States (US) for supremacy in space exploration. Between 1957 and
1975, the Cold War rivalry between the two nations focused on attaining
“firsts” in space exploration.
The Space Race had its origins in
the missile-based arms race that
occurred just after the end of
the World War II, when both the
Soviet Union and the United
States captured advanced
German rocket technology and
personnel.
It ultimately led to the race to
the Moon and thus the Apollo
Program.
Space Race Milestones Below is a list of all the major achievements of the Space Race. U.S. Victories
are marked in blue and Soviet victories are marked in red. The Nazis achieved
the first milestone.
On October the 23th 1942, the German V2 was the first rocket to reach
the boundary of space.
On the 20th of February 1947, the first animals were launched into space.
Fruit flies were used to study the effects of space travel on animals.
21. Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space
One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA The Space Race Space Race Milestones
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Albert II, a rhesus monkey, was the first mammal in space. Albert went
into space on 14th June 1949 in a specially adapted American V2 rocket
that flew to a height of 83 miles.
On the 4th of October 1957, Russia launched the first satellite into space:
Sputnik 1. Sputnik means "Satellite" in Russian.
On the 3rd of November 1957, the Russian “space dog” Laika became
the first animal to orbit the earth (as opposed to reaching space) in
Sputnik 2.
On September the 14th 1959, Russian Space-probe Luna 2 crash-landed
into the moon, becoming the first craft to reach it.
On 12th April 1961, Russian Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first
man in space. Gagarin's spacecraft, Vostok 1, completed one orbit of the
earth, and landed about two hours after launch.
The first woman in space was Russian cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova
on the 16th of June 1963.
On the 3rd of February 1966, the Russian Luna 9 spacecraft was the first
spacecraft to achieve a soft landing on the Moon, and to transmit
photos back to Earth.
On the 20th July 1969, Neil Armstrong, and then Buzz Aldrin took "one
small step" and became the first men on the moon. The first words said
on the moon were "the Eagle has landed".
As we can see, the majority of the Space Race victories were taken by the
Russians. The U.S. had an early and successful start, launching the first large
mammal into space over a decade before the Russians put their first
cosmonaut into orbit. Also, the U.S. achieved perhaps the greatest milestone:
getting a man to land safely on the Moon and returning them to Earth. The
Soviets took all the other achievements, including all the ones relating to
Earth-orbit.
While the Soviets successfully completed more goals, the Americans
undoubtedly did a better job of capturing our imaginations in 1969.
Perhaps the reason that the U.S.S.R. was not given as much credit as it
deserved during the Space Race was the secrecy that surrounded Soviet
operations during the Cold War.
One Giant Leap THE CREATION OF NASA The Establishment of NASA Space Race Milestones
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The Establishment
of NASA After the Russians launched the world's first
artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October the
4th, 1957, the attention of the United States
turned toward its own space exploration
efforts. The U.S. Congress, alarmed by the
threat to national security and technological
leadership (known as the "Sputnik crisis"),
urged immediate and swift action. This led
to an agreement that a new federal agency
mainly based on NACA was needed to
conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for
military application.
On July 29, 1958, President Dwight Eisenhower
signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act,
establishing NASA. When it began operations on
October the 1st, 1958, NASA absorbed the 46-year-
old NACA intact: its 8,000 employees, an annual
budget of $100 million, three major research
laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory,
Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, and Lewis Flight
Propulsion Laboratory). An official NASA seal was
approved by President Eisenhower in 1959.
23. NASA's logo
22. President Dwight Eisenhower
One Giant Leap EARLY NASA PROGRAMS
28
EARLY NASA
PROGRAMS
One Giant Leap EARLY NASA PROGRAMS X-Plane Program Notable Early X-Planes
29
X-Plane Program The X-plane program is a
series of experimental
planes, helicopters and
rockets used to test new
technologies and
concepts. Testing was
started by the NACA in
1946, and has continued
to the present day under
NASA and the US Air
Force. As of now, there
have been 55 X-plane designs.
Some X-planes were well publicized, while others were developed in secrecy.
The first, the Bell X-1, became well known after it became the first aircraft to
break the sound barrier in level flight (see page 23).
Most X-planes did not go into major production, with one exception being the
Lockheed Martin X-35, which has entered production as the F-35 fighter jet.
Notable Early X-Planes X-1 – The first plane to break Mach 1
X-2 – The first plane to break Mach 2
X-5 – First plane to fly with variable geometry (moveable) wings
X-15 – Fastest manned, powered aircraft in history (7,274km/h); First
space plane (pilot Joe Walker became first man to enter space twice)
24. The X-15, the fastest manned aircraft in history
One Giant Leap EARLY NASA PROGRAMS Project Mercury
30
Project Mercury Project Mercury was the first human
spaceflight program of the US. It ran
from 1959 to 1963 with the goal of
putting a human in orbit around the
Earth, and doing it before the Soviet
Union. It involved seven astronauts,
although only six flew. On May 5th
1961, Alan Shepard became the first
American in space, one month after
Yuri Gagarin’s first flight. John Glenn
became the first American to reach
orbit on February 20th 1962.
From a slow start with many
mistakes, the Mercury Project
became popular worldwide and the
manned flights were followed by
millions on radio and TV not only in
United States, but also around the world. As well as the six manned missions,
Mercury had a total of 20 unmanned launches as a part of the development of
the project. This also involved test animals, most famously the chimpanzees
Ham and Enos. Mercury laid the groundwork for Project Gemini and in turn the
Apollo Program, which was announced a few weeks after the first manned
flight. The program cost around $1.73 billion in current prices and involved 2
million people.
25. The "Mercury Seven". Back row: Shepard, Grissom, Cooper; front row: Schirra, Slayton, Glenn, Carpenter
One Giant Leap EARLY NASA PROGRAMS Project Gemini
31
Project Gemini Project Gemini was the
second human spaceflight
program of NASA. It was
conducted between
Projects Mercury and
Apollo, and had sixteen
astronauts fly ten manned
flights occurring in 1965
and 1966. All the Gemini
Spacecraft were launch on
Titan II GLVs.
Its objective was to develop space travel techniques in support of Apollo,
which had the goal of landing men on the Moon. Gemini achieved missions
long enough for a trip to the Moon
and back, perfected extra-vehicular
activity and orbital manoeuvres.
Rendezvous in orbit is not a
straightforward manoeuvre. If a
spacecraft increases its speed to
catch up with another, it would go
to a higher and slower orbit and the
distance would increase. The right
procedure is actually to slow down
and go to a lower orbit first and
later to increase speed and go to
the same orbit as the other c raft.
These manoeuvres required a lot of
practice.
26. The Gemini Spacecraft
27. The launch of Gemini VIII
One Giant Leap Project Gemini
32
Highlights of the Gemini program included:
Edward H. White
became the first
American to make an
EVA, on June 3rd 1965,
during Gemini 4.
Gemini 5 demonstrated
the 8-day endurance
necessary for an Apollo
lunar mission with the
first use of fuel cells to
generate its electrical
power.
Gemini 6A and 7 accomplished the first space rendezvous in December
1965, and Gemini 7 set a 14-day endurance record.
Gemini 8 achieved the first space docking with an unmanned Agena
Target Vehicle.
Gemini 11 set a manned Earth orbital altitude record of 1,369.0 km in
September 1966. This record still stands.
Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin on Gemini 12 became the first space traveller to
prove that useful work could be done outside a spacecraft without life-
threatening exhaustion.
The program cost $7.3 billion in today’s money.
28. Ed White performing the first U.S. spacewalk
One Giant Leap THE MOON
33
THE MOON
One Giant Leap THE MOON Formation
34
The Moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth and the fifth largest and
second densest moon in the Solar System. It is the most luminous object in the
sky after the Sun. Unusually, the Moon is in synchronous rotation with Earth,
which means we always see only one side. It is the only celestial body other
than Earth on which humans have set foot.
Future manned missions to the Moon have been planned, including
government as well as privately funded efforts. The Moon remains, under the
Outer Space Treaty, free to all nations to explore for peaceful purposes.
Formation The Moon was formed around 4.53
billion years ago, although some people
suggest that around 4.4 billion is more
accurate.
The most commonly accepted
explanation for its formation is that the
Earth and Moon formed because of a
giant impact, where a Mars-sized
“planet” (named Theia, after the Greek
goddess who was mother of Selene, the
Moon goddess) collided with the newly formed Earth, shooting material into
orbit, which accumulated to form the Moon. This would make sense, as the
Earth was constantly being bombarded during the formation of the Solar
System.
Using computer simulations, we would think that most of the Moon came from
Theia, not from Earth, but rocks collected during the Apollo Program suggest
otherwise, as the rocks found on the Moon are so similar to the ones found on
the Earth (one exception might be the three rocks found on Apollo 11 (See
page 104). Perhaps Earth rock collected towards the Moon’s crust and Theian
rock towards the core, or maybe both Earth and Theia had similar
compositions.
29. An artist's impression of the collision of Earth and Theia
One Giant Leap THE MOON Physical Features
35
The energy released during this collision would have caused both the Earth and
the Moon to contain massive magma oceans.
Physical Features
Geography The lunar surface is divided into two distinct areas: the darker maria (seas) and
the lighter terrae (highlands). The maria are composed of solidified basalt lava.
The terrae are possibly the remnants of “islands” in the magma ocean created
during the Moon’s formation (see page 34). There are also hundreds of
thousands of craters on the lunar surface, the largest being the 2,240km South
Pole-Aitken Basin, which is one of the biggest impact sites ever discovered.
30. A Soviet map of the Moon's near side
One Giant Leap THE MOON Physical Features
36
Internal Structure and Composition The Moon has a solid and iron-rich inner core with a radius
of 240km and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid
iron with a radius of roughly 300km. Around the core is a
molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500km,
surrounded by a large solid mantle.
The crust is an average of 50km
thick.
Atmosphere The Moon has an atmosphere so small that it is nearly a
vacuum, with a total mass of less than 10 tons. Its
sources include the release of trapped particles and the
release of atoms from the bombardment of lunar soil by
solar wind ions. Elements include sodium; potassium; helium-4; argon-40;
radon-222; polonium-210. The absence of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen
and magnesium is not understood. Water vapour has been detected, but there
is very little.
Gravitational Field The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of
the Moon is 1.6249 m/s2, about 16.6% that on
Earth's surface. Because weight is directly
dependent upon gravitational acceleration, things
on the Moon will weigh only 16.6% of what they
weigh on the Earth.
The major characteristic of the Moon's
gravitational field is the presence of mascons (mass concentrations), which are
large gravity anomalies around some impact basins. It has been speculated
that these are something to do with volcanic activity, although this is unlikely.
These anomalies greatly influence the orbit of lunar satellites, and caused
several difficulties during tests for the Apollo Program.
31. The Moon's interior structure
32. Lunar surface composition
33. John Young jumping on the Moon
One Giant Leap ROCKETS
37
ROCKETS
One Giant Leap ROCKETS What is a rocket? Solid-Fuel Rockets
38
What is a rocket? “A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that
obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is
formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before
use. Rocket engines work by
action and reaction.” – Wiktionary
Definition
A rocket differs from other types of
aircraft, as detailed above. While
propellers and jet engines push planes
forward by the movement of air, rockets can move forwards simply using
Newton’s Third Law of motion: “To every action there is always an equal and
opposite reaction: or the forces of two bodies on each other are always equal
and are directed in opposite directions.” In other words, as the rocket engine
pushes propellant in one direction, the engine itself is forced in the opposite
direction, carrying the rocket forward. This allows it to function in the vacuum
of space, where no air is present. In fact, rockets are considerably more
efficient when travelling in vacuums, as air causes drag, slowing the rocket. The
same effect can be achieved if one were to sit on a supermarket trolley and
throw tennis balls, although it would be nearly undetectable.
There are two different types of rockets, solid-fuel and liquid-fuel.
Solid-Fuel Rockets These rockets contain a large stock of solid propellant, which is a mixture of
fuel and an oxidiser. There are various different types of solid propellant. One
common option is a compound containing 72% nitrate, 24% carbon and 4%
sulphur. This compound is very much like gunpowder, but due to the different
proportions of the materials, it burns rapidly rather than exploding. When
34. A diagram showing how a rocket can move in a vacuum
One Giant Leap ROCKETS What is a rocket? Liquid-Fuel Rockets
39
loaded into the rocket, the fuel is shaped as a cylinder with a tube drilled down
the middle. After ignition, the fuel burns along the walls of this tube, gradually
being consuming until there is none left.
There are several advantages to using a solid-fuel rocket: They are very simple,
the fuel is relatively inexpensive and (assuming the fuel and the tank were
produced properly) they are very safe, as the fuel will simply burn until it is
gone, and then stop. They are no moving parts.
The disadvantages of using a solid-fuel
rocket make them impractical for
movement in space. They are most
useful for initially leaving the
atmosphere. This is because the thrust
cannot be controlled at all: Once lit, it
will burn only at one steady rate,
which is defined by the fuel
composition. Also, the engine cannot
be stopped without destroying the
remaining fuel, making it a single use
booster.
Liquid-Fuel Rockets
Liquid Fuel rocket propulsion systems are much more complex than Solid fuel
systems. The first Liquid propellant rocket system was tested in 1926 by Robert
Goddard.
In the most basic sense, a liquid fuel rocket works by pumping a fuel (such as
gasoline) and an oxidizer (such as Liquid Oxygen) into a combustion chamber.
There, the fuel is ignited, creating a high-pressure and high-velocity stream of
gases. These gases are then directed through a nozzle and out of the craft, like
in a solid-fuel rocket.
In order to overcome the high pressures created in the combustion chamber
when the fuel is ignited, the pumps have to be very powerful. Both the fuel
35. A comparison between liquid-fuel and solid-fuel rockets
One Giant Leap ROCKETS What is a rocket? Liquid-Fuel Rockets
40
and the oxidiser are stored in a
compressed liquid form, hence
the name of the rocket. In order
to counteract the large
amounts of heat produced in
the combustion chamber, the cool gases are often circulated around the
combustion chamber before being pumped in. A real Liquid propulsion system
can get very complicated and extremely expensive compared to a solid fuel
rocket. There are various types of fuel commonly used in Liquid Propulsion
systems. For example, liquid hydrogen was used in the space shuttle main
engines, gasoline was the basic fuel in Goddard’s early rockets and kerosene
was used in the many of the Saturn V boosters in the Apollo Program.
Liquid propulsion rockets have many advantages over solid propulsion
systems: one can control the amount of thrust by regulating the flow of the
fuel and oxidizer to the combustion chamber and one can stop and restart the
engines by simply stopping the flow of fuel and restarting it. However, as I
mentioned above, Liquid systems are very complicated and expensive. In
addition, they are not as safe, because an incorrect mixture of propellant and
oxidiser could cause an explosion. Liquid fuel rockets are not normally used
where a solid fuel booster would suffice, such as in the initial stages of a
rocket.
36. The engine of a liquid-fuel rocket
One Giant Leap ROCKETS The History of the Rocket Early Rocketry
41
The History of the
Rocket Early Rocketry
In the ninth century, Chinese
Taoist alchemists invented
gunpowder while searching for
the “Elixir of life”. This
invention led to bombs,
cannons – and rockets.
One of the earliest devices
recorded that used rocket
propulsion was the “ground-
rat”, a type of firework, recorded in 1264 as having frightened the Empress-
Mother Kung Sheng at a feast held in her honour
One of the earliest texts to mention the use of rockets was the Huolongjing,
written by the Chinese artillery officer Jiao Yu in the mid-14th century. This
text also mentioned the use of the first known multistage rocket, the 'fire-
dragon issuing from the water', used mostly by the Chinese navy. This multi-
stage rocket was the distant ancestor of the space rockets used today.
Rocket technology first became known to Europeans following their use by the
Mongols when they conquered parts of Eastern Europe. The Mongolians had
acquired the Chinese technology by conquest of the northern part of China and
37. A depiction of an early Chinese rocket
One Giant Leap ROCKETS The History of the Rocket Early Manned Rocketry
42
also by the subsequent employment of Chinese rocketry experts as
mercenaries for the Mongol military. Also, the spread of rockets into Europe
was influenced by the Ottomans at the siege of Constantinople in 1453.
Roger Bacon made one of the earliest mentions of gunpowder in Europe in
1267, in his work “Epistola de secretis operibus artiis et naturae”. His studies of
gunpowder greatly improved the range of
rockets. Bacon has been credited by some
authors as the inventor of gunpowder
(although the first to use it were Chinese),
because around 1261 he developed the
correct formula for gunpowder (75%
saltpetre (potassium nitrate), 15% carbon
and 10% sulphur). Jean Froissart had the idea
of launching rockets through tubes, so that
they could make flights that are more
accurate. Froissart's idea is a forerunner of
the modern bazooka.
Early Manned Rocketry
There are several legends of manned rocket flight that come from Ancient
China. No evidence has ever been found to prove any of these are true.
In Ottoman Turkey in 1633, according to one account, Lagari Hasan Çelebi
launched in a seven-winged rocket using 64kg of gunpowder from and made a
successful landing – winning him a position in the Ottoman army. The flight
was estimated to have lasted about 200 seconds and the maximum height
reached around 300 meters. This flight was not controlled in any way.
38. A portrait of Roger Bacon
One Giant Leap ROCKETS The History of the Rocket Modern Rocketry
43
Modern Rocketry
In 1926, Robert Goddard launched the world's first
liquid-fuelled rocket in Auburn, Massachusetts.
During the 1920s, a number of rocket research
organizations appeared in the United States,
Austria, Britain, Czechoslovakia, France, Italy,
Germany, and Russia. Eventually, this lead to the
development of rockets used in World War Two.
After this, the attention of the World turned not
only to more advanced weaponry (which I will not
delve into), but also to the exploration of space.
39. Robert Goddard with his rocket
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE
44
APOLLO HARDWARE
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets
45
Apollo Rockets Four different boosters were used in the Apollo Program:
Little Joe II – This flew purely on unmanned sub-orbital test missions.
Saturn I – This flew unmanned sub-orbital and orbital test missions.
Saturn IB – This flew preparatory unmanned missions, and Apollo 7, the
first successful manned flight in the Apollo Program.
Saturn V – This flew several unmanned tests and then all other manned
Apollo missions
The height, mass, length and diameter of all boosters does not include
the payload. The speed and thrust are the maximum ever achieved by
that rocket during the Apollo Program. In the “Apollo Launches”
parameter, italics indicate a failure or partial failure during the mission
and underlined text indicates a cancellation or a planned mission which
never took place due to issues on the ground
40. A comparison of the four Apollo rockets
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets Little Joe II
46
Little Joe II Little Joe II was used for five unmanned tests of
the launch escape system (LES) and to test the
command module parachutes for the Apollo
spacecraft from 1963–66. They were launched
from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico.
The booster's predecessor, Little Joe, was used
to test the LES for the Mercury spacecraft (see
page 30).
Manufacturer: Algol/Recruit
Apollo Launches (5): QTV, A-001 , A-002, A-003, A-004
Length: 26.2m
Mass: 25,900kg
Diameter: 3.9m
Total Burn Time: ~50s
Max Speed: ~800m/s
Max Thrust: 1,766,000N
Stages: 2 (+ Booster)
Booster Stage: Engines: 5xRecruit
Thrust: 167,000N
Burn Time: 1.53s
Fuel: Solid
First Stage: Engines: 2xAlgol
Thrust: 465,000N each
Burn Time: 40s
Fuel: Solid
Second Stage: Engines: 2xAlgol
Thrust: 465,000N each
Burn Time: 40s
Fuel: Solid
41. Little Joe II
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets Saturn I
47
Saturn I The Saturn I was the United States' first rocket
designed specifically to launch large payloads into
low Earth orbit. Most of the rocket's power came
from a cluster of Rocketdyne H-1 engines. One of
its major successes was the flight verification of the
Apollo Command and Service Module
aerodynamics in the launch phase. It served only
for a brief period and only with NASA; ten of these
were flown before it was replaced by the derivative
Saturn IB, which featured a more powerful upper
stage and improved instrumentation.
Manufacturer: Chrysler, Douglas, Convair
Apollo Launches (10): SA1, SA2, SA3, SA4, SA5, A-101, A-102, A-103, A-104, A-105
Length: 43.2m
Mass: 510,000kg
Diameter: 6.52m
Total Burn Time: 632s (1062s with 3rd stage)
Max Speed: unmeasured
Max Thrust: 53,600,000N
Stages: 3
First Stage: Engines: 8xRocketdyne H-1
Thrust: 6,700,000N each
Burn Time: ~150s
Fuel: Kerosene/Liquid Oxygen
Second Stage: Engines: 2xAlgol
Thrust: 400,000N each
Burn Time: 482s
Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen
Third Stage: Engines: 2xAlgol
(Never Flown) Thrust: 133,000N each
Burn Time: 430s
Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen
42. Saturn I
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets Saturn IB
48
Saturn IB The Saturn IB (also known as the Uprated Saturn I)
it replaced the S-IV second stage of the Saturn I
with the much more powerful S-IVB. The third
stage was evidently not present in the Saturn IB.
The Saturn IB launched two unmanned CSM
suborbital flights, one unmanned LM orbital flight,
and the first manned CSM orbital mission, Apollo
7. It was planned to launch Apollo 2, but this was
cancelled after the launch pad disaster (see page
82). It also launched one orbital mission, AS-203,
without a payload to observe the behaviour of the
liquid hydrogen fuel in weightlessness.
The Saturn IB also took part in several Skylab missions (See page 142).
Manufacturer: Chrysler, Douglas
Apollo Launches (5)+(1): AS-201, AS-203, AS-202, Apollo 1, Apollo 6, Apollo 7
Length: 55m
Mass: 589,770kg
Diameter: 6.61m
Total Burn Time: 630s
Max Speed: unmeasured
Max Thrust: 56,800,000N
Stages: 2
First Stage: Engines: 8xRocketdyne H-1
Thrust: 7,100,000N each
Burn Time: ~150s
Fuel: Kerosene/Liquid Oxygen
Second Stage: Engines: 1xRocketdyne J-2
Thrust: 890,000N each
Burn Time: 480s
Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen
Third Stage: Engines:
(Not used) Thrust:
Burn Time:
Fuel:
43. Saturn IB
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets Saturn V
49
Saturn V 13 Saturn Vs were launched from the Kennedy Space
Center, Florida with no loss of crew or payload. It remains
the tallest, heaviest, and most powerful rocket ever
brought to operational status and still holds the record for
heaviest payload launched and heaviest payload capacity
(120,000kg). The largest production model of the Saturn
family of rockets, the Saturn V was designed under the
direction of Wernher von Braun and Arthur Rudolph at the
Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.
To date, the Saturn V is the only launch vehicle to
transport human beings beyond low Earth orbit. A total of
24 astronauts were launched to the Moon, (three of them
more than once) from 1968 to 1972
Manufacturer: Boeing, North American Aviation, Douglas
Apollo Launches (12): Apollo 4, Apollo 6, Apollo 8, Apollo 9, Apollo 10, Apollo 11, Apollo 12, Apollo 13, Apollo 14, Apollo 15, Apollo 16, Apollo 17, Apollo 18 - 20
Length: 110.6m
Mass: 2,800,000kg
Diameter: 10.1m
Total Burn Time: 630s
Max Speed: 7,793m/s
Max Thrust: 34,020,000N
Stages: 3
First Stage: Engines: 5xRocketdyne F-1
Thrust: 6,804,000 each
Burn Time: 150s
Fuel: Kerosene/Liquid Oxygen
Second Stage: Engines: 5xRocketdyne J-2
Thrust: 890,000N each
Burn Time: 421s
Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen
Third Stage: Engines: 1xRocketdyne J-2
Thrust: 1,000,000N
Burn Time: 165+335s (2 burns)
Fuel: Liquid Hydrogen/Liquid Oxygen
44. Saturn V
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Rockets Saturn V
50
45. A diagram of the Saturn V rocket
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Spacecraft Launch Escape System
51
Apollo Spacecraft
Launch Escape System The Launch Escape System (LES) was simply a way to
quickly remove the astronauts and the Command
Module from the rest of the rocket in the event of an
emergency, either on the launchpad or during launch
and the early stages of flight. It would then be released
along with the second stage of the main rocket. It was
never used in the Apollo Program. The Russian Soyuz T-
10-1 is the only mission in which a LES successfully saved
a crew’s life during launch. They landed 4km from the
46. A diagram of the Apollo spacecraft
47. The LES tower
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Spacecraft CSM
52
launch site following the explosion of the main stages of the rocket.
CSM Along with the Lunar Module, the
Command/Service Module (CSM)
was the main spacecraft used
once the rocket reached space. It
was built by North American
Aviation. After the Apollo
program, the CSM was used as a
shuttle for the Skylab program,
and later in the Apollo-Soyuz Test
Project.
The CSM consisted of two
segments: the Command Module,
which was designed to hold a
crew of three and equipment for
re-entry; and a Service Module
that provided propulsion,
electricity and storage for various
consumables required during a
mission. The Service Module rockets used dimethylhydrazine,
monomethylhydrazine or hydrazine with nitrogen tetroxide as the oxidiser.
The Service Module was released and allowed to burn up in the atmosphere
before the Command Module re-entered to bring the crew back to Earth.
The tip of the Command Module housed
parachutes, which allowed for a safe
splashdown. It was also coated in heat
resistant tiles, which prevented it from burning
up on re-entry, unlike the service module.
48. The Apollo CSM
49. The CSM above the Moon
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Apollo Spacecraft Lunar Module
53
Lunar Module The Apollo Lunar Module
(LM), also known as the
Lunar Excursion Module
was built by Grumman, and
designed to carry two of
the three Apollo astronauts
to the lunar surface. It has
successfully landed there
six times. The LM was the
most reliable and
successful component of
the Apollo Program: It
never failed on a single
mission, and it helped save
the lives of all three Apollo
13 astronauts following the
CSM malfunction (see page
119).
The LM, consisting of an
ascent stage and descent stage, and was abandoned after the two-man crew
had successfully re-entered the CSM following their moon landing, as it was
structurally incapable of flight through
Earth’s atmosphere.
It was fitted with both an ascent propulsion
system and a descent propulsion system,
which allowed it not only to take off from
the Moon, but also gave the crew time to
hover and select a landing site.
50. A detailed diagram of the LM
51. The Apollo 11 LM descending
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Terrestrial Equipment Crawler-Transporter
54
Terrestrial
Equipment In addition to the headquarters buildings, offices and construction facilities,
NASA also used three pieces of more specialized equipment.
Crawler-Transporter The crawler-transporters are a pair of
tracked vehicles used to transport
spacecraft from NASA's Vehicle
Assembly Building (VAB) along the
Crawler-way to Launch Complex 39.
They were built at a cost of $14 million
to transport the Saturn IB and Saturn V
rockets (and their mobile launcher
platforms) during the Apollo Program.
They are the largest self-powered land
vehicles ever created.
The crawler-transporter has a mass of
2,721,000 kilograms and has eight
tracks, having 57 900kg shoes on each.
The vehicle measures 40 by 35 metres .The height from ground level to the
platform is adjustable from 6.1 to 7.9 m (with each side independently
moveable) and it uses laser guidance systems to keep the rocket upright as it
52. The crawler-transporter on the crawlerway
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Terrestrial Equipment Mobile Launcher Platform
55
traverses the incline leading up to the launchpad. They have a maximum speed
of merely 1.6km/h.
Mobile Launcher Platform The Mobile Launcher Platform was one of three
two-story structures, which supported the rocket
during assembly at the Vehicle Assembly Building,
while being transported to Launch Pads, and during
launch.
Each MLP originally had a single exhaust vent for
the Saturn V's engines. The MLPs also featured a
120 m Launch Umbilical Tower (LUT) with nine arms
that permitted servicing of the vehicle on the
launch pad, and swung away from it at launch.
Mobile Quarantine Facility The Mobile Quarantine Facility (MQF)
was a converted trailer used by NASA
to quarantine astronauts returning
from lunar missions. Its purpose was to
prevent the spread of any contagions
from the moon. The presence of these
contagions was considered unlikely,
and following Apollo 14’s confirmation
that no life existed on the Moon, MQFs
were no longer used.
The MQF contained living and sleeping facilities as well as communications
which the astronauts used to converse with their families. The Apollo 11 crew
also used this to speak with President Nixon who personally welcomed them
back to Earth aboard the recovery ship after splashdown.
53. The Mobile Launcher Platform
54. The Apollo 11 MQF in a museum
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Lunar Equipment ALSEP
56
Lunar Equipment ALSEP
The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments
Package was a set of scientific instruments
placed at the landing site of each mission
to land on the Moon from Apollo 12
onwards (Apollo 11 carried a much more
primitive version, known as the EASEP –
Early Apollo Surface Experiments
Package).
The experiments that would comprise
ALSEP were decided in February 1966:
Passive Lunar Seismic Experiment
Lunar Tri-axis Magnetometer
Medium-Energy Solar Wind
Suprathermal Ion Detection
Lunar Heat Flow Management
Low-Energy Solar Wind
Active Lunar Seismic Experiment
All of these complex experiments were carried out using the vast array of
equipment in the ALSEP. The whole thing was arranged around a Central
Station (which communicated with Earth and linked power to all components)
and the Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (which supplied power from a
Plutonium Core).
55. The Apollo 16 ALSEP setup
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Lunar Equipment Lunar Flag Assembly
57
Lunar Flag Assembly The Lunar Flag Assembly (LFA) was a 3-by-
5-foot flag of the United States and
flagpole planted on the Moon by the
Apollo astronauts.
The LFA was specially designed with a
horizontal pole to support the flag on the
airless Moon to make it appear to flutter
as it would in the wind on Earth. The LFA
presented a range of technical challenges
regarding storage and environmental
resistance, but all were overcome.
As of 2012, the Apollo 12, 16 and 17 LFAs
are still standing. The Apollo 11 flag was
blown over during lift-off. The colours will
have turned white due to sunlight and radiation exposure.
Apollo TV Camera The Apollo TV Cameras varied in design, with image quality improving
significantly with each successive model. Two companies made these various
camera systems: RCA and Westinghouse. Originally, these cameras, running at
10 frames-per-second, produced only black and white pictures. A colour
camera (which ran at 30 fps) flew on the Apollo 10 mission in May 1969, and
every subsequent launch.
By far the most famous of all Apollo cameras
was the Hasselblad EDC. Theses 70mm
cameras took almost all of the photographic
images brought back from the lunar surface.
They took a lot of practise to use correctly,
56. Alan Shepard planting the U.S. Flag
57. An Apollo Television camera
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Lunar Equipment Modular Equipment Transporter
58
as they were worn on the chest.
Modular Equipment Transporter The Modular Equipment Transporter
was a two-wheel cart used for
transporting equipment and rock
samples on the surface of the Moon
during Apollo 14. Designed after Apollo
12 astronauts Pete Conrad and Alan
Bean had difficulties lugging their
equipment over a large distance to and
from the Lunar Module, the MET also functioned as a portable workbench. It
was carried on Apollo 13 and Apollo 14, but was only used on Apollo 14
because Apollo 13 never landed on the Moon.
During one of the traverses, both astronauts had to carry the MET together,
because it was too difficult to pull it through the rough lunar terrain. After
Apollo 14, the Lunar Rover was used as a replacement.
The MET weighed 8.2 kg and could carry 63kg.
Lunar Roving Vehicle The Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV, more
commonly known as the Lunar Rover or Moon
Buggy) was a battery-powered vehicle used on
Apollo 15, 16 and 17 during 1971 and 1972. It
was transported to the Moon on the LM and
was left behind on the lunar surface to cut
down on weight on the return journey. It could
carry up to two astronauts along with their equipment and any lunar samples.
The longest Lunar Rover journey made lasted 4 hours and 26 minutes and
travelled a total distance of 22.3 miles. At the time of writing, the only vehicle
58. The MET during testing on Earth
59. The Apollo 15 LRV
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Lunar Equipment Apollo A7L
59
that has travelled further on the lunar surface is the Lunokhod 2, a Russian
Rover that landed in 1972 and has since stopped operations.
Apollo A7L The A7L Apollo & Skylab spacesuit was the primary
spacesuit worn during the Apollo Program. The "A7L"
was the seventh Apollo spacesuit designed and built
by ILC Dover.
The basic design of the A7L suit was a one piece, five-
layer suit with joints made of rubber. Metal rings at
the neck and forearms allowed for the connection of
the pressure gloves and the famous Apollo "fishbowl
helmet" (adopted by NASA as it allowed an
unrestricted view, as well as eliminating the need for
a visor seal). A cover layer, which was designed to be
fireproof
after the
deadly Apollo 1 fire, was attached to
the pressure garment assembly and
was removable for repairs and
inspection.
They had many specialised features.
On the Apollo 15-17 missions, energy
bars and drinking water were built in
to the suit to allow longer journeys
from the Lunar Module. Also, there
were many pockets on the torso and
limbs for carrying certain pieces of
equipment.
The suit provided life support for six
60. Buzz Aldrin wearing the A7L
61. A diagram of the A7L
One Giant Leap APOLLO HARDWARE Lunar Equipment Fallen Astronaut
60
hours, with an additional 30-minute backup life support system. The air tank
contains a mixture of oxygen and lithium hydroxide, which reacted with
exhaled carbon dioxide and removed it from the air.
Fallen Astronaut Fallen Astronaut is an 8.5 cm
aluminium sculpture of a figurine
(designed to look like an astronaut
in a spacesuit), which remembers
astronauts and cosmonauts who
have died in the advancement of
space exploration. It was placed
next to a plaque at Hadley Rille on
the Moon, by the crew of Apollo 15
on August 1, 1971. It was designed
by Belgian artist Paul Van
Hoeydonck.
62. "Fallen Astronaut" and memorial plaque
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION
61
APOLLO: MISSION
BY MISSION
N.B. These are not ordered completely chronologically: They are first sorted by type and then by launch date.
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions SA-1
62
Saturn I Missions SA-1
SA-1 was the first launch
of a Saturn I rocket and the
opening mission in the
Apollo Program. It was
launched in October 1961
and lasted just 15 minutes.
The mission was designed
to test only the first stage
of the rocket. Dummy
stages were used for the
second and third stages to
reduce weight.
Engineers had given the rocket a 75% chance of
lifting off and only a 30% chance of completing
the flight.
The flight itself was nearly perfect. The rocket
reached a height of 136.2 km and crashed down
into the Atlantic Ocean. The only real problem
was the rocket cut off 1.6 seconds ahead of
schedule. This was traced to a fuel imbalance.
Designation SA-1
Launch Vehicle Saturn I
LV Serial Number S-101 Callsign N/A
Crew Unmanned Launch Date October 27th 1961, 15:06UTC
Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34
Landing Date N/A Decay Date October 27th 1961, 15:21UTC
Duration 15 minutes Distance Travelled 331.5km
Apogee 136.2km
63. SA-1
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions SA-2
63
SA-2 Saturn-Apollo 2 launched
at 14:00 on April 25th,
1962, from Launch
Complex 34 at Cape
Canaveral. The only delay
was for 30 minutes due to
a vessel, which entered
the flight safety zone 60
miles (96 km) down range.
The objectives of SA-2
were much the same as
those of SA-1. It was designed to test the Saturn I rocket. NASA declared all
objectives as successful. A second
objective of both this mission and SA-3
was Project Highwater, which involved the
release of water at high altitudes, which
allowed scientists to investigate the
nature of Earth's ionosphere.
The H-1 engines shut down at an altitude
of 56km after firing for 1 minute 55
seconds. 45 seconds later, officials sent a
terminate command to the rocket, setting
off several charges which caused the
vehicle to destruct.
Designation SA-2 Launch Vehicle Saturn I
LV Designation S-102 Callsign N/A
Crew Unmanned
Launch Date April 25th 1962, 14:00UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34
Landing Date N/A Decay Date April 25th 1962, 14:03UTC
Duration 2 minutes, 40 seconds Distance Travelled 80km
Apogee 105.3km
64. SA-2
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions SA-3
64
SA-3 Like the two missions
before it, SA-3 was
designed to continue
tests on the first stage of
the Saturn I rocket. It
also continued Project
Highwater, which was a
project allowing
scientists to investigate
the Earth’s ionosphere.
Saturn-Apollo 3 launched at 17:45 on
November 16th, 1962, from Launch Complex
34. There was a 45-minute delay at launch
due to power failures on the ground. This
mission was the first time the Saturn I
rocket was launched with a full load of
propellant, carrying approximately 750,000
pounds (340,000 kg) of fuel
All objectives were declared successful;
however, there were some telemetry issues.
Designation SA-3
Launch Vehicle Saturn I LV Designation S-103
Callsign N/A Crew Unmanned
Launch Date November 16th 1962, 17:45UTC
Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34 Landing Date N/A
Decay Date November 16th 1962, 17.49UTC Duration 4 minutes 52 seconds
Distance Travelled 211.41km Apogee 167.22km
65. SA-3
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions SA-4
65
SA-4 SA-4 was the last flight to test
only the first stage of the
Saturn I rocket. As with the
first three launches, this
would be a suborbital flight
and would test the structure
of the rocket.
The main addition to this flight was that, in order
to test the rocket's ability to deal with an engine
failure, one of the engines would be
programmed to shut down about 100 seconds
after launch. If all went well the rocket would
reroute the fuel for this engine to the other
engines and have the rocket burn longer to
compensate for the loss of acceleration. The test
succeeded, and this was used on the Apollo 6
and Apollo 13 flights.
Designation SA-4 Launch Vehicle Saturn I
LV Designation S-104 Callsign N/A
Crew Unmanned Launch Date March 28th 1963, 20:11
Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34
Landing Date N/A Decay Date March 28th 1963, 20:26
Duration 15 minutes Distance Travelled 400km
Apogee 129km
66. SA-4
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions SA-5
66
SA-5 The major changes that
occurred on SA-5 were that
for the first time the Saturn I
would fly with two stages -
the S-I first stage and the S-
IV second stage. The second
stage featured six engines
burning liquid hydrogen. It
also positioned the guide
and control computer in the
location it would sit in for
the manned missions.
The mission was considered a success, as it
met its objectives.
This spacecraft became the largest craft to
achieve earth orbit at the time. It maintained
orbit for over 2 years and made around 12,000
orbits.
Designation SA-5 Launch Vehicle Saturn I
LV Designation S-105
Callsign N/A Crew Unmanned
Launch Date January 29th 1964, 16:25UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34
Landing Date N/A Decay Date April 30th, 1966
Duration 791 days
Distance Travelled 519,463,719km Apogee 741km
67. SA-5
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions A-101
67
A-101 A-101 was the sixth flight of
the Apollo Program. It
carried a boilerplate
(dummy) Apollo spacecraft
into low Earth orbit. The
spacecraft made 4 orbits
before communication was
lost, and then made 50 more
before the spacecraft and its
upper stage re-entered the
atmosphere.
The flight experienced only one problem: one
of the eight first-stage Saturn I engines shut
down early. This was not a major issue,
however, because the guidance computer re-
routed the fuel to the other seven engines to
compensate.
The first five launches of the Saturn I had
carried standard nosecones, which allowed
engineers to focus on development of the
rocket. The Apollo CSM would provide
different aerodynamics. Therefore A-101
carried BP-13, a boilerplate spacecraft that
weighed 7,700 kg and duplicated the size and shape of the CSM, and a dummy
Launch Escape System (LES) tower.
The boilerplate spacecraft carried 116 sensors, which monitored strain,
pressure and acceleration.
Designation A-101 (SA-6) Launch Vehicle Saturn I
LV Designation S-106
Callsign N/A Crew Unmanned
Launch Date May 28th 1964, 17:07UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B
Decay Date June 1st, 1964 (Mission ended 23:00 on May 28th due to communication loss)
Duration 5 hours, 53 minutes
Distance Travelled ~2,229,500km Apogee 199km
68. A-101
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions A-102
68
A-102 A-102 carried the boilerplate
Apollo spacecraft BP-15 into
low Earth orbit.
A-102 was designed to
repeat the flight of A-101. It
would once again carry a
boilerplate Apollo CSM.
However, the major change on A-102 was that for
the first time a Saturn rocket would carry a
programmable guidance computer. Previous
launches had used an onboard "black box" that was
preprogramed. On A-102, it would be possible to
reprogram the computer during flight so that any
strange behaviour could be corrected.
The mission was deemed a success.
Designation A-102 (SA-7) Launch Vehicle Saturn I
LV Designation S-107
Callsign N/A Crew Unmanned
Launch Date September 18th 1964, 16:22UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B
Decay Date September 22nd 1964 Duration 7 hours, 30 minutes
Distance Travelled ~2,457,000km
Apogee 206km
69. A-102
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions A-103
69
A-103 A-103 was another
boilerplate CSM mission.
It was, however, the first
operational mission of
the Saturn I, and no
longer a test flight. One
of the primary objectives
of this mission was to put
the Pegasus 1 satellite in
orbit.
The launch was normal,
and the spacecraft was inserted into orbit approximately 10.5 minutes after
launch. The launch escape system was jettisoned during launch and the
command module was jettisoned when orbit was
achieved. The mission delivered the Pegasus I satellite,
and was a success.
The Pegasus Satellite Program The Pegasus satellite program was a series of three
satellites launched in 1965 to study the frequency of
micrometeorite impacts on spacecraft. They were
launched on A-103, A-104 and A-105. It got its name
from the large
wing-like arrays that it hosted. All three
Pegasus missions provided more than data
on micrometeoroid penetration: Scientists
also were able to gather data regarding
orbital characteristics of satellites,
lifetimes of electronic components and
thermal control in space.
Designation A-103
Launch Vehicle Saturn I
LV Designation AS-109 / SA-9 Callsign N/A
Crew Unmanned Launch Date February 16th 1965, 14:37UTC
Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B Decay Date July 10th 1985
(Decommissioned August 29th 1968) Duration 3 years, 6 months, 13 days
Distance Travelled 3,114,579,139km
Apogee 736km
70. A-103
71. The Pegasus I satellite
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions A-104
70
A-104 A-104 carried the fourth
boilerplate test of the Apollo
spacecraft, along with the
Pegasus 2 satellite (See page
69). The primary mission
objective was to
demonstrate the launch
vehicle guidance mode. The
launch trajectory was very
similar to that of mission A-
103, with a final orbital
apogee difference of just 3km.
Several minor malfunctions occurred in the S-I
stage propulsion system; however, all mission
objectives were achieved. Pegasus 2 was safely
released into orbit.
Notably, this was the first night-time launch in
the Apollo Program.
Designation A-104 Launch Vehicle Saturn I
LV Designation AS-108 / SA-8
Callsign N/A Crew Unmanned
Launch Date May 25th 1965, 7:35UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B
Decay Date June 8th 1989 Duration 5275 days
Distance Travelled 3,282,050,195km
Apogee 739km
72. A-104
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Saturn I Missions A-105
71
A-105 A-105 was the final
boilerplate test of an
Apollo spacecraft,
launched by the final
flight of the Saturn I
rocket. It also carried the
Pegasus 3 satellite (See
page 69).
The primary flight
objective was to continue demonstration of the launch vehicle's interactive
guidance mode. A planned thirty-minute hold before launch ensured that the
Apollo launch coincided with the opening of the Pegasus launch window,
meaning the rocket lifted off at exactly
13:00:00UTC.
Designation A-105 Launch Vehicle Saturn I
LV Designation AS-110 / SA-10
Crew Unmanned Launch Date July 30th 1965, 13:00UTC
Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B Decay Date August 4th 1969
Duration 1466 days Distance Travelled 912,064,090km
Apogee 536km
73. A-105
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Launchpad LES Abort Tests Pad Abort Test 1
72
Launchpad LES
Abort Tests Pad Abort Test 1
Pad Abort Test 1 was a
mission to investigate the
effects on the Apollo
spacecraft during an
abort from the pad. It
took place between SA-4
and 5.
The flight featured a
production model LES
and a boilerplate Apollo spacecraft, the first mission
to feature one. The spacecraft carried no
instruments for measuring structural loads, as the
capsule's boilerplate structure did not represent
that of a real spacecraft.
The LES separated after fifteen seconds with the
spacecraft now on a ballistic trajectory. The
parachute system worked perfectly with the drogue
chute stabilizing the spacecraft, followed by the
three main parachutes that slowed the descent to
26 kilometres per hour.
Designation Pad Abort Test 1
Launch Vehicle LES Rocket only LV Designation N/A
Crew Unmanned
Launch Date November 7th 1963, 16:00UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36
Landing Date November 7th 1963, 16:02UTC Duration 2 minutes 45 seconds
Distance Travelled 2.51km Apogee 2.82km
74. The LES firing in Pad Abort Test 1
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Launchpad LES Abort Tests Pad Abort Test 2
73
Pad Abort Test 2
Apollo Pad Abort Test 2
was another mission
that flight-tested the
capability of the launch
escape system (LES) to
provide a safe recovery
of the Apollo crew in an
emergency. This flight
was the second test of
the launch escape system with the abort initiated from the launch pad.
Although one of the parachute cables was
kinked, the Earth landing system functioned
properly.
The test was fully successful and all planned
objectives were fulfilled.
Designation Pad Abort Test 2
Launch Vehicle LES Rocket only LV Designation N/A
Crew Unmanned
Launch Date June 29th 1965, 13:00UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36
Landing Date June 29th 1965, 13:02UTC
Duration 1 minute 52 seconds
Distance Travelled 2.32km Apogee 2.82km
75. Pad Abort Test 2
76. The LES from the Little Joe II QTV (See overleaf)
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Little Joe II LES Abort Tests QTV
74
Little Joe II LES
Abort Tests QTV
QTV (Qualification
Test Vehicle) of the
Apollo Little Joe II
rocket was the first
test flight in 1963.
The Little Joe II
Qualification Test
Vehicle was launched
on its first flight from
White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico. The
mission objectives were to prove that Little Joe
II was a suitable rocket for Apollo tests. It met
all the mission objectives.
Designation Little Joe II QTV
Launch Vehicle Little Joe II LV Designation N/A
Crew Unmanned Launch Date August 28th 1963, 16:00UTC
Launch Site White Sands LC-36 Landing Date August 28th 1963, 16:05UTC
Duration ~5 minutes
Distance Travelled ~14km Apogee 7.32km
77. The Little Joe II QTV
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Little Joe II LES Abort Tests A-001
75
A-001 Mission A-001 was the
second in the series of
tests conducted to
demonstrate that the
launch escape system
could safely remove
the command module
under emergency
abort conditions. This
mission occurred after
Pad Abort Test 1 (See Page 72).
The launch vehicle was the second in the series of
Little Joe II vehicles, which had been developed to
test the LES. The spacecraft consisted of a launch
escape system and a boilerplate command and
service module (BP-12).
The launch was delayed 24 hours due to weather
conditions. Launch was successful, but there were
two issues. Firstly, the CSM sustained damage
following re-contact with the rocket, and secondly
the third landing parachute failed to open. Other
than this, the mission was a success.
Designation A-001 Launch Vehicle Little Joe II
LV Designation N/A Crew Unmanned
Launch Date May 13th 1964 13:00UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36
Landing Date May 13th 1964 13:06UTC
Duration 5 minutes 50 seconds Distance Travelled 6.82km
Apogee 9.08km
78. A-001
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Little Joe II LES Abort Tests A-002
76
A-002 Mission A-002 was
another abort test to
demonstrate that the
launch system would
perform satisfactorily
under selected critical
abort conditions. The
main objective of this
mission was to test the
abort capability of the
LES during the maximum dynamic pressure region of the launch trajectory
As before, the Apollo spacecraft was
simulated by a boilerplate command and
service module. The earth landing system was
modified from the previous configuration by
the installation of two parachutes instead of a
single parachute.
However, an incorrect sum was used in the
data system, resulting in the manoeuvre being
initiated 2.4 seconds early. Although the
planned test point was not achieved, this
actually caused a higher dynamic pressure
than intended.
The abort conditions obtained were more than adequate in verifying the abort
effectiveness at the maximum dynamic pressure.
Designation A-002
Launch Vehicle Little Joe II
LV Designation N/A Crew Unmanned
Launch Date December 8th 1964, 15:00UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36
Landing Date December 8th 1964, 15:07UTC Duration 7 minutes 23 seconds
Distance Travelled 9.99km
Apogee 15.35km
79. A-002
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Little Joe II LES Abort Tests A-003
77
A-003 Apollo mission A-003
was the fourth mission
to demonstrate the
abort capability of the
Apollo launch escape
system. This flight was
designed to test the LES
from a very high
altitude.
Several minor changes were made to the boilerplate spacecraft to make it
more similar to the one that would actually be used during the Apollo
Program.
Within 2.5 seconds after lift-
off, a launch malfunction
caused the vehicle to go out
of control, rolling at a rate of
260 degrees per second. The
LES deployed and survived the
severe environment, and
safely pulled the boilerplate
spacecraft away from the
rocket as it exploded.
Because of the early launch
vehicle breakup, the desired
altitude of 37 km was not
reached. However, the
spacecraft did demonstrate a
successful low-altitude abort.
The mission was a failure, but
it was still extremely useful.
Designation A-003
Launch Vehicle Little Joe II
LV Designation N/A Crew Unmanned
Launch Date May 19th 1965, 13:01UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36
Landing Date May 19th 1965, 13:06UTC Duration 5 minutes 3 seconds
Distance Travelled 5.55km
Apogee 6.04km
80. The breakup of A-003
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Little Joe II LES Abort Tests A-004
78
A-004 Mission A-004 was
designed to
demonstrate that the
launch escape vehicle
would satisfactorily
orient and stabilize itself
after being subjected to
a high rate of tumbling.
The vehicle was launched after several
postponements due to technical
difficulties and adverse weather
conditions. The pitch-up manoeuvre was
commanded from the ground when
telemetry showed that the desired
altitude and velocity conditions had been
reached.
All systems performed satisfactorily, and
the mission was a success.
Designation A-004
Launch Vehicle Little Joe II
LV Designation N/A Crew Unmanned
Launch Date January 20th 1966, 15:17UTC Launch Site White Sands LC-36
Landing Date January 20th 1966, 15:24UTC Duration 6 minutes 50 seconds
Distance Travelled 34.63km
Apogee 23.83km
81. A-004
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Unmanned Missions AS-201
79
Unmanned Missions AS-201
AS-201 was the first
unmanned test flight of
an entire Apollo
Command/Service
Module and the Saturn
IB launch vehicle.
The key objectives were
to verify the Saturn IB’s
electrical and propulsion
systems, to test structural compatibility between the CSM and the rocket, to
demonstrate the life support in the
CSM (and to test heat shields) and to
test mission control and recovery.
Following the first launch attempt,
the onboard computer aborted the
launch with 4 seconds left due to a
drop in fuel pressure. A day later, the
launch was successfully completed.
There were several failures regarding
the landing: The steering control and
telemetry malfunctioned. This was
easily fixed, however.
Designation AS-201 Launch Vehicle Saturn IB
LV Designation SA-201 Crew Unmanned
Launch Date February 26th 1966, 16:12UTC
Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34 Landing Date February 26th 1966, 16:49UTC
Duration 37 minutes 19 seconds Distance Travelled 8477km
Apogee 492.1km
82. AS-201
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Unmanned Missions AS-203
80
AS-203 AS-203 carried no Apollo
Command/Service
Module spacecraft, as its
purpose was to test the
S-IVB’s restart capability
that would later be used
in the Apollo program to
boost astronauts from
their Earth orbit to the
Moon. Another purpose
of the flight was to investigate the effects of weightlessness on the liquid
hydrogen fuel in the second-stage tank. It successfully achieved its objectives,
but the rocket was accidentally destroyed after four orbits.
In 1966, it was decided that AS-
203 would be launched before
AS-202, as the CSM that was to be
flown on AS-202 was delayed.
The explosion cause was
unknown, but it was probably a
leak in the fuel tank ignited by a
spark. The rocket was seen in
several pieces following a loss in
communication.
Despite the destruction of the
stage, the mission was classified
as a success
Designation AS-203
Launch Vehicle Saturn IB
LV Designation SA-203 Crew Unmanned
Launch Date July 5th 1966, 14:53UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B
Decay Date July 5th 1966 ~21:00UTC Landing Date N/A
Duration ~6 Hours
Apogee 190km
83. AS-203
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Unmanned Missions AS-202
81
AS-202 AS-202 was the first
flight that included the
spacecraft Guidance and
Navigation system and
fuel cells. The flight’s
success enabled NASA to
judge the Block I Apollo
Spacecraft as fit to carry
humans.
The flight was also designed to
test out the heat shield by
subjecting it to 260 megajoules
per square meter. Over the
course of the re-entry, it
reportedly generated enough
energy to power Los Angeles for
a minute.
The whole flight was fully
successful.
Designation AS-202
Launch Vehicle Saturn IB
LV Designation SA-202 Crew Unmanned
Launch Date August 25th 1966, 17:15UTC Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34
Landing Date August 25th 1966, 18:48UTC Duration 1 hour, 33 minutes
Apogee 1,142.9km
84. AS-202
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Unmanned Missions Apollo 1
82
Apollo 1 Apollo 1 was the first
manned mission of the
Apollo Program. The
planned LEO test of the
Apollo CSM was never
made, because a cabin fire
during a rehearsal at Cape
Canaveral LC-34 killed all
three crewmembers and
destroyed the CM. The
name Apollo 1, coined by
the crew, was officially
retired by NASA in
memoriam. The unused
Saturn IB launch vehicle
was later used on Apollo 5.
Crew Primary Crew:
Command Pilot Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom
Senior Pilot Edward H. White II
Pilot Roger B. Chaffee
Backup Crew:
Command Pilot James A. McDivitt
Senior Pilot David R. Scott
Pilot Russell L. "Rusty" Schweickart
Designation Apollo 1 (AS-204) Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn IB LV Designation SA-204 (unused)
Crew Virgil "Gus" Grissom - Cmdr. Edward H. White - Senior Pilot Roger Chaffee -Pilot
Planned Launch February 21st 1967
Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B Destroyed January 27th 1967, 23:31UTC
Planned Duration ~2 weeks
85. The crew of Apollo 1
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Unmanned Missions Apollo 1
83
Mission Background AS-204 was to be the first manned test flight of the Apollo CSM to LEO,
launched on a Saturn IB rocket. The mission was designed to test launch
operations, ground tracking and control facilities and the performance of the
rocket and spacecraft. It should have lasted up to two weeks, depending on
the performance of the spacecraft.
On March 21st 1966, NASA stated that Grissom, White and Chaffee had been
selected to fly the first manned mission of the Apollo Program.
At the time, NASA was studying the possibility of flying the first Apollo mission
as a joint space rendezvous with the final Project Gemini mission, Gemini 12 in
November 1966 (See page 31).
Accident The launch simulation on
January 27th 1967 was known
as a "plugs-out". It was
designed to test whether the
spacecraft would be able to
run on its own power when
disconnected from other
sources. The test was very
important if the launch
window was to be met. The
test was considered non-
hazardous because there was no fuel present and no cryogenics were engaged.
There were several immediately noticeable problems during the test. One of
these problems was with the communications loop connecting the crew, the
Operations Building and the LC-34 Control Room. The problems led Grissom to
remark: "How are we going to get to the Moon if we can't talk between three
buildings?" These problems led to several long pauses.
The crewmembers were using one of these said pauses to run through their
checklists, when a voltage transient was recorded at 23:30:54UTC. Ten seconds
86. The Apollo 1 burnt-out capsule interior
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later at 23:31:04UTC, Chaffee exclaimed
"Hey!", and scuffling was heard through his
microphone. White then exclaimed, "I've
got a fire in the cockpit!” Flames were seen
licking camera lenses as White attempted to
open the hatch. The final voice transmission
is believed to have come from Chaffee at
23:31:12UTC. A voice cried, "Fire in the
cockpit! There's a bad fire!" The sound of
the craft’s hull rupturing was heard
immediately afterwards, followed by "I'm
burning up!" and a scream. The
transmission then ended abruptly at
6:31:21, only 17 seconds after the first report of fire. The cabin had ruptured
due to rapidly expanding gases from the blaze.
Flames and gases then rushed outside the CM through open access panels to
two levels of the pad service structure. Intense heat, dense smoke, and
ineffective gas masks designed for toxic
fumes rather than heavy smoke hampered
the ground crew's attempts to rescue the
men. There were fears that the fire might
ignite the solid fuel rockets in the LES above
the Command Module, which would have
killed all nearby ground personnel. It took
five minutes to open the three hatch layers,
by which time it was much too late.
As the smoke cleared, ground workers
found the bodies but were not able to
remove them. The fire had partly welded
together Grissom and White's space suits
and the hoses connecting them to the life
support system. Grissom had removed his
restraints and was lying on the floor of the
87. The remains of Grissom's pressure suit
88. The burnt capsule
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spacecraft. White's restraints were burned through, and he was found lying
sideways just below the hatch. It took over 90 minutes to free their bodies due
to the melted strands of nylon. It was determined that White had tried to open
the hatch, but was not able to do so against the internal pressure. Chaffee was
found strapped into his right-hand seat, as procedure called for him to
maintain communication until the hatch was open.
All three astronauts were awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor
posthumously. Ed White had been the first American to perform a spacewalk
(EVA) in the earlier Gemini Program.
Investigations There were many investigations
and reviews carried out by the
U.S. Senate and by NASA, but the
ignition source could not be
conclusively identified. Even so,
the astronauts' deaths were
attributed to a wide range of
lethal design and construction
flaws in the early Apollo
Command Module. Manned
Apollo flights were suspended for
20 months while these problems
were corrected.
This included the removal of many flammable materials, and the installation of
explosive bolts and a different air mixture was suggested. NASA declined both
suggestions, citing excess weight and accidental opening respectively.
Outwards opening hatches were also suggested, although NASA argued that
this could lead to accidents in space.
89. NASA directors testify before a Senate hearing
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Apollo 4 Apollo 4 was the first
test flight for the Saturn
V, the most advanced
rocket in the Saturn line.
Apollo 4 flew without a
crew, and was called an
"all-up test", meaning all
rocket stages and
spacecraft would be
fully functional.
The launch, on November 9, 1967, was
the first from the John F. Kennedy
Space Center in Florida. The mission
lasted almost nine hours, splashing
down in the Pacific Ocean, achieving all
mission goals. NASA deemed the
mission a complete success, simply
because it proved the Saturn V worked.
Many pictures were taken by the
spacecraft, including the one below.
Designation Apollo 4 (AS-501)
Launch Vehicle Saturn V
LV Designation AS-501 Crew Unmanned
Launch Date November 9th1967, 12:00UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A
Landing Date November 9th 1967, 20:37UTC Duration 8 hours, 37 minutes
Apogee 18,092km
90. The launch of Apollo 4
91. The Earth, as seen by Apollo 4
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Apollo 5 Apollo 5 was the first
unmanned flight of the
Apollo Lunar Module.
The Apollo 5 mission
tested the Lunar Module
in a space environment,
in particular its descent
and ascent engine
systems.
The mission also
performed a "fire in the
hole" test (as depicted in
the mission's insignia) in
which the ascent stage
engine would be fired
while still attached to
the descent stage. This
was intended to simulate a landing
abort during descent to the lunar
surface.
The Saturn IB worked perfectly. After
two orbits, the first planned 39 second
descent engine burn was started, but
aborted by the onboard guidance
computer after only 4 seconds. The
decision was taken to run the test
manually instead.
Despite the programming errors, the
mission was deemed a success.
Designation Apollo 5
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn IB
LV Designation SA-204 Crew Unmanned
Launch Date January 22nd 1968, 22:48UTC
Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-37B Deactivated January 23rd 1968, 9:58 UTC
Duration 11 hours, 10 minutes Orbits Completed 7
Apogee 222km
92. The launch of Apollo 5
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Apollo 6 Apollo 6 was originally intended
to send a CSM plus a Lunar
Module Test craft towards the
Moon. However, the Moon
would not be in position for a
translunar flight, so instead the
Service Module engines would
fire, to simulate a return at the
velocity of a translunar flight.
Two minutes into the flight, the rocket experienced severe pogo oscillations
(see Glossary) for about 30 seconds. Several
components fell from the rocket. Due to the
errors at launch, the CSM and rocket were
inserted into an orbit 17km below where
intended. Just before the Translunar Injection
(TLI), the rocket failed to restart.
It was decided to use the Service Module
engine to raise the spacecraft into a high orbit,
in order to complete some of the mission
objectives by simulating re-entry at the speed
of a lunar return. The craft was unable to reach
the required speed of 11,000m/s, but managed
10,000m/s. This was not an issue, as Apollo 4
had already shown re-entry capabilities.
Designation Apollo 6 Launch Vehicle Saturn V
LV Designation AS-502
Crew Unmanned Launch Date April 4th 1968, 12:00UTC
Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A Landing Date April 4th 1968, 21:57UTC
Duration 9 hours, 57 minutes
Orbits Completed 3
Apogee 22,204km
93. The launch of Apollo 6
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Manned Missions Apollo 7
“Dedication and commitment to yourself, your family, your
country and your life’s goals… will ensure that you… be the
one who determines the path you will travel…”
R. Walter Cunningham
Apollo 7 was the first
mission in the United
States' Apollo program
to carry a crew into
space. It was also the
first American space
flight to carry astronauts
into LEO. It carried out
the mission that Apollo 1
was originally designed
to do.
Crew Primary Crew:
Commander Walter M. Schirra
CSM Pilot Don F. Eisele
LM Pilot R. Walter Cunningham
Designation Apollo 7
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn IB LV Designation AS-205
Callsign “Apollo 7” Launch Date October 11th 1968, 15:02UTC
Launch Site Cape Canaveral LC-34
Launch Mass 16,519kg Landing Date October 22nd 1968, 11:11UTC
Landing Site North Atlantic Ocean Duration 10 days, 20 hours, 9 minutes
Orbits Completed 163
Apogee 300km
94. The crew of Apollo 7
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Backup Crew:
Commander Thomas P. Stafford
CSM Pilot John W. Young
LM Pilot Eugene A. Cernan
Mission Objectives Apollo 7 was effectively a test flight. After the
January 1967 Apollo 1 fire, the CSM had been
overhauled and redesigned, and the crew would
test the new systems. This was an "open-
mission", meaning it would be extended as it
passed each test, and remain in orbit up to 11
days. No Lunar Module was attached.
Flight The launch was fully successful. Once orbit was
reached, the crew practiced a simulated LM
rendezvous and docking. One of the adapter
panels on the S-IVB failed to open to its 45 degree position. Had this been an
actual lunar mission, the astronauts would have found severe difficulty in
removing the LM. Because of this, an option
was added to completely jettison panels on
future flights.
The CSM hardware worked well, and the SPS
on the Service Module made eight firings.
Interestingly, as the Saturn IB had performed
very smoothly during launch, the astronauts
were completely unprepared for the sudden
violent jolt they received when they activated
the SPS.
95. The launch of Apollo 7
96. The S-IVB with partially closed panel on right
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To combat the effects of space on muscle cramps, an exercise device known as
an “Exer-Genie” was provided.
Another event was the first live
television broadcast from an American
spacecraft
Issues in Space Although the astronauts’ cabin was
larger than that of the Gemini
program, a mission of nearly two
weeks tested them severely. Right
from the launch, when mission control chose a particularly risky abort plan,
there was tension between the crew and the ground staff. Once in orbit, the
large cabin caused some motion sickness, which had not been an issue in the
earlier, smaller spacecraft. The crew was also unhappy with their food
selections, particularly their high-energy
sweets. They found 30 minutes to use a
toilet unreasonable (and very smelly).
Undoubtedly, the worst problem
occurred when Schirra developed a
severe cold. As a result, he became
irritable and uncooperative regarding
requests from Mission Control and all
three astronauts began talking
aggressively to the CAPCOM. One
example (quoted from NASA) is when
the crew was asked to turn a TV camera
on. CAPCOM is Jack Swigert (who later
flew on Apollo 13) and CAPCOM 1 is
Derek Kent “Deke” Slayton (who later
flew in the Apollo-Soyuz program):
SCHIRRA: You've added two burns to this flight schedule, and you've
97. A still from the first live TV broadcast
98. The cramped CM interior
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added a urine water dump; and we have a new vehicle up here, and I
can tell you at this point TV will be delayed without any further
discussion until after the rendezvous.
CAPCOM: Roger. Copy.
SCHIRRA: Roger.
CAPCOM 1: Apollo 7, this is CAPCOM number 1.
SCHIRRA: Roger.
CAPCOM 1: All we've agreed to do on this is flip it -
SCHIRRA: ... with two commanders, Apollo 7
CAPCOM 1: All we have agreed to on this particular pass is to flip
the switch on. No other activity is associated with TV; I think we
are still obligated to do that.
SCHIRRA: We do not have the equipment out; we have not had an
opportunity to follow setting; we have not eaten at this point. At
this point, I have a cold. I refuse to foul up our time lines this
way.
Another issue was that Schirra wanted to conduct re-entry and landing with
their helmets off, which had never been done before. This was because he
thought that there was a risk that their eardrums might burst due to sinus
pressure from their illness, and he wanted them to be able to pinch their noses
to equalize the increasing pressure as their altitude decreased. This would
have been impossible wearing them, as the new Apollo helmets did not have a
moveable visor, unlike previous helmets. However, on repeated occasions
during the mission, Schirra was told that the helmets should be worn for safety
reasons. In the final
conversation on the
topic, the CAPCOMs
made it very clear to
Schirra that he would be
expected to explain why
he had disobeyed
instructions:
99. Part of the original transmission logs, showing the conflict between crew and mission control
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CAPCOM 1: Okay. I think you ought to clearly understand there is
absolutely no experience at all with landing without the helmet on.
SCHIRRA: And there no experience with the helmet either on that one.
CAPCOM: That one we've got a lot of experience with, yes.
SCHIRRA: If we had an open visor, I might go along with that.
CAPCOM: Okay. I guess you better be prepared to discuss in some
detail when we land why we haven't got them on. I think you're too
late now to do much about it.
SCHIRRA: That's affirmative. I don't think anybody down there has
worn the helmets as much as we have.
CAPCOM: Yes.
SCHIRRA: We tried them on this morning.
CAPCOM: Understand that. The only thing we're concerned about is the
landing. We couldn't care less about the re-entry. But it's your
neck, and I hope you don't break it.
SCHIRRA: Thank you, babe.
CAPCOM: Over and out.
Terse conversations such as this led to Eisele and Cunningham being rejected
for future missions; Schirra had already announced his retirement from NASA.
After the Flight Despite the difficulties between the crew and
Mission Control, the mission successfully met
all objectives, clearing Apollo 8 for its moon
mission two months later. Apollo 7 was Project
Apollo's only human spaceflight mission to
launch from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station's
Launch Complex 34, as all following missions
were launched from LC- 39 at the Kennedy
Space Center. LC-34 was declared redundant
and decommissioned in 1969. As of 2014, Cunningham is the only surviving
member of the crew. Eisele died in 1987 and Schirra in 2007. They were all
100. R. Walter Cunningham
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94
awarded NASA’s Distinguished Service Medal in October 2008. Former Flight
Director Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., who was in conflict with the crew during the
mission, said to Cunningham: "We gave you a hard time once but you certainly
survived that and have done extremely well since... I am frankly, very proud to
call you a friend."
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Apollo 8 “We came all this way to explore the moon, and the most
important thing is that we discovered the earth.”
William Anders
Apollo 8 was the second
manned mission in the
Apollo program. It became
the first manned spacecraft
to leave Earth orbit, reach
the Moon and orbit it. The
crew became the first to
see the whole planet, and
then the first to see the far
side of the Moon. This was
also the first manned
launch from the John F.
Kennedy Space Center.
Crew Primary Crew:
Commander Frank F. Borman, II
CSM Pilot James A. Lovell, Jr.
LM Pilot William A. Anders
Backup Crew:
Commander Neil A. Armstrong
CSM Pilot Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin
LM Pilot Fred W. Haise, Jr.
Designation Apollo 8
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn V
LV Designation AS-503 Callsign “Apollo 8”
Launch Date December 21st 1968, 12:51UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A
Launch Mass 28,870kg
Landing Date December 27th 1968, 15:51UTC Landing Site Mid Pacific Ocean
Duration 6 days, 3 hours, 42 seconds Orbits Completed 10
Apogee 112.4km
101. The crew of Apollo 8
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Before the Flight Apollo 8 was originally planned as a
second Lunar Module/Command Module
test. In August 1968, the mission was
changed to a more challenging Command
Module-only lunar-orbital flight, because
the Lunar Module (LM) was not yet ready
to make its first flight. This meant that the
crew had three months less training than
originally intended. On September 9, the
crew entered the simulators to begin
their preparation for the flight. By the
time the mission flew, the crew had spent
seven hours training for every actual hour
of flight
The Outbound Trip The launch experienced only a
couple of minor problems: The
engines of the first stage, S-IC,
burned for 2.45 seconds longer than
planned, and towards the end of the
second stage burn, the rocket
experienced pogo oscillations.
Apollo 8 was launched into an initial
orbit with an apogee of 185.18km.
This was followed by a Trans-Lunar
Injection (TLI) burn of the S-IVB third
stage for 318 seconds, accelerating
the spacecraft from an orbital
velocity of 7,793 m/s to the injection
velocity of 10,822 m/s,] which set a
record for the highest speed, that
102. Apollo 8 on the launchpad
103. The launch of Apollo 8
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humans had ever travelled.
The third stage of the rocket, S-IVB, assisted in
driving the craft into Earth orbit but remained
attached to later perform the TLI burn that
would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the
Moon.
After the S-IVB had performed its required
tasks, it was jettisoned. As the crew rotated the
spacecraft, they had their first views of the
Earth as they moved away from it. This marked
the first time humans could view the whole
Earth at once. Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to
the Command/Service Module and asked Mission Control if they could
perform a separating manoeuvre. Discussions led to the missions dropping an
hour behind schedule.
11 hours into the flight, the crew had been awake for over 16 hours. Borman
was given clearance to sleep, however he found it difficult. About an hour after
starting his sleep shift, Borman requested clearance to take a sleeping pill. The
pill had little effect, and possibly caused an allergic reaction, demonstrating to
NASA the difficulties of cleaning up in space! This illness was later attributed to
Space Adaption Syndrome, which affects a lot of astronauts. The larger cabin
space did not help.
Lunar Orbit The SPS ignited 69 hours after launch and
burned for 4 minutes and 13 seconds,
placing the Apollo 8 spacecraft in orbit
around the Moon. The crew described the
burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives, because if the burn had
not lasted exactly the correct amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended
up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even flung off into space. If it lasted too
long they could have struck the Moon.
104. The Earth seen from Apollo 8
105. The jettisoned SIV-B
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After reporting on the status of the
spacecraft, Lovell gave the first
description of the Moon’s surface:
“The Moon is essentially grey, no
colour; looks like plaster of Paris or sort of
a greyish beach sand. We can see quite a
bit of detail. The Sea of Fertility doesn't
stand out as well here as it does back on
Earth. There's not as much contrast
between that and the surrounding craters.
The craters are all rounded off. There's quite a few of them, some of them are
newer. Many of them look like—especially the round ones—look like hit by
meteorites or projectiles of some sort. Langrenus is quite a huge crater; it's got
a central cone to it. The walls of the crater are terraced, about six or seven
different terraces on the way down.”
One of the crew's major tasks was to check future landing sites, especially one
in Mare Tranquillitatis that would be where Armstrong and Aldrin would land
in Apollo 11. A film camera had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows
to record a frame every second of the Moon below. Bill Anders spent much of
the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of
interest. Perhaps most famously he took a picture of the Earth appearing over
the Moon’s horizon, known as “Earthrise” (which appears inside the cover of
this book.
As they rounded the Moon on Christmas Eve, each man on board read a
section from Book of Genesis. Borman finished the broadcast by wishing a
Merry Christmas to everyone on Earth. It became the most watched TV
broadcast of all time.
After this, the crew performed a Trans-Earth Injection. The TEI was the most
critical burn of the flight, as any failure of the SPS would strand the crew in
lunar orbit, with no chance of escape. The burn occurred perfectly.
The crew then spent 2 days returning to Earth, before successfully landing in
the Pacific Ocean.
106. The lunar surface, seen from Apollo 8
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Apollo 9 “As you pass from sunlight into darkness and back again…
for the first time in your life you feel the precious unity of
the Earth and all the living things it supports.”
Russell 'Rusty' Schweikart
Apollo 9 was the third
manned mission Apollo
Program and the first
flight of the CSM with
the LM. The crew spent
ten days in low Earth
orbit. They performed
the first manned flight
of a LM, the first
docking and extraction
of a LM, two
spacewalks (EVA
Crew Primary Crew:
Commander James A. McDivitt
CSM Pilot David R. Scott
LM Pilot Russell L. Schweickart
Backup Crew:
Commander Charles Conrad Jr.
CSM Pilot Richard F. Gordon Jr.
LM Pilot Clifton C. Williams
Designation Apollo 9
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn V
LV Designation AS-504 Callsign CSM: “Gumdrop” LM: “Spider”
Launch Date March 3rd 1969, 16:00UTC
Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A Launch Mass 26,801kg
Landing Date March 13th 1969, 17:00UTC Landing Site North Atlantic Ocean
Duration 10 days, 1 hours, 54 seconds Apogee 192.4km
107. The Apollo 9 crew
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Mission Overview Apollo 9 was the first space test of
the complete Apollo spacecraft,
including the Lunar Module. It was
also the first space docking of two
vehicles with a crew transfer. This
showed that the Apollo spacecraft
were up to this critical task, on which
the lives of lunar landing crews
would depend.
Notably, this was the first Apollo
flight in which the crew was allowed to name their own spacecraft. The gangly
LM was named Spider, and the CSM was labelled Gumdrop because of the
Command Module's shape, and also the blue wrapping in which the craft
arrived at Kennedy Space Center. These names were required as radio call
signs when the vehicles flew independently.
During the mission, Schweickart and Scott performed an EVA—Schweickart
tested the new Apollo spacesuit, the first to have its own life support system
rather than being attached to the
spacecraft, while Scott filmed him
from the Command Module hatch.
McDivitt and Schweickart later
test-flew the LM, and practiced
separation and docking
manoeuvers in Earth orbit. This
was fully successful.
The splashdown point was 290km
east of the Bahamas, in the
Atlantic Ocean.
108. Russell Schweickart during the EVA
109. The LM during practice manoeuvers
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Apollo 10 “Another hundred years may pass before we understand
the true significance of Apollo. Lunar exploration was… a
key to unlocking dreams as yet undreamed...”
Eugene Cernan, “The Last Man on the Moon”, 2000
This was the fourth
Apollo mission. Its
purpose was to be a dress
rehearsal for the Apollo
11 moon landing, testing
all the relevant apparatus
without actually landing.
The LM came to within
15.6 km of the lunar
surface. Apollo 10 set the
world record for the
highest speed attained by
a manned vehicle at
39,897 km/h during the
return from the Moon.
Crew Commander Thomas P. Stafford
CSM Pilot John W. Young
LM Pilot Eugene A. Cernan
Backup Crew:
Commander L. Gordon Cooper Jr.
CSM Pilot Donn F. Eisele
LM Pilot Clifton C. Williams
Designation Apollo 10
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn V
LV Designation AS-505 Callsign C: “Charlie Brown” L: “Snoopy”
Launch Date May 18th 1969, 16:49UTC
Launch Site Kennedy LC-39B Launch Mass 42,775kg
Landing Date May 26th 1969, 16:52UTC Landing Site Mid Pacific Ocean
Duration 8 days, 3 minutes, 23 seconds Lunar Orbits 4
110. The crew of Apollo 9
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Mission Overview Apollo 10 brought Stafford and
Cernan's Lunar Module Snoopy to
15.6 km from the lunar surface. This
was where the powered descent
would begin on the actual landing.
Practicing this approach orbit would
refine knowledge of the lunar
gravity. Except for that final stretch,
the mission went exactly as a
landing would have gone, both in
the spacecraft and on the ground,
providing valuable training to
mission control crews.
Shortly after leaving low Earth orbit,
the Command/Service Module
separated from the S-IVB stage, turned around, and docked its nose to the top
of the Lunar Module still nestled in the S-IVB. The CSM/LM stack then
separated from the S-IVB for
the trip to the Moon.
Apollo 10 also carried a
colour TV camera, and made
the first live, colour
broadcasts from space.
When they had reached the
Moon, Young remained in the
Command Module (CM) while
Stafford and Cernan flew
separately in the LM. The LM
crew checked out their craft's
radar and ascent engine, rode
111. The launch of Apollo 9
112. Earthrise from Apollo 9
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out a momentary gyration in
the lunar lander's motion
(due to a faulty switch
setting), and surveyed the
Apollo 11 landing site in the
Sea of Tranquillity. The
ascent engine was loaded
with less fuel than normal,
to account for the fact that
the LM had not descended
fully.
When testing the Abort
Guidance System, the Lunar
Module began to roll violently due to the crew accidentally duplicating
commands into the flight computer. Cernan explained in an interview that he
saw the lunar horizon rotate “eight or so times in fifteen seconds” through the
window, before Thomas Stafford shut the whole computer down and switched
to manual control. It was later calculated that if the roll had been stopped just
a few seconds later, orbital inertia would have been lost and the LM would
have crashed into the lunar surface. The live network broadcasts caught
Cernan and Stafford swearing, much to the outrage of several TV viewers!
NASA downplayed the incident, but the astronauts were five seconds away
from being killed.
The return journey was the fastest ever travelled by human beings, at 39,897
km/h. The CM landed in the South Pacific Ocean, near Samoa.
113. The Apollo 10 LM descending
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Apollo 11 “Houston, Apollo 11 . . . I've got the world in my window.”
Michael Collins
Apollo 11 was the
spaceflight that landed
the first humans on the
Moon (Neil Armstrong
and Buzz Aldrin), making
it perhaps the most
famous space mission in
history.
Apollo 11 ended the
Space Race (See page 25)
and fulfilled assassinated
president John F.
Kennedy’s promise that
the US would land a man
on the moon “before this
decade is out”.
Primary Crew:
Commander Neil A. Armstrong
CSM Pilot Michael Collins
LM Pilot Edwin "Buzz" E. Aldrin, Jr.
Backup Crew:
Commander James A. Lovell, Jr.
CSM Pilot William A. Anders
LM Pilot Fred W. Haise, Jr.
Designation Apollo 11
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn V
LV Designation AS-506 Callsign CSM: “Columbia” LM: “Eagle”
Moon: “Tranquillity Base” Launch Date July 16th 1969, 13:32UTC
Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A Launch Mass 43,898kg
Landing Date July 24th 1969, 16:50UTC Landing Site North Pacific Ocean
Duration 8 days, 3 hours, 18 minutes
Lunar Orbits 30
114. The Apollo 11 crew
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Launch and TLI Several million people watched the launch across the world.
Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 from Launch Pad 39A at the Kennedy
Space Center. It entered orbit twelve minutes later. During the second orbit,
the S-IVB pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the
TLI burn. Half an hour later, the CSM pair separated from the Saturn V and
docked with the Lunar Module, which was stored behind the SM. After the
Lunar Module was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon.
Once the crew had reached the Moon, they made thirty orbits around it, and
they were able to see their landing site in the Sea of Tranquillity (Mare
Tranquillitatis. It had been chosen because of how flat it was.
On July 20, 1969, the Lunar Module Eagle separated from the Command
Module Columbia. Collins, alone aboard Columbia, inspected Eagle as it
pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged
Lunar Descent and Landing As the descent began, the crew noted that they
were passing landmarks four seconds early. This
meant that they actually landed several miles
west of their intended landing site.
Five minutes into the descent burn, the LM
navigation and guidance computer returned
"1202" and "1201" program alarms. The program
alarms indicated "executive overflows", meaning
the guidance computer could not complete all
tasks in time and needed to postpone some of
them. Computer engineer Jack Garman said to Mission Control that it was safe
to continue the descent, and the crew was told this. The cause of these errors
was later identified as a mistakenly placed rendezvous radar switch, which
bombarded the computer with incorrect signals. This meant that it was being
forced to work at 115% of its processing capacity.
115. The Apollo 11 LM descending
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11
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The guidance computers used
during the Apollo Program only
had 2KB of RAM (1 three-
millionth of the RAM of my
computer) and a 36KB hard drive
(1 thirty-millionth of the ROM of
my computer).
They landed with around 25
seconds of fuel left, less than for
other missions.
Charles Duke, CAPCOM during the landing phase, acknowledged the landing by
saying "We copy you down, Eagle." Armstrong replied: "Houston, Tranquility
Base here. The Eagle has landed." This change of call sign was actually
unrehearsed, and Duke tripped up on the name as he replied: "Roger, Twan-
Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn
blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot."
Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA,
Aldrin broadcast that:
"This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person
listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment
and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in
his or her own way."
He then took communion privately. At this time, NASA was still under legal
attack after broadcasting a reading from the Book of Genesis on Apollo 8 from
Madalyn Murray O'Hair, the founder of American Atheists. NASA’s actions
were seen as state endorsement of religion, which violates their constitution.
As such, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on
the Moon. Aldrin’s church holds possession of the chalice used.
117. The Apollo Guidance Computer
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Lunar Surface Operations The astronauts had a
limited 60o view
through their
windows, but they
were still able to
plan the locations of
the EASEP and the
Flag Assembly.
At 02:39UTC on
Monday July 21st
1969, Armstrong
opened the hatch,
and at 02:51UTC
began his descent to
the lunar surface. He
wore the A7L
spacesuit and his
PLSS (Portable Life Support System). While climbing down the nine-rung
ladder, Armstrong opened the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA)
folded against Eagle's side and activated the TV camera, and at exactly
02:56:15UTC he set his left foot on the surface of the Moon. This was the first
time in several billion years of
existence that any creature
from Earth set foot on another
celestial body. Despite some
technical and weather
difficulties, ethereal black and
white images of the first lunar
EVA were received and
broadcast to at least 600 million
people on Earth, approximately
one-sixth of the human race.
118. A map of Tranquility Base, showing craters and photographs
119. Neil Armstrong descending the LM's ladder
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Although copies of this video in broadcast format were saved, the original
recordings were accidentally destroyed.
The Lunar dust was
described as "very fine-
grained" and "almost like a
powder," by Armstrong as
he first saw it. Then he
stepped off the Eagle's
footpad and said perhaps
one of the most famous
lines in history: "That's one
small step for man, one
giant leap for mankind".
Aldrin then joined him,
describing the view as "Magnificent desolation." Armstrong actually said:
"That's one small step for a man", but the “a” was not clear in any recordings,
perhaps due to static.
About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong
collected a small soil sample, which he tucked into a pocket on his right thigh.
This was to guarantee there would be at least one sample of lunar soil
returned in the event of the EVA being aborted in an emergency.
Armstrong said that moving in the lunar gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was "even
perhaps easier than the simulations ... It's absolutely no trouble to walk
around.” They tested various methods for moving around, including two-
footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS
backpack caused the astronauts to tip
backwards, but neither astronaut had
any major problems maintaining
balance. Walking/jumping with large
strides became the preferred method of
movement. The astronauts reported that
they needed to plan their movements six
or seven steps ahead because of the
120. Buzz Aldrin on the Moon
121. Neil Armstrong saluting the flag
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Moon’s weak gravity and the slippery soil.
The astronauts planted a specially designed U.S. Flag on the lunar surface (see
page 57), in front of the TV camera. Later in the mission, US President Richard
Nixon spoke to them in a conversation, which he called "the most historic
phone call ever made from the White House.” Nixon originally had a much
long speech prepared to read
during the phone call, but Frank
Borman, who was at the White
House as a NASA liaison convinced
Nixon to keep his words brief, to
respect the lunar landing as
President Kennedy's legacy rather
than his own.
They deployed the EASEP, (see
page 56), and then Armstrong
walked 60 m from the LM to snap
photos at the rim of Little West Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes.
The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on
extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected.
Three new minerals were discovered
when the rock samples were brought
back: armalcolite (named after the three
astronauts), tranquillityite, and
pyroxferroite. All three of these minerals
have since been found on Earth (but
tranquillityite only very recently in 2011).
The astronauts brought back 22kg of
samples.
As mementos, they also left an American flag, an Apollo 1 mission patch, and a
plaque bearing two drawings of Earth, an inscription, and signatures of the
astronauts and the President. The inscription read:
122. The Apollo 11 EASEP being deployed
123. An armalcolite sample, first discovered on the Moon
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“Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July 1969
A.D. We came in peace for all mankind.”
They left behind a memorial bag
containing a gold replica of an olive
branch as a traditional symbol of
peace and a silicon message disk. The
disk carried goodwill statements by
Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy,
Johnson, and Nixon and messages
from 73 different world leaders. The
disc carried a listing of various US
politicians involved in the mission.
Aldrin said that the items also included Soviet medals commemorating Soviet
Cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov and Yuri Gagarin.
Neil Armstrong also carried a piece of wood from the Wright brothers'
airplane's left propeller (see page 17) and a piece of fabric from its wing, along
with a pin badge which had been intended to be worn on Apollo 1. Following
the fire, the astronauts’ widows gave it to Armstrong.
“In Event of Moon
Disaster” A poignant speech called “In
Event of Moon Disaster” was
written by journalist William
Safire for President Nixon to
read on television if the Apollo
11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon. According to the plans, Mission
Control would "close down communications" with the LM, and a clergyman
would have commended the astronauts’ souls to "the deepest of the deep”,
124. The plaque left on the Moon
125. Part of the original text of the speech
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similar to burial at sea. The president would also telephone the astronauts’
widows. This is an extract from that speech:
“Fate has ordained that the men who went to the moon to explore in
peace will stay on the moon to rest in peace. These brave men, Neil
Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, know that there is no hope for their
recovery. But they also know that there is hope for mankind in their
sacrifice. These two men are laying down their lives in mankind's most
noble goal: the search for truth and understanding. They will be
mourned by their families and friends; they will be mourned by the
nation; they will be mourned by the people of the world; they will be
mourned by a Mother Earth that dared send two of her sons into the
unknown. In their exploration, they stirred the people of the world to
feel as one; in their sacrifice, they bind more tightly the brotherhood of
man. In ancient days, men looked at the stars and saw their heroes in
the constellations. In modern times, we do much the same, but our
heroes are epic men of flesh and blood. Others will follow, and surely
find their way home. Man's search will not be denied. But these men
were the first, and they will remain the foremost in our hearts. For every
human being who looks up at the moon in the nights to come will know
that there is some corner of another world that is forever mankind.”
Both astronauts later stated that, faced with this scenario, they would not have
stopped trying to fix the LM. Contrary to popular belief, they did not carry
cyanide pills, so the alternative would have been slow suffocation. Collins
would have been forced to return on his own. Fortunately, not a single
astronaut has ever been lost in space, and the speech was never needed.
Return to Earth Once they had transferred to the LM’s life
support system, the astronauts lightened
the LM for return to lunar orbit by throwing
out their PLSSs and boots, along with a
camera and other equipment. They then re-
pressurized the LM, and went to sleep.
126. The lunar flag being blown over during ascent
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Aldrin accidentally broke a circuit breaker that would arm the ascent engine
while he was moving about. There was concern this would prevent firing the
engine, stranding them on the Moon. Fortunately, they were able to reactivate
it with a felt-tip pen. Had this not worked, the LM circuitry could instead have
been reconfigured to allow for take-off.
At 17:54UTC, the crew lifted off in Eagle's ascent
stage to re-join Michael Collins aboard the
Columbia. During the launch, Aldrin s aw the
exhaust from the ascent module's engine knock
over the American flag they had planted. Future
Apollo missions planted the flag at least 30m away
from the LM to prevent this happening again.
After rendezvous with Columbia, Eagle's ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar
orbit. NASA worked out that the orbit would have decayed in several months,
and that it had impacted on the lunar surface.
On July 24, the astronauts returned home aboard the Command Module
Columbia just before dawn. They were immediately placed in BIGs (Biological
Isolation Garments) and transported to the aircraft carrier the USS Hornet,
where they were placed into the MQF (See page 55). This was to prevent the
spread of any pathogens from the Moon. Quarantine was discontinued
following Apollo 14 when it was proven that there was no life on the Moon.
President Richard Nixon was aboard the USS
Hornet to welcome the astronauts back to Earth.
After Nixon departed, the Hornet was brought
alongside the CM and the ship’s crane lifted it
aboard. The Hornet sailed for Pearl Harbor. From
here, the CM and MQF were flown to the Johnson
Space Center. On August 10th, 1969, the astronauts
exited quarantine. They soon went on a tour of the
US.
127. The CM being recovered
128. The astronauts under quarantine
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Apollo 12 “This is the Moon; that is the Earth. I'm really here!”
Alan Bean
Apollo 12 was the sixth
manned flight in the
Apollo Program. It
followed Apollo 11 in
landing on the Moon,
four months after
Armstrong and Aldrin’s
first steps on the lunar
surface. The crew
undertook around 31
hours of lunar surface
activity in the Oceanus
Procellarum (Ocean of
Storms). They visited the
wreckage of the Surveyor
3 probe.
Primary Crew:
Commander Charles “Pete” Conrad Jr.
CSM Pilot Richard F. Gordon Jr.
LM Pilot Alan L. Bean
Backup Crew:
Commander David R. Scott
CSM Pilot Alfred M. Worden
LM Pilot James B. Irwin
Designation Apollo 12
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn V
LV Designation AS-507 Callsign CSM: “Yankee Clipper” LM:
“Intrepid” Launch Date November 14th 1969, 16:22UTC
Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A Launch Mass 44,073kg
Landing Date November 24th 1969, 20:58UTC
Landing Site South Pacific Ocean Duration 10 days, 4 hours, 36 minutes
Lunar Orbits 45
129. The Apollo 12 crew
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Launch, TLI and Lunar Landing Apollo 12 launched on schedule from Kennedy
Space Center, during a rain shower. 36.5
seconds after lift-off, lightning struck the
vehicle and was conducted down to the earth
through the Saturn V’s ionized exhaust plume.
This caused protective circuits on the SM’s fuel
cell to detect and overload, bringing them
offline along with much of the CSM
instrumentation. A second strike at 52 seconds
after launch disabled the attitude indicator.
This also led to multiple power failures,
lighting up the majority of warning lights on
the control panel. Mission Control lost
telemetry from the rocket. The vehicle still
continued to fly correctly, however.
EECOM John Aaron remembered this telemetry failure pattern from an earlier
test, when a “power supply malfunctioned in the CSM Signal Conditioning
Equipment (SCE)”. The SCE converts signal instrumentation signals to standard
voltages for the spacecraft instrument displays and telemetry transmitters.
Aaron said, "Try SCE to aux." This would switch the SCE to a backup power
supply. The switch was obscure and neither FLIGHT Gerald Griffin, nor
CAPCOM Gerald Carr, nor Commander Conrad immediately recognized it. Alan
Bean, however, remembered the SCE switch from a training incident a year
earlier, and he put the fuel cells back online. The launch continued
successfully. Once in earth parking orbit, the crew carefully checked out their
spacecraft before re-igniting the S-IVB third stage for trans-lunar injection. The
lightning strikes had caused no serious permanent damage.
Initially, it was feared that the lightning strike could have caused the Command
Module's (CM) parachute mechanism to prematurely fire, disabling the
explosive bolts that open the parachute compartment to deploy them. This
would have killed the crew upon re-entry. Since there was no way to test the
parachutes without landing, ground controllers decided not to tell the
130. The Apollo 12 launch
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astronauts about the possibility. Fortunately, the parachutes deployed as
normal at the end of the mission.
The CSM/LM stack separated from the S-IVB and continued on to the Moon.
The Apollo 12 mission landed in an area of the Oceanus Procellarum (Ocean of
Storms) that had previously been visited by several unmanned missions (Luna
5, Surveyor 3, and Ranger 7). Because of this, some named the area Mare
Cognitum (Literally “the known sea”).
The landing site would be listed as
Statio Cognitum on lunar maps.
Unlike Apollo 11, where Neil
Armstrong had to use the manual
control to direct his lander (quite
inaccurately), Apollo 12 succeeded in
landing within walking distance of the
Surveyor 3 probe, which had landed
on the Moon 17 months earlier. This is
the only occasion in which humans
have recovered a probe sent to land on another world.
Lunar Surface Operations Conrad’s first words as he
stepped onto the Moon
were, "Whoopie! Man,
that may have been a
small one for Neil, but
that's a long one for me”.
He was considerably
shorter than Armstrong
was, and had made a $500
bet with reporter Oriana
Fallaci that he would say
these words. He never
received the money!
131. The Surveyor 3 probe
132. The Apollo 12 LM
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A colour TV camera was carried to the Moon, to improve upon the quality of
Apollo 11’s black and white footage. Unfortunately, when Bean carried the
camera to where it should have been set up, he accidentally directed it at the
Sun, destroying part of it and ending TV coverage.
Conrad and Bean removed pieces of the Surveyor 3 probe to be taken back to
Earth for analysis. It is also claimed that bacteria known as Streptococcus mitis
were found to have inadvertently contaminated the spacecraft's camera prior
to launch and survived dormant in the near-vacuum of space for 2 years.
However, this finding has since been disputed, as there were many other
opportunities for contamination.
Conrad and Bean also collected 34.35kg of rocks and set up the ALSEP station
(See page 56). The astronauts also took many photographs, although Bean
accidentally left several rolls of exposed film on the lunar surface.
Return The crew stayed in orbit for a day,
taking photographs, before
heading back to Earth. On the way
back, they witnessed a solar
eclipse, as the Earth was blocking
the Sun.
They landed around 500km east
of American Samoa. During
splashdown, a 16mm film camera
dislodged from storage and struck
Bean in the forehead, rendering
him briefly unconscious. He
suffered a mild concussion and
needed six stitches. They were
recovered by the USS Hornet.
133. The solar eclipse seen by Apollo 12
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Apollo 13 “Okay, Houston, we've had a problem here….”
Jack Swigert
“It looks to me… that we are venting something. We are
venting something into the — into the space…” Jim Lovell
Apollo 13 was one of the
most famous Apollo
missions. It launched
normally, but an oxygen
tank exploded two days
into the mission, crippling
the SM and forcing the
crew to travel in the LM,
making a Moon landing
impossible. Despite
serious difficulties, the
crew returned safely four
days later, in one of the
most famous recovery
missions in history.
Primary Crew:
Commander James A. Lovell Jr.
CSM Pilot John L. Swigert
LM Pilot Fred w. Haise Jr.
Backup Crew:
Commander John W. Young
CSM Pilot T. Kenneth Mattingly (ex-1st CSMP)
LM Pilot James B. Irwin
Designation Apollo 13
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn V LV Designation AS-508
Callsign CSM: “Odyssey” LM: “Aquarius”
Launch Date April 11th 1970, 19:13UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A
Launch Mass 43,982kg Landing Date April 17th 1970, 18:07UTC
Landing Site South Pacific Ocean
Duration 5 days, 22 hours, 54 minutes Lunar Orbits 1
134. The Apollo 13 crew
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Launch and TLI The mission was launched at 19:13UTC on
April 11th. The central second stage engine
shut down about 2 minutes early. The
outer four engines and the third-stage
engine burned longer to compensate for
the loss in thrust, and the vehicle still
achieved its 190km orbit, followed by a
TLI an hour later that went successfully.
The cause of the engine shutdown was
severe pogo oscillations (68 g) happening
16 times per second over three inches or
frame. The computer turned off the
engine for safety. The crew removed the
LM from the S-IVB and continued towards the
Moon.
Oxygen tank explosion Approximately 320,000km into
the flight, Mission Control
asked Swigert to turn on the
hydrogen and oxygen tank
stirring fans, which were
designed to keep the tanks
tidy. Ninety-three seconds
later, a very loud noise was
heard, accompanied by
fluctuations in electrical
power. The crew initially thought that a piece of debris or rock might have
struck the Lunar Module. In actual fact, the number 2 oxygen tank had
exploded. This was caused by damaged electrical insulation. The resulting
pressure inside the compartment damaged the bolts attaching the outer
aluminium covering. Over the next 130 minutes, the oxygen leaked into space,
entirely depleting the SM's supply.
135. The launch of Apollo 13
136. The damage on the SM (seen after jettison)
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The fuel cells require oxygen to generate power, so they shut down and left
the Command Module on limited-duration battery power. The crew was forced
to shut down the CM completely and use the LM as a "lifeboat.”
Crew survival and return journey The damage to the Service Module made
safe return from a lunar landing
impossible, so FLIGHT Gene Kranz
ordered an abort of the mission. There
were three possible abort options:
1. Turn the ship around immediately,
and head back to Earth. This would
require a 1,853 m/s change in
velocity, and was considered
dangerous and impractical. This would also require the LM to be
jettisoned, which the crew was relying on for oxygen.
2. Burn the SM’s SPS fuel to depletion, and jettison it, using the LM’s fuel
to complete the burn. This would take a longer route, but would keep
the LM. It was decided, however, that the SM provided protection to the
CM’s heat shield (which would be needed for re-entry) and it was not
jettisoned.
3. Continue a flight around the Moon, using its gravity as a slingshot and
lining the ship up for a return to Earth. Although this would take longer,
it was the safest option of the three.
Kranz chose option 3. Apollo
13 lined itself up to orbit the
Moon again, as it had gone
off course during the
accident.
Considerable ingenuity
under extreme pressure was
required from the crew,
flight controllers, and
137. The rescue options for Apollo 13
138. Mission Control staff trying to make a replacement air filter
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 13
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support personnel for the safe return. The developing drama was shown on
television, but because electrical power was limited, no more live TV
broadcasts were made.
The Lunar Module consumables were intended to sustain two people for a day
and a half, not three people for four days. Oxygen was the least critical
consumable because the LM carried enough to re-pressurize the LM after each
surface EVA. Unlike the CSM, which was powered by fuel cells (generating
electricity and water), the LM was powered by silver-zinc batteries, so
electrical power and water
(used for equipment cooling as
well as drinking) were critical
consumables. The LM was
powered down to the lowest
levels possible. In particular, the
LM's Abort Guidance System
was used instead of the primary
guidance system, as it used less
power and water.
Availability of lithium hydroxide
for removing carbon dioxide
presented a serious problem.
The LM's internal stock of LiOH
canisters was not sufficient to
support the crew until return,
and the remainder was stored in the descent stage, out of reach. The CM had
an adequate supply of canisters, but these were incompatible with the LM.
Engineers on the ground improvised a way to join the cube-shaped CM
canisters to the LM's cylindrical canister-sockets by drawing air through them
with a hose.
Re-entry and splashdown As Apollo 13 neared Earth, the crew first jettisoned the Service Module so
pictures could be taken for later analysis. It was then that the crew were
surprised to see for the first time that the outer panel had been blown off.
139. The replacement air scrubber being fitted
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According to the analysts, these pictures also showed the antenna damage and
possibly an upward tilt to the fuel cell
shelf above the oxygen tank
compartment.
Finally, the crew jettisoned the Lunar
and continued in the CM. The re-entry
on a lunar mission normally was
accompanied by about four minutes of
typical communications blackout
caused by ionization of the air around
the Command Module. The blackout in
Apollo 13's re-entry lasted six minutes,
which caused serious concern. The
possibility of heat-shield damage from
the O2 tank rupture was distressing for ground crews.
However, Odyssey regained radio contact and splashed down safely just
southwest of American Samoa and
close to the recovery ship USS Iwo
Jima. The crew was in good condition
except for Haise, who was suffering
from a serious urinary tract infection
because of insufficient water intake.
As a joke following the successful
splashdown, Grumman pilot Sam
Greenberg (whose company built the
LM) issued a jovial invoice for
$400,540.05 to North American
Rockwell (who built the CSM), for
"towing" the crippled ship most of the
way to the Moon and back. He charged
$1.00 per mile, plus $4.00 for the first mile. An extra $536.05 was included for
battery charging, oxygen, and an "additional guest in room" (the CSM pilot).
140. Apollo 13 splashdown
141. The Apollo 13 crew being recovered
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Apollo 14 “When I first looked back at the Earth, standing on the
Moon, I cried.” Alan Shepard
Apollo 14 was the third
mission to land on the
Moon.
Alan Shepard and Edgar
Mitchell made their lunar
landing on February 5 in
the Fra Mauro formation;
this had originally been
the target of the aborted
Apollo 13 mission. During
the two lunar EVAs, 42kg
of samples were
collected. Shepard
famously hit two golf
balls on the lunar surface,
which travelled for miles,
as there was little gravity
and no air resistance.
Primary Crew:
Commander Alan B. Shepard Jr.
CSM Pilot Stuart A. Roosa
LM Pilot Edgar D. Mitchell
Backup Crew:
Commander Eugene A. Cernan
CSM Pilot Ronald E. Evans Jr.
LM Pilot Joe H. Engle
Designation Apollo 14
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn V
LV Designation AS-509
Callsign CSM “Kitty Hawk” LM “Antares” Moon “Fra Mauro Base”
Launch Date January 31st 1971, 21:03UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A
Launch Mass 44,504kg Landing Date February 9th 1971, 21:05UTC
Landing Site South Pacific Ocean
Duration 9 days, 2 minutes Lunar Orbits 34
142. The Apollo 14 crew
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Launch, TLI and Descent Apollo 14 launched during heavy cloud
cover, but NASA had long range cameras,
which allowed them to see what
happened. Prince Juan Carlos of Spain
and the US Vice President Spiro T. Agnew
both visited Mission Control afterwards.
There were major issues in docking the
CSM with the LM. The crew spent 1 hour
and 42 minutes attempting the
manoeuvre, before they finally
succeeded.
The LM then had two major problems.
Firstly, the LM computer continually sent ABORT signals. This would have
aborted any attempt at a lunar landing had it not been fixed. Mission Control
determined that this was caused by a piece of solder floating around. They
decided to reprogram the computer to ignore the command, which involved
dictating over 80 keystrokes to Mitchell. He succeeded just in the nick of time
for the descent.
A second problem occurred during the powered descent, when the LM radar
altimeter failed to lock automatically onto the Moon's surface, depriving the
navigation computer of vital information on the vehicle altitude and
groundspeed. Eventually the radar re-acquired a signal at 5,500m, again just in
time. Shepard then manually landed the LM, the closest a landing in the Apollo
Program. Even if the radar hadn’t turned back on, Shepard would still have
attempted to land manually, although NASA later said that this would have an
extremely low success chance.
143. The Apollo 14 launch
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126
Lunar Surface Operations Shepard and Mitchell named
their landing site Fra Mauro
Base. Shepard's first words,
after stepping onto the lunar
surface were, "And it's been a
long way, but we're here."
Unlike the previous two
landing, Shepard had taken
several steps before speaking.
Shepard's A7L was the first to
have red stripes on the arms
and legs and on the top of the
lunar helmet. This avoided the confusion between the Commander and the LM
Pilot that there had been on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12. This feature is still in use
today on the ISS, and was used in every subsequent NASA mission.
Shepard and Mitchell took two moonwalks on the Moon, planting the ALSEP
(with new seismic experiments) and using the Modular Equipment Transporter
(See page 58) to transport samples. Altogether, they collected 45kg of rock.
Shepard famously took a golf club and two balls to the moon. He had to make
one-armed swings. He said that
the second ball went "miles and
miles and miles" although later
estimated the distance to be
between 180m and 370m).
On the second EVA, they tried to
reach the rim of the 300 m wide
Cone Crater. The two astronauts
had great difficulty finding it, as
Mitchell had a good mental map
144. Alan Shepard with the flag
145. The tracks left by the MET
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 14
127
of the area in his head, but
Shepard thought that they
were much further north.
The Commander’s decision
was final, and they ended
up turning around just 20m
short of the rim. This was
the longest distance on
foot ever made on the
lunar surface (although the
Lunar Rover (See page 58)
in later missions allowed
them to travel further by
vehicle.)
Return to Earth The Command Module Kitty
Hawk splashed down in the
South Pacific Ocean,
approximately 1,410 km south
of American Samoa. After
recovery by the ship USS New
Orleans, the crew were the last
mission to be quarantined.
Roosa, who worked in forestry
in his youth, took several
hundred tree seeds on the
flight. These were germinated after the return to Earth, and widely distributed
around the world as commemorative Moon trees.
146. Shepard with his makeshift golf club
147. The Apollo 14 splashdown
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 15
128
Apollo 15 “There's a fundamental truth to our nature, Man must
explore… and this is exploration at its greatest.” Dave Scott
Apollo 15 was the fourth
mission to land on the
Moon. It was the first of
the “long stay” missions
on the Moon, with a
greater focus on science
than on previous
missions.
The mission was the first
use of the famous Lunar
Rover (See page 58).
At the time, NASA called
it the most successful
manned flight ever
achieved.
Primary Crew:
Commander David R. Scott
CSM Pilot Alfred M. Worden
LM Pilot James B. Irwin
Backup Crew:
Commander Richard F. Gordon Jr.
CSM Pilot Vance D. Brand
LM Pilot Harrison Schmitt
Designation Apollo 15
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn V
LV Designation AS-510 Callsign CSM “Endeavour” LM “Falcon”
Launch Date July 26th 1971, 13:34UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A
Launch Mass 46,989kg Landing Date August 7th 1971, 20:45UTC
Landing Site North Pacific Ocean
Duration 12 days, 7 hours, 11 minutes Lunar Orbits 74
148. The Apollo 15 crew
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 15
129
Pre-Mission Training Originally, Apollo 15 would have
been similar in format to Apollo 14.
But on September 2, 1970, NASA
announced that, due to budget cuts,
Apollo 15 was now a longer stay on
the Moon. This was because Apollos
18-20 had been cancelled.
The crew were given training in
geology by Caltech geologist Leon
Silver, as it would become much
more important on the mission.
At first Silver would take the astronauts to various geological sites in Arizona
and New Mexico but later on crews began to wear mock-ups of the backpacks
they would carry, and communicate using walkie-talkies to a CAPCOM in a
tent.
CSM Pilot Alfred Worden did different training, as he would not actually land
on the Moon. He flew over areas in an airplane, simulating the speed at which
terrain would pass below him while in orbit.
The Site Selection Committees, backed by
Scott, decided that the mission would land at
Hadley Rille, near which were a group of low,
possibly volcanic, domes.
Launch, TLI and Descent Apollo 15 launched from the Kennedy Space
Center, at Cape Canaveral. During the launch,
the S-IC did not completely shut off following
staging for four seconds, creating the
possibility of the spent stage banging into the
149. Scott and Irwin in training
150. The launch of Apollo 15
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 15
130
S-II engines, damaging them and forcing an abort. Despite this, the third stage
and spacecraft reached its
planned Earth parking orbit. A
couple of hours into the mission,
the third stage performed the TLI
burn that sent the spacecraft out
of towards the Moon.
When un-docking from the CSM
was attempted; it did not occur,
because of a fault in the hatch
mechanism. The CSM Pilot, Alfred
Worden, fixed the hatch and the
LM then properly separated from
the CSM.
Scott and Irwin then began the descent. Several minutes after descent was
initiated, the LM was six kilometres east of the landing target. Scott altered the
flight path of the LM so that they touched down within a few hundred meters
of the planned landing site. Other than a “Stand-Up” EVA through the top
hatch to take photographs by Scott, the crew did not leave the capsule until
the next day.
Lunar Surface Operations While the astronauts slept, a steady
oxygen leak was detected.
Controllers could not determine the
exact cause of the leak without
awaking the crew. Scott and Irwin
eventually were awakened an hour
early, and the source of the leak
was found to be an open valve on
the urine transfer device.
151. Irwin saluting the flag
152. The LRV
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 15
131
Four hours later, Scott and Irwin became the
seventh and eighth humans, to walk on the
Moon. The unloaded the LRV and drove to
Elbow Crater on a 6.5 hour EVA, along the edge
of Hadley Rille. They set up the ALSEP before
returning to the LM.
The target of the second EVA, the next day, was
the edge of Mount Hadley Delta. The astronauts
collected many samples, with one known as the
"Genesis Rock" being over 4 billion years old. The erected the US flag, finished
putting the ALSEP together and returned to the LM. This EVA lasted 7 hours
and 12 minutes.
On the third EVA, the crew northwest of the landing site to another part of
Hadley Rille, where they collected more samples. After returning to the LM's
location, Scott performed an experiment using a feather and hammer to
demonstrate Galileo's theory that all objects in the same gravity fall at the
same rate, regardless of mass. He dropped the hammer and feather at the
same time and because of the negligible lunar atmosphere, there was no drag
on the feather, which hit the ground at the same time as the hammer.
The Rover’s final function was to film the ascent from a short distance away.
Before leaving Shepard place the Fallen Astronaut statue. See page
In total, the two astronauts spent 18.5 hours outside collected
approximately 77kg of samples
Return to Earth A day after leaving the Moon, Worden performed a spacewalk
in deep space, the first of its kind, to retrieve some exposed
film. At a similar time, Apollo 15 became the longest Apollo
Mission of the Program so far.
Although one of the three parachutes on the CM failed to deploy properly
during re-entry, only two were required for a safe landing. The USS Okinawa
recovered the crew.
153. Scott demonstrating Galileo's theory with a hammer and a feather
154. Apollo 15 splashdown with only two chutes
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 16
132
Apollo 16 “I'm proud to be an American, I'll tell you. What a program
and what a place and what an experience.” Charlie Duke
Apollo 16 was the
penultimate mission to
land on the Moon and the
first to land outside a
lunar mare.
The crew spent 71 hours
on the lunar surface, and
used the LRV (See page
58) for the second time.
They collected 95.8kg of
samples, most of which
were older than on other
missions due to the
landing site that was
chosen.
Primary Crew:
Commander John W. Young
CSM Pilot Thomas K. Mattingly II
LM Pilot Charlie M. Duke Jr.
Backup Crew:
Commander Fred W. Haise Jr.
CSM Pilot Stuart A. Roosa
LM Pilot Edgar D. Mitchell
Designation Apollo 16
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn V LV Designation AS-511
Callsign CSM “Casper” LM “Orion”
Launch Date April 16th 1972, 17:54UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A
Landing Date April 27th 1972, 19:45UTC Landing Site South Pacific Ocean
Duration 11 days, 1 hours, 51 minutes
Lunar Orbits 64
155. The Apollo 16 crew
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 16
133
Launch, TLI and Descent The launch of Apollo 16 was delayed one month
from March 17 to April 16, due to a list of minor
technical issues.
The launch and TLI went exactly as in previous
missions, along with the CSM/LM docking. The
crew then noticed the exterior surface of the
Lunar Module was giving off particles from where
there appeared to be a tear. The problem was not
identified and did not seem serious.
The LM undocked and prepared to land. It was
noticed, however, that there was a malfunction in
the SM engines.. According to mission rules,
Orion would have then re-docked with Casper, in
case Mission Control decided to abort the landing
and use the Lunar Module's engines for the
return trip to Earth. After several hours of
analysis, though, mission controllers determined
that the malfunction could be worked around and Young and Duke could
proceed with the landing. They began their descent from 20.1km (the highest
ever) and the LM landed within 500m of the planned site.
Lunar Operations The morning after landing, Young climbed out onto the front of the LM. He
descended the ladder and, upon setting foot on the
lunar surface, became the ninth human to walk on
the Moon. Upon stepping onto the surface, Young
expressed his sentiments about being there: "There
you are: Mysterious and Unknown Descartes.
Highland plains. Apollo 16 is gonna change your
image”. Duke soon descended the ladder and
joined Young on the surface, becoming the tenth
and youngest human to walk on the Moon, at age
156. The launch of Apollo 16
157. The LRV
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 16
134
36. After setting foot on the lunar surface, Duke expressed his excitement,
commenting: "Fantastic! Oh, that first foot on the lunar surface is super,
Tony!” They unloaded the
LRV and set up the ALSEP.
They spent four hours
collecting samples nearby
before driving to Plum
Crater, where they picked
up the biggest sample of the
whole program: “Big
Muley”. They then stopped
at Buster Crater, did a small
film demonstration of the
LRV, and returned to the
LM.
On the next EVA, the day
after, they drove to the Cinco Craters, 3.8 km from the LM, at the top of Stone
Mountain. At 152m above the valley floor, the pair were at the highest
elevation above the LM of any Apollo mission. They looked at the view, and
then visited several other sites to find samples and look for evidence of
volcanic activity, before returning to the LM
During the third and final lunar excursion, they were to explore North Ray
Crater, the largest of any of the craters any Apollo expedition had visited. After
exiting Orion, the pair drove the
lunar rover 4.4 km to North Ray
Crater. After their arrival, the
duo took photographs of the 1
km wide and 230 m deep crater.
They visited a large boulder,
taller than a four-story building,
which became known as 'House
Rock'. Samples from this rock
disproved all theories of volcanic
158. Shadow Rock
159. The LM ascent stage firing
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 16
135
activity. They also arrived at a 3 m high boulder, which they called 'Shadow
Rock'. Here, they sampled permanently shadowed soil. They set a lunar speed
record of 17.1km/h on their return to the LM. The rover was then parked to
film the lift-off.
Return to Earth After taking off, Young and Duke
reached lunar orbit and successfully
rendezvoused and re-docked with
Mattingly in the Command/Service
Module. They then jettisoned the
LM and the SPS performed a burn,
which sent them back towards
Earth. At a distance of about
310,000 km from Earth, Mattingly
performed spacewalk, during which he retrieved several film cassettes from
the CSM's SIM bay. A small biological experiment (known as MEED) was also
set up in the CSM.
They reached Earth, and splashed down near Christmas Island. The spacecraft
and its crew were retrieved by the USS Ticonderoga.
160. Mattingly performs a spacewalk
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Apollo 17
136
Apollo 17 “I'd like to dedicate the first step of Apollo 17 to all those
who made it possible.” Gene Cernan
Apollo 17 was the final
mission of the Apollo
Program, and was the
sixth and final landing of
humans on the Moon.
The decision to land in
the Taurus-Littrow valley
was made to let the crew
sample very old lunar
highland material.
Apollo 17 broke several
records, including the
longest manned Apollo
flight; the longest total
EVA duration; the largest
sample haul, and the
longest lunar orbit time.
Primary Crew:
Commander Eugene A. Cernan
CSM Pilot Ronald E. Evans
LM Pilot Harrison H. Schmitt
Backup Crew:
Commander John Young
CSM Pilot Stuart A. Roosa
LM Pilot Charles Duke
Designation Apollo 17
Insignia
Launch Vehicle Saturn V
LV Designation AS-512 Callsign CSM“America” LM“Challenger”
Launch Date December 7th 1972, 05:33UTC Launch Site Kennedy LC-39A
Launch Mass 46,980kg Landing Date December 19th 1972, 19:24UTC
Landing Site South Pacific Ocean
Duration 12 days, 13 hours, 52 minutes Lunar Orbits 75
161. The Apollo 17 crew
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Launch, TLI and Descent
137
Launch, TLI and Descent Apollo 17 launched from launch pad 39-
A at the Kennedy Space Center. It was
the last manned Saturn V launch and the
only night launch. It was delayed by
nearly three hours due to a countdown
malfunction. A normal orbit was
achieved after the launch, which was
watched by half a million people nearby.
Because the sky was dark, people over
800km away saw the rocket as it flew
away from Earth. The CSM/LM docking,
TLI and flight to the Moon went
normally.
Cernan and Schmitt later began their descent to the Taurus-Littrow valley on
the lunar surface. Several minutes after the descent phase was initiated,
Cernan successfully began to guide the LM to a suitable landing site.
Lunar Surface Operations The first moonwalk of the mission began approximately four hours after
landing. The first task of EVA was to
offload the LRV (See page 58) and
other equipment from the Lunar
Module. Cernan accidentally broke
the fender on the Rover, which
caused them to be covered with dust
while driving. The crew then
deployed the ALSEP and then
departed on the first geologic
traverse of the mission, during which
they gathered 14kg of samples.
162. The jettisoned S-IVB
163. Schmitt near a large boulder
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Launch, TLI and Descent
138
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One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Launch, TLI and Descent
139
One Giant Leap APOLLO: MISSION BY MISSION Manned Missions Launch, TLI and Descent
140
On the second EVA, the pair sampled several
different types of geologic deposits found in the
valley, including orange-coloured soil. They
collected 34kg of samples, and deployed three
explosive packages, which would later test
seismometers.
The third moonwalk, the last of the Apollo
program, began at 20:26UTC on December 13th.
During this excursion, the crew collected 66kg of lunar samples. Before ending
the moonwalk, the crew collected a rock and dedicated it to several different
nations that were represented in Mission Control Center in Houston at the
time. Gene Cernan said, before leaving the Moon for the final time:
“...I'm on the surface; and, as I take man's last step from the surface,
back home for some time to come - but we believe not too long into the
future - I'd like to just say what I believe history will record. That
America's challenge of today has forged man's destiny of tomorrow.
And, as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came and,
God willing, as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind.
Godspeed the crew of Apollo 17."
Return to Earth Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt successfully lifted off from the lunar
surface on December 14th. They then docked with the CSM,
transferred samples over, and let the LM crash into the
Moon so its effects could be recorded by seismometers.
Ron Evans made a spacewalk on the way back, to collect
some film from the CSM’s instrument bay.
On the 19th of December, the SM was jettisoned and the CM
landed in the Pacific, where it was recovered by the USS
Ticonderoga.
165. Eugene Cernan near the flag and LRV
166. The Apollo 17 splashdown
One Giant Leap APOLLO IN HINDSIGHT
141
APOLLO IN
HINDSIGHT
One Giant Leap APOLLO IN HINDSIGHT Legacy of Apollo Later Missions
142
Legacy of Apollo “In my own view, the important achievement of Apollo was
a demonstration that humanity is not forever chained to
this planet, and our visions go rather further than that, and
our opportunities are unlimited.” Neil Armstrong
Apollo has been described as the “greatest
technological achievement in human history”.
Apollo helped advance many areas of technology. For
example, the flight computer design used in both the
lunar and command modules was the driving force
behind early research into integrated circuits. Every
computer we use today relies on these circuits:
without the Apollo Program, we would be decades
behind where we are now.
Later Missions
Skylab Skylab was the United States' first space station. it
orbited the Earth from 1973 to 1979, and included a
workshop and a solar observatory. It was launched
unmanned by a modified Saturn V rocket, with a mass of
77,000kg. Three manned missions to the station using
the Apollo CSM on a Saturn IB, each delivered a three-
astronaut crew. On the last two manned missions, an
additional Apollo/Saturn IB stood by ready to rescue the
crew if needed.
167. The Apollo flight computer
168. Skylab
One Giant Leap APOLLO IN HINDSIGHT Legacy of Apollo Later Missions
143
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project The Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (carried out
in July 1975) was the first joint U.S.–Soviet
space flight, and the last flight of an Apollo
spacecraft. It was designed as a peace
gesture between the two nations, and it
signalled the end of the Space Race (See
page 25).
The mission included both joint and
separate scientific experiments (including an engineered eclipse of the Sun by
the Apollo craft to allow Soyuz to view the solar corona).
ASTP was the last manned US space mission until the first Space Shuttle flight
in April 1981. It was also Deke Slayton's only space flight. He was one of the
original Mercury Astronauts (See page 30), but he had been grounded for over
a decade due to medical reasons.
Apollo Spin-off Technologies:
Medical Technology Scratch Resistant lenses
Infrared ear thermometers
Space blankets
Safety Equipment Fire-resistant coatings
Firefighting equipment
Industrial Technology Cordless tools
Freeze-drying
Powdered lubricants
169. An artist's impression of the Apollo-Soyuz docking
One Giant Leap APOLLO IN HINDSIGHT Cultural Legacy Later Missions
144
Cultural Legacy Numerous films, books and TV shows have
been based on the events of the Apollo
Program. Most people have seen the film
“Apollo 13”, and maybe up to a fifth of the
world watched television footage of the
Apollo 11 landing. But as well as this kind
of culture, another was also changed by
Apollo: our perception of our existence.
Many astronauts and cosmonauts have
commented on the profound effects that
seeing Earth from space has had on them:
after the Apollo Program, the view of Earth
as a fragile, small planet became much
more apparent. The most famous, taken by
the Apollo 17 astronauts, is called The Blue
Marble, pictured on the next page. While
this photo is majestically
beautiful, I think an even better
example of humanity’s fragility
is the one pictured to the right,
taken by Michael Collins on
Apollo 11. In the frame of this
picture was every human who
had ever lived or died up to that
point, bar one. Indeed, if we
took that photo again today, the
same thing could still be said;
Apollo was the only time that
humans have left Earth orbit.
170. The cover of the film Apollo 13
171. Michael Collins' photo, containing every human bar himself
One Giant Leap APOLLO IN HINDSIGHT Cultural Legacy Later Missions
145
172. The Blue Marble, taken by the Apollo 17 crew
One Giant Leap APOLLO IN HINDSIGHT Conspiracy Theories
146
Conspiracy Theories According to various polls, between 6% and 20% of Americans doubt that the
Apollo Program actually landed men on the Moon. They are, quite frankly,
wrong. It is obvious that their opinions are not based on evidence, or are based
on erroneous evidence.
If there were a conspiracy, it would have involved over 400,000 people: it
would have been impossible to keep the secret. The extraordinary effort that
would have been required would have been harder than the landings
themselves! For this reason, I am mentioning a few of the conspiracy theories
for reference and entertainment, rather than because they hold any weight.
There are many theories regarding photographs, many involving visual oddities
and the lack of certain features (such as stars in the sky). These have all been
demonstrated to be a result of incorrect photo scanning, and the ignorance of
the theorists: The (obvious) reason why there are no stars in the photographs
is that they were taken during lunar daytime.
One amusing conspiracy theory was made by an Australian named Una Ronald,
who said that she saw a Coke bottle roll across her TV, showing the Apollo 11
EVA. Not a single other viewer saw this, and her account was riddled with
contradictions and inaccuracies.
There are numerous others, some talking of radiation, or sound, or wind.
However, not a single conspiracy theory has survived rebuttal and scrutiny
from people who actually know what they are talking about!
One Giant Leap Conclusion
147
Conclusion “The Lunar landing of the astronauts is more than a step in
history; it is a step in evolution.” NY Times, July 1969
The Apollo Program came and went in just four years. For millennia, humanity
had marvelled and looked up at the stars. But now, we look down from them,
back onto the Earth. We still marvel, but in a different way; we marvel at our
own achievements and our boundless imaginations.
In total, over 500 people have left the constraints of our planet and flown into
space. Twelve of those people walked on the Moon during the Apollo Program.
Without the visions of many people, this would never have happened. Of
course, exploration like this does not come without risk. Thirty people have
died in-flight and in training, and although they aren’t with us today, they
helped advance space exploration just as much as their colleagues who
outlived them. As mentioned in the first few words of this book, Neil
Armstrong, who was the commander of Apollo 11 and the first man to walk on
the Moon, died in 2012.
The journey to the Moon is undoubtedly the most epic ever made by a human
being. Ever since language was invented, we have marvelled at brave journeys
and expeditions into unexplored places. From Homer’s epic poem The Odyssey,
written around 800BCE, in which Odysseus ventured for ten years across the
Hellenic World, to Christopher Columbus’ journeys to America in the late 15th
century and Magellan’s global circumnavigation in the early 16th century. These
journeys lasted for many years, and the crews underwent extreme hardship,
with many not surviving. The Apollo Program’s astronauts were not faced with
such extreme tribulations, yet the sheer distances they covered and the
uniqueness of their expedition makes it the most amazing by far.
One Giant Leap Conclusion
148
After Apollo 17, the Program was cancelled. Three more mission had been
planned, but budget cuts meant that space exploration was the first to go.
Perhaps Apollo had already completed its goals. The views of many people in
the US were that the Program had nothing left to do, and was simply a waste
of money. Millions were dedicating their time to making the project a success,
at a cost of around £100 billion in today’s money. Perhaps those critics were
right: Apollo’s primary goal was to send men to the moon and return them,
along with samples. This was completed. But could other things have been
achieved? I am not too sure. Maybe we could have conducted even more
experiments. Maybe we could have attempted a much longer mission,
assessing the effects of living on the Moon for a week or more. But probably,
Apollo’s time had ended. With the limited technology of the 1970s, there was
not much else to be done, let alone safely.
NASA, other space agencies and private corporations have now turned their
attention to other places. Mars and passing asteroids are now the favourites
for manned missions. NASA is confident that it will have landed a man on the
Moon by 2035, but some private companies are suggesting a landing before
2020. There is a wide range in plausibility for these various plans! NASA also
wants to send a manned mission to an asteroid, although this is much further
in the future.
The imperative need for humans to spread out across the Cosmos has really
been hammered home because of the Apollo Program: our tiny, insignificant,
yet infinitely beautiful planet cannot sustain us forever. Indeed, within the next
few hundred years, our hydrocarbon fuel reserves will dry up. While solar
energy could sustain us temporarily, our only viable option is to expand our
frontiers into space. While this will not happen in our lifetimes, I am sure that
within the next few thousand years, humans will be spread far across the
galaxy. The Apollo Program has changed the future just as much as it has
changed the present. We will take not only knowledge from it, but also
inspiration, for many centuries to come.
“When old dreams die, new ones come to take their place.
God pity a one-dream man.” Robert Goddard
One Giant Leap
149
2. The Patch of the Apollo Program
One Giant Leap BIBLIOGRAPHY Websites
150
BIBLIOGRAPHY Websites
www.airandspace.si.edu/explore-and-learn/topics/apollo/
www.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080413015131AAdzNgK
www.apolloarchive.com/
www.apollohq.com/
www.astronomytoday.com/exploration/apollo.html
www.bbc.co.uk/science/space/solarsystem/space_missions/apollo_program
www.computerweekly.com/feature/Apollo-11-The-computers-that-put-man-on-the-moon
www.csgnetwork.com/satorbdatacalc.html
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_1
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_10
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_12
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_13
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_14
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_15
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_16
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_17
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_4
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_5
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_6
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_7
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_8
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_9
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_in_World_War_I
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnstorming
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_controller
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_aviation
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_rockets
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_escape_system
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Joe_II
One Giant Leap BIBLIOGRAPHY Websites
151
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_(rocket_family)
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_I
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_IB
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_V
www.georgesrockets.com/GRP/Scale/DATA/LJoeMain.htm
www.google.co.uk/moon/#
www.history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/kippsphotos/apollo.html
www.honeysucklecreek.net/msfn_missions/Apollo_7_mission/hl_apollo7.html
www.honeysucklecreek.net/msfn_missions/Apollo_8_mission/hl_apollo8.html
www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/alsj-TEC.html
www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/contents.htm#Volume%20II
www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/mission_trans/AS07_TEC.PDF
www.myspacemuseum.com/apollocams.htm
www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/apollo/40th/a11_audio_db.html
www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/nato_countries.htm
www.nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo.html
www.nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo.html
www.reddit.com/r/Apollo
www.reddit.com/r/space
www.space.com/12771-nasa-apollo-missions-photo-countdown.html
www.space.com/18422-apollo-saturn-v-moon-rocket-nasa-infographic.html
www.spacechronology.com/1940s.html
www.spacekids.co.uk/spacehistory/
www.spacequotations.com/apollo.html
www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/09/moondoggle-the-forgotten-opposition-to-the-
apollo-program/262254/
www.vimeo.com/4366695
www.youtube.com/watch?v=3HrLdLgdhpI
www.youtube.com/watch?v=AqeJzItldSQ
www.youtube.com/watch?v=fsObsxU08ys
Among many others
One Giant Leap BIBLIOGRAPHY Media
152
Media Apollo 13 Directed by Ron Howard, Starring Tom Hanks, Kevin Bacon, Bill Paxton. Screenplay by William Broyles Jr. and Al Reinert. Based on the book “Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13” by Jim Lovell and J. Kluger
The Log of Apollo 7 Written and Produced by George Van Valkenburg
Apollo 11 Landing Footage (Houston/Eagle) Reproduced by NASA
Apollo 11 Saturn V Launch (HD) Camera E-8 Narrated by Mark Gray
Apollo Launch Abort System Test Footage courtesy of NASA, Narrated by oisiaa
Books Apollo 7 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript
Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office
Scans courtesy Glen Swanson
Apollo 11 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript
Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office
Scans courtesy Glen Swanson
One Giant Leap BIBLIOGRAPHY Books
153
Apollo 13 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript
Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office
Scans courtesy Glen Swanson
Prominent Greeks of Antiquity
Written by George Papadogeorgos
First on the Moon: A Voyage with Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Edwin
E. Aldrin, Jr.
Written by the crew of Apollo 11
Footprints on the Moon
Written by John Barbour
Apollo 12 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript
Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office
Scans courtesy Glen Swanson
Apollo 9 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript
Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office
Scans courtesy Glen Swanson
Apollo 10 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcript
Prepared by Test Division, Apollo Spacecraft Program Office
Scans courtesy Glen Swanson
A Man on the Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts
Written by Andrew L. Chaiken
One Giant Leap GLOSSARY Books
154
GLOSSARY Abort Cancel a mission, and return quickly and safely to Earth
Aerofoil A curved structure used as the basic form of the wings, fins, and tails of most aircraft.
Aeronautics The study of flight and aviation
Apogee The point at which a spacecraft is furthest from the Earth.
Atmosphere The envelope of gases surrounding a celestial body
Biplane A plane whose wings are made of two parallel pieces
Boilerplate A fake spacecraft with similar dimensions
Capsule Communicator
The man, usually an astronaut, at Mission Control who was tasked with communicating with the astronauts. All radio traffic usually went through him.
Celestial Body Any discernable, natural object in space.
Command Module
The part of the Apollo Spacecraft in which the astronauts took off, lived and re-entered in.
Command/Service Module
The Apollo spacecraft, which carried astronauts to the Moon.
Conspiracy Theory A belief that there is a major cover-up or lie being endorsed by the government or other influential organisation.
Controlled Flight A flight whose destination can be decided
Crust The outer layer of a solid celestial body
One Giant Leap GLOSSARY Books
155
Cryogenic Using very low temperatures
Earthrise The view seen on the Moon as the Earth rises over the lunar horizon.
Electrical, Environmental and Consumables Manager
The Mission Control manager responsible for oxygen, food, water, electrical systems, heating and other components relating to the astronauts’ welfare.
Extra-Vehicular Activity
Activities outside the spacecraft, such as moonwalks or spacewalks
Fuel Cell A cell producing an electric current direct from a chemical reaction.
Geology The study of rocks and minerals
Gliding A type of unpowered but controlled flight
Integrated Circuit An electronic circuit formed on a small piece of semiconducting material, which performs the same function as a larger circuit made from discrete components.
Ionosphere An area of the Earth’s atmosphere above 80km
Life Support Equipment used to maintain one’s vital functions
Low Earth Orbit Orbit of the Earth at a relatively low apogee
Lunar Relating to the Moon
Lunar Module
The part of the Apollo Spacecraft that landed the astronauts on the lunar surface.
Mach The speed of sound (Mach 2 = Mach 1 x 2 etc.) Manned Describes a craft that holds astronauts.
maria Lower areas on the lunar surface
One Giant Leap GLOSSARY Books
156
Mars A nearby planet that is the target of future space missions.
Mascon An area of high mass concentration that causes gravity increases.
Monoplane A plane with only one wing on each side
Moon The Earth’s only natural satellite, and the target of the Apollo Program.
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
NASA’s predecessor, and a pioneering organisation in flight and spaceflight
National Aeronautics and Space Agency
The organisation which ran the Apollo Program
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
A group of politically allied countries in Europe and North America
Orbit The regularly repeated elliptical course of a celestial object or spacecraft around a celestial body.
Oxidiser A substance that causes another substance to burn in oxygen
Periselene The point at which a craft is furthest from the Moon
Pitch Up To oscillate about a lateral axis perpendicular to the Longitudinal axis and horizontal to the earth.
Planet A celestial body, which orbits a star or binary system.
Pogo Oscillation Pogo oscillation is a dangerous type movement in rockets. It results in variations of thrust from the engines, causing variations of acceleration on the rocket's structure, giving variations in fuel pressure and flow rate. It can damage the rocket considerably.
One Giant Leap GLOSSARY Books
157
Powered Flight A flight powered by some sort of onboard engine
Random Access Memory
The memory used by a computer to perform calculations
Read-Only Memory
The memory a computer uses for storage of information
Roll Rotating laterally around the direction of travel
Sample A piece/bag of rock/dust
Seismic Relating to the vibrations of a celestial body’s crust
Selene The Greek Moon goddess
Service Module
The part of the Apollo Spacecraft responsible for providing oxygen, water and electricity and holding food.
Service Propulsion System
The rocket on the Service Module
S-IVB The third stage of the Saturn V rocket
Solar System A system of a star(or two), planets, moon and other objects such as asteroids and comets
Soviet Union The name for Russia from 1922 to 1991
Soyuz The Soviet manned spacecraft program
Suborbital At an altitude below Earth orbit
Synchronous Rotation
A phenomenon in which a moon or planet rotates one degree for every degree it orbits its parent body
Telemetry The automatic transmission of data.
terrae Higher areas on the lunar surface
One Giant Leap GLOSSARY Abbreviations
158
Abbreviations SPS Service Propulsion System
CSM Command/Service Module
LM/LEM Lunar (Excursion) Module
SM Service Module
CM Command Module
CAPCOM Capsule Communicator
EECOM Electrical, Environmental and Consumables Manager
LES Launch Escape System
TLI Trans-lunar Injection
TEI Trans-Earth Injection
NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Agency
MLP Mobile Launcher Platform
MQF Mobile Quarantine Facility
MET Modular Equipment Transporter
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
USSR United Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Union)
RAM Random Access Memory
ROM Read-Only Memory
PLSS Portable Life-Support System
EVA Extra-Vehicular Activity
NACA The National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics
USAF The United States Air Force
Theia The proto-planet with collided with Earth to form the Moon
Trans-Earth Injection
An engine blast designed to point a spacecraft towards Earth
Vacuum An area completely devoid of matter
Wingspan The distance from the tip of one wing to the other
Zeppelin A large, hydrogen filled balloon with a gondola for carrying passengers.
One Giant Leap GLOSSARY TABLE OF FIGURES Abbreviations
159
TABLE OF FIGURES 0. “Earthrise” – taken by William Anders on Apollo 8 – 1968……………………..………………………………………..….2
1. The first human steps on The Moon ........................................................................................................... 4
2b. The patch of the Apollo Program ............................................................................................................10
3. Apollo 12 launches from the Kennedy Space Center ................................................................................11
4. Buzz Aldrin near a solar wind experiment ................................................................................................11
5. Gus Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee, the Apollo 1 crew who died in a launchpad fire and
became the first astronauts to die in service. ..............................................................................................12
6. An artist's impression of the first Montgolfier flight in Paris. ...................................................................14
7. Henri Giffard's airship ...............................................................................................................................14
8. "La France": the first fully controllable airship .........................................................................................15
9. Sir George Cayley’s design for a "governable parachute" ........................................................................16
10. Felix du Temple's "Monoplane" ..............................................................................................................16
11. The Wright Brothers' First Flight .............................................................................................................17
12. The Sopwith Camel, the most successful Allied fighter plane in the First World War ...........................18
13. A Fokker plane, similar to the one used by The Red Baron ....................................................................18
14. Amelia Earhart, a famous barnstormer ..................................................................................................19
15. The Hindenburg Disaster ........................................................................................................................19
16. The gigantic Dornier DO X seaplane. ......................................................................................................20
17. The TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter ...................................................................................................20
18. The Me 163, the first and only rocket-powered combat plane. .............................................................21
19. The NACA's logo ......................................................................................................................................23
20. A map of European Cold War Alliances ..................................................................................................24
21. Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space ........................................................................................................25
22. President Dwight Eisenhower .................................................................................................................27
23. NASA's logo .............................................................................................................................................27
24. The X-15, the fastest manned aircraft in history ....................................................................................29
25. The "Mercury Seven". Back row: Shepard, Grissom, Cooper; front row: Schirra, Slayton, Glenn,
Carpenter ......................................................................................................................................................30
26. The Gemini Spacecraft ............................................................................................................................31
27. The launch of Gemini VIII ........................................................................................................................31
28. Ed White performing the first U.S. spacewalk ........................................................................................32
29. An artist's impression of the collision of Earth and Theia ......................................................................34
30. A Soviet map of the Moon's near side ....................................................................................................35
31. The Moon's interior structure .................................................................................................................36
32. Lunar surface composition......................................................................................................................36
33. John Young jumping on the Moon ..........................................................................................................36
34. A diagram showing how a rocket can move in a vacuum .......................................................................38
35. A comparison between liquid-fuel and solid-fuel rockets ......................................................................39
36. The engine of a liquid-fuel rocket ...........................................................................................................40
37. A depiction of an early Chinese rocket ...................................................................................................41
One Giant Leap GLOSSARY TABLE OF FIGURES Abbreviations
160
38. A portrait of Roger Bacon .......................................................................................................................42
39. Robert Goddard with his rocket .............................................................................................................43
40. A comparison of the four Apollo rockets ................................................................................................45
41. Little Joe II ...............................................................................................................................................46
42. Saturn I ....................................................................................................................................................47
43. Saturn IB ..................................................................................................................................................48
44. Saturn V...................................................................................................................................................49
45. A diagram of the Saturn V rocket ...........................................................................................................50
46. A diagram of the Apollo spacecraft ........................................................................................................51
47. The LES tower .........................................................................................................................................51
48. The Apollo CSM .......................................................................................................................................52
49. The CSM above the Moon ......................................................................................................................52
50. A detailed diagram of the LM .................................................................................................................53
51. The Apollo 11 LM descending .................................................................................................................53
52. The crawler-transporter on the crawlerway ...........................................................................................54
53. The Mobile Launcher Platform ...............................................................................................................55
54. The Apollo 11 MQF in a museum ............................................................................................................55
55. The Apollo 16 ALSEP setup .....................................................................................................................56
56. Alan Shepard planting the U.S. Flag ........................................................................................................57
57. An Apollo Television camera ...................................................................................................................57
58. The MET during testing on Earth ............................................................................................................58
59. The Apollo 15 LRV ...................................................................................................................................58
60. Buzz Aldrin wearing the A7L ...................................................................................................................59
61. A diagram of the A7L ..............................................................................................................................59
62. "Fallen Astronaut" and memorial plaque ...............................................................................................60
63. SA-1 .........................................................................................................................................................62
64. SA-2 .........................................................................................................................................................63
65. SA-3 .........................................................................................................................................................64
66. SA-4 .........................................................................................................................................................65
67. SA-5 .........................................................................................................................................................66
68. A-101 .......................................................................................................................................................67
69. A-102 .......................................................................................................................................................68
70. A-103 .......................................................................................................................................................69
71. The Pegasus I satellite .............................................................................................................................69
72. A-104 .......................................................................................................................................................70
73. A-105 .......................................................................................................................................................71
74. The LES firing in Pad Abort Test 1 ...........................................................................................................72
75. Pad Abort Test 2......................................................................................................................................73
76. The LES from the Little Joe II QTV (See overleaf) ....................................................................................73
77. The Little Joe II QTV ................................................................................................................................74
78. A-001 .......................................................................................................................................................75
79. A-002 .......................................................................................................................................................76
80. The breakup of A-003 .............................................................................................................................77
81. A-004 .......................................................................................................................................................78
82. AS-201 .....................................................................................................................................................79
83. AS-203 .....................................................................................................................................................80
84. AS-202 .....................................................................................................................................................81
One Giant Leap GLOSSARY TABLE OF FIGURES Abbreviations
161
85. The crew of Apollo 1 ...............................................................................................................................82
86. The Apollo 1 burnt-out capsule interior .................................................................................................83
87. The remains of Grissom's pressure suit ..................................................................................................84
88. The burnt capsule ...................................................................................................................................84
89. NASA directors testify before a Senate hearing .....................................................................................85
90. The launch of Apollo 4 ............................................................................................................................86
91. The Earth, as seen by Apollo 4 ................................................................................................................86
92. The launch of Apollo 5 ............................................................................................................................87
93. The launch of Apollo 6 ............................................................................................................................88
94. The crew of Apollo 7 ...............................................................................................................................89
95. The launch of Apollo 7 ............................................................................................................................90
96. The S-IVB with partially closed panel on right ........................................................................................90
97. A still from the first live TV broadcast .....................................................................................................91
98. The cramped CM interior ........................................................................................................................91
99. Part of the original transmission logs, showing the conflict between crew and mission control ..........92
100. R. Walter Cunningham ..........................................................................................................................93
101. The crew of Apollo 8 .............................................................................................................................95
102. Apollo 8 on the launchpad ....................................................................................................................96
103. The launch of Apollo 8 ..........................................................................................................................96
104. The Earth seen from Apollo 8 ...............................................................................................................97
105. The jettisoned SIV-B ..............................................................................................................................97
106. The lunar surface, seen from Apollo 8 ..................................................................................................98
107. The Apollo 9 crew .................................................................................................................................99
108. Russell Schweickart during the EVA ....................................................................................................100
109. The LM during practice manoeuvers ..................................................................................................100
110. The crew of Apollo 9 ...........................................................................................................................101
111. The launch of Apollo 9 ........................................................................................................................102
112. Earthrise from Apollo 9 .......................................................................................................................102
113. The Apollo 10 LM descending .............................................................................................................103
114. The Apollo 11 crew .............................................................................................................................104
115. The Apollo 11 LM descending .............................................................................................................105
116. The launch of Apollo 11, July 16th 1969 ..............................................................................................106
117. The Apollo Guidance Computer ..........................................................................................................108
118. A map of Tranquility Base, showing craters and photographs ...........................................................109
119. Neil Armstrong descending the LM's ladder .......................................................................................109
120. Buzz Aldrin on the Moon ....................................................................................................................110
121. Neil Armstrong saluting the flag .........................................................................................................110
122. The Apollo 11 EASEP being deployed .................................................................................................111
123. An armalcolite sample, first discovered on the Moon........................................................................111
124. The plaque left on the Moon ..............................................................................................................112
125. Part of the original text of the speech ................................................................................................112
126. The lunar flag being blown over during ascent ..................................................................................113
127. The CM being recovered .....................................................................................................................114
128. The astronauts under quarantine .......................................................................................................114
129. The Apollo 12 crew .............................................................................................................................115
130. The Apollo 12 launch ..........................................................................................................................116
131. The Surveyor 3 probe ..........................................................................................................................117
One Giant Leap TABLE OF FIGURES Abbreviations
162
132. The Apollo 12 LM ................................................................................................................................117
133. The solar eclipse seen by Apollo 12 ....................................................................................................118
134. The Apollo 13 crew .............................................................................................................................119
135. The launch of Apollo 13 ......................................................................................................................120
136. The damage on the SM (seen after jettison) ......................................................................................120
137. The rescue options for Apollo 13 ........................................................................................................121
138. Mission Control staff trying to make a replacement air filter ............................................................121
139. The replacement air scrubber being fitted .........................................................................................122
140. Apollo 13 splashdown .........................................................................................................................123
141. The Apollo 13 crew being recovered ..................................................................................................123
142. The Apollo 14 crew .............................................................................................................................124
143. The Apollo 14 launch ..........................................................................................................................125
144. Alan Shepard with the flag ..................................................................................................................126
145. The tracks left by the MET ..................................................................................................................126
146. Shepard with his makeshift golf club ..................................................................................................127
147. The Apollo 14 splashdown ..................................................................................................................127
148. The Apollo 15 crew .............................................................................................................................128
149. Scott and Irwin in training ...................................................................................................................129
150. The launch of Apollo 15 ......................................................................................................................129
151. Irwin saluting the flag .........................................................................................................................130
152. The LRV ...............................................................................................................................................130
153. Scott demonstrating Galileo's theory with a hammer and a feather .................................................131
154. Apollo 15 splashdown with only two chutes ......................................................................................131
155. The Apollo 16 crew .............................................................................................................................132
156. The launch of Apollo 16 ......................................................................................................................133
157. The LRV ...............................................................................................................................................133
158. Shadow Rock .......................................................................................................................................134
159. The LM ascent stage firing ..................................................................................................................134
160. Mattingly performs a spacewalk .........................................................................................................135
161. The Apollo 17 crew .............................................................................................................................136
162. The jettisoned S-IVB ............................................................................................................................137
163. Schmitt near a large boulder ..............................................................................................................137
164. The launch of Apollo 13, December 7th 1972: The final launch of the Apollo Program ....................138
165. Eugene Cernan near the flag and LRV.................................................................................................140
166. The Apollo 17 splashdown ..................................................................................................................140
167. The Apollo flight computer .................................................................................................................142
168. Skylab ..................................................................................................................................................142
169. An artist's impression of the Apollo-Soyuz docking ............................................................................143
170. The cover of the film Apollo 13 ...........................................................................................................144
171. Michael Collins' photo, containing every human bar himself ............................................................144
172. The Blue Marble, taken by the Apollo 17 crew ...................................................................................145
One Giant Leap INDEX TABLE OF FIGURES Abbreviations
163
INDEX A
A7L · 6, 59, 109, 126, 157
ABORT · 125
Abort Guidance System · 103, 122
aborted · 79, 87, 110, 124, 125
aeronautics · 12
Air Force · 23, 29, 93
aircraft · 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 29, 38, 114, 156
airship · 15, 19, 156
Albert II · 26
Aldrin · 26, 32, 95, 98, 104, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114,
115, 153, 156, 157, 158
ALSEP · 6, 56, 118, 126, 131, 134, 137, 157
aluminium · 16, 19, 60, 120
America · 12, 24, 136, 140, 147
Anders · 95, 98, 104, 156
apogee · 70, 96
Apollo · 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 25, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 40, 45,
46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60,
62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 79,
80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95,
96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108, 111,
112, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124,
125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 140,
142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156,
157, 158, 159
Apollo 1 · 12, 59, 82, 89, 90
Apollo 10 · 49, 57, 101
Apollo 11 · 4, 34, 49, 55, 56, 57, 98, 101, 103, 104, 105,
112, 115, 117, 118, 126, 144, 147, 152, 153
Apollo 12 · 49, 56, 58, 117, 126
Apollo 13 · 12, 49, 53, 58, 65, 144
Apollo 14 · 49, 58, 129
Apollo 15 · 49, 129
Apollo 16 · 49
Apollo 17 · 49, 144
Apollo 4 · 86
Apollo 5 · 7
Apollo 6 · 48, 49
Apollo 7 · 48, 93, 152
Apollo 8 · 49
Apollo 9 · 49
armalcolite · 111, 158
Armstrong · 4, 11, 12, 26, 95, 98, 104, 108, 109, 110,
111, 112, 113, 115, 117, 142, 147, 153, 158
ascent propulsion system · 53
asteroids · 148
astronaut · 60, 110, 113, 142
Atlantic · 19, 62, 89, 99, 100
B
Bacon · 42, 152, 156
balloon · 14, 15
barnstormer · 156
Bean · 58, 115, 116, 118
Blue Marble · 144, 159
bomber · 21
booster · 39, 40, 46
Borman · 95, 97, 98, 111
Brand · 128
Brazil · 19
Britain · 20, 43
broadcast · 91, 98, 108, 109, 158
C
Cabral · 19
Camera · 6, 57, 152
CAPCOM · 91, 92, 93, 108, 116, 129, 155
Cape Canaveral · 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71,
79, 80, 81, 82, 87, 89, 129
carbon · 36, 38, 42, 60, 122
Casper · 132, 133
Cayley · 16, 156
Çelebi · 42
Cernan · 90, 101, 102, 103, 124, 136, 137, 140, 159
Chaffee · 12, 82, 83, 84, 85, 156
Cheremukhin · 20
chimpanzees · 30
Cold War · 5, 24, 25, 26, 156
Collins · 104, 105, 113, 114, 144, 153, 159
Columbia · 104, 105, 114
Columbus · 147, 150
combat · 18, 21, 91, 156
combustion · 16, 39, 40
Command Module · 51, 52, 84, 85, 96, 100, 102, 105,
114, 116, 121, 123, 127, 154, 155
Command/Service Module · 52, 79, 80, 97, 102, 135, 154
commercial · 20
One Giant Leap INDEX TABLE OF FIGURES Abbreviations
164
communion · 108
composition · 12, 39, 156
computer · 12, 34, 66, 67, 68, 79, 87, 103, 105, 108, 120,
125, 142, 159
Congress · 27
Conrad · 58, 99, 115, 116, 117, 118
conspiracy · 4, 146
Conspiracy · 9, 146
controlled · 15, 16, 17, 21, 23, 39, 42
Cooper · 101, 156
countdown · 137, 151
Coutinho · 19
crater · 98, 134
Crawler-Transporter · 6, 54
crust · 34, 36
CSM · 6, 48, 52, 53, 67, 68, 69, 75, 79, 80, 82, 83, 88, 89,
90, 95, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 115, 116, 117,
119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 135,
136, 137, 140, 142, 154, 157
Cuba · 24
culture · 12, 144
cyanide · 113
D
d'Arlandes · 14
de Villette · 14
descent · 53, 72, 87, 102, 105, 109, 122, 125, 130, 133,
137
descent propulsion system · 53
Distinguished Service Medal · 94
docking · 32, 90, 99, 100, 125, 130, 133, 137, 159
Dornier DO X · 20, 156
du Temple · 16, 156
Duke · 108, 132, 133, 135, 136
dust · 110, 137
E
Eagle · 26, 104, 105, 108, 109, 110, 114, 152
Earhart · 19, 156
Earth · 8, 11, 12, 26, 30, 32, 34, 36, 47, 49, 52, 53, 55, 56,
57, 63, 64, 67, 68, 73, 80, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102,
109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 118, 121, 122, 124,
127, 130, 131, 133, 135, 137, 140, 142, 144, 147, 154,
156, 157, 158
Earthrise · 98, 156, 158
EASEP · 56, 109, 111, 158
EECOM · 116, 155
Eisele · 89, 93, 101
Eisenhower · 11, 27, 112, 156
electrical · 32, 79, 120, 122
England · 16
Engle · 124
equipment · 12, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, 92, 113, 122, 137,
143
EVA · 32, 85, 99, 100, 108, 109, 110, 122, 126, 130, 131,
134, 136, 137, 140, 146, 158
Evans · 124, 136, 140
exhaust · 38, 55, 114, 116
experiment · 131, 135, 156
exploded · 77, 119, 120
F
F-35 · 29
Fallaci · 117
far side · 95
fire · 12, 14, 20, 41, 59, 82, 84, 87, 88, 90, 112, 116, 156
First World War · 5, 18, 19, 156
flag · 57, 111, 114, 131, 158, 159
flight · 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 29, 30, 42, 45, 47, 48, 51, 53,
62, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 79, 80, 81,
83, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 103,
115, 120, 121, 127, 128, 130, 136, 137, 142, 143, 147,
156, 159
Folie Titon · 14
footage · 12, 118, 144
Fra Mauro · 124, 126
Froissart · 42
Fruit flies · 25
fuel · 21, 32, 38, 39, 40, 48, 62, 64, 65, 67, 79, 80, 81, 83,
84, 103, 108, 116, 121, 122, 123, 148, 154, 156
fuel cell · 116, 123
G
Gagarin · 26, 30, 112, 156
Galileo · 131, 159
Garros · 18
geology · 12, 129
Germany · 20, 43
Giffard · 15, 156
Glenn · 30, 156
glider · 16
Goddard · 39, 40, 43, 148, 157
golf · 12, 124, 126, 159
Gordon · 99, 101, 115, 128
Graf · 20
gravity · 36, 102, 110, 121, 124, 131
Grissom · 12, 82, 83, 84, 156, 158
Grumman · 53, 123
gunpowder · 16, 38, 41, 42
One Giant Leap INDEX TABLE OF FIGURES Abbreviations
165
H
Hadley · 60, 129, 131
Hadley Rille · 60, 129, 131
Haise · 95, 104, 119, 123, 132
Hasselblad · 57
hatch · 84, 85, 100, 109, 130
helicopter · 20, 156
helmet · 59, 93, 126
Hoeydonck · 60
Homer · 147
Hot Air · 5, 14
Houston · 104, 108, 119, 140, 152
Human Spaceflight · 11
hydrogen · 14, 19, 36, 40, 48, 66, 80, 120
I
ignition · 39, 85
impact · 21, 34, 35, 36
injection · 96, 116
insignia · 87
integrated circuits · 142
iron · 36
Irwin · 115, 119, 128, 130, 131, 159
J
Jardin des Tuileries · 14
Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier · 14
jet · 20, 21, 29, 38
jettison · 90, 121, 159
K
Kennedy · 11, 49, 86, 88, 93, 95, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105,
111, 112, 115, 116, 119, 124, 128, 129, 132, 136, 137,
150, 156
killed · 12, 18, 82, 84, 103, 116
King Louis XVI · 14
Kraft · 94
Krebs · 15
L
La France · 15, 156
Laika · 26
L'Albatros artificiel · 16
landing · 4, 11, 20, 26, 31, 42, 53, 56, 73, 75, 76, 79, 87,
92, 93, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 108, 111, 115,
117, 119, 121, 124, 125, 126, 130, 131, 132, 133, 136,
137, 144, 147, 148
Langley · 27
launch · 4, 26, 31, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 55, 57, 62, 64, 65,
69, 70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 86, 88, 90,
91, 93, 95, 96, 97, 105, 114, 116, 118, 129, 133, 137,
156, 158, 159
Launch Escape System · 6, 51, 67, 155
launchpad · 12, 51, 55, 156, 158
Le Bris · 16
Leon Silver · 129
LES · 7, 46, 51, 67, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 84, 155, 157
life support · 59, 79, 84, 100, 113
lightning · 116
Lindbergh · 19
Little Joe II · 45, 46, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78
LM · 48, 53, 58, 89, 90, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103,
104, 105, 108, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 119, 120,
121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133,
134, 135, 136, 137, 140, 155, 157, 158, 159
Lockheed Martin · 29
Lovell · 95, 98, 104, 119, 152
LRV · 58, 131, 132, 134, 137, 157, 159
Luna · 26, 117
lunar · 11, 32, 35, 36, 53, 55, 57, 58, 59, 87, 88, 90, 96,
97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114,
115, 116, 117, 118, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 131,
132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 140, 142, 146, 151, 158
Lunar Flag Assembly · 6, 57
Lunar Module · 6, 52, 53, 58, 59, 87, 88, 90, 96, 100, 102,
103, 105, 120, 122, 133, 137, 154
Lunokhod · 59
M
Mach 1 · 29
Magellan · 147, 150
manned · 4, 11, 14, 17, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 42, 45, 48, 66,
82, 83, 95, 99, 101, 115, 128, 136, 137, 142, 143, 148,
156
manoeuvre · 31, 76, 78, 97
mare · 132
Mare Cognitum · 117
Mare Tranquillitatis · 98, 105
Mars · 4, 34, 148
Mattingly · 119, 132, 135, 159
McDivitt · 82, 99, 100
Me 163 · 21, 156
micrometeorite · 69
military · 18, 23, 27, 42
mission control · 79, 91, 102, 158
Mitchell · 124, 125, 126, 132
Mobile Launcher Platform · 6, 55, 157
Mobile Quarantine Facility · 6, 55
One Giant Leap INDEX TABLE OF FIGURES Abbreviations
166
Modular Equipment Transporter · 6, 58, 126
monkey · 26
Monoplane · 16, 156
Montgolfier · 14, 156
Moon · 4, 11, 151
motion sickness · 91
N
NACA · 5, 23, 27, 29, 156
NASA · 4, 5, 13, 22, 23, 27, 28, 29, 31, 47, 54, 55, 59, 63,
81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 91, 93, 94, 97, 103, 108, 111, 114,
125, 126, 128, 129, 148, 151, 152, 156, 158
Newton · 38
nitrate · 38, 42
North Ray Crater · 134
nuclear · 24
Number 21 · 17
O
Ocean of Storms · 115, 117
Oceanus Procellarum · 115, 117
Odysseus · 147
Operations · 8, 83, 109, 117, 126, 130, 133, 137
orbit · 24, 26, 30, 31, 34, 36, 47, 49, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70,
80, 88, 90, 91, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 105, 113,
114, 116, 118, 120, 121, 129, 130, 135, 136, 137, 144
Orion · 132, 133, 134
Orteig Prize · 19
oxygen · 36, 60, 119, 120, 121, 123, 130
P
parachute · 72, 73, 75, 76, 116, 156
Paris · 14, 98, 156
Pegasus · 7, 69, 70, 71, 157
Pegoud · 18
photograph · 17
plane · 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 29, 156
planet · 4, 34, 95, 112, 142, 144, 147, 148
PLSS · 109, 110
pogo oscillations · 88, 96, 120
Portugal · 19
potassium · 36, 42
powered · 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 29, 54, 58, 102, 122,
125, 156
President · 11, 27, 55, 111, 112, 114, 125, 156
pressure · 39, 59, 67, 76, 79, 85, 92, 120, 121, 154, 158
Program · 4, 5, 7, 11, 12, 25, 29, 30, 34, 36, 40, 45, 51,
53, 54, 59, 62, 67, 69, 70, 77, 82, 83, 85, 99, 108, 115,
125, 131, 136, 142, 144, 146, 147, 148, 152, 153, 159
Project Gemini · 5, 30, 31, 83
Project Highwater · 63, 64
Project Mercury · 5, 11, 30
propellant · 38, 39, 40, 64
pyroxferroite · 111
R
radar · 21, 102, 105, 125
radiation · 57, 146
record · 20, 32, 49, 96, 98, 101, 135, 140
recovery · 55, 73, 79, 113, 119, 123, 127
Red Baron · 18, 156
re-entry · 52, 81, 88, 92, 93, 116, 121, 123, 131
Renard · 15
rendezvous · 32, 83, 90, 92, 105, 114
Réveillon · 14
Rio de Janeiro · 19
Robert · 14, 39, 43, 148, 157
rock · 12, 34, 58, 111, 120, 126, 134, 140
rocket · 6, 21, 25, 26, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 47, 49,
51, 52, 54, 55, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68, 71, 74, 75, 77,
79, 80, 83, 86, 88, 96, 97, 116, 137, 142, 151, 154,
156, 157
Roosa · 124, 127, 132, 136
S
saltpetre · 42
sample · 110, 134, 136, 158
samples · 4, 12, 58, 111, 124, 126, 131, 132, 134, 137,
140, 148
satellite · 26, 27, 34, 69, 70, 71, 157
Saturn I · 6, 45, 47, 48, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70,
71, 157
Saturn IB · 6, 45, 47, 48, 54, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 87, 89, 90,
142, 157
Saturn V · 6, 40, 45, 49, 54, 55, 86, 88, 95, 99, 101, 104,
105, 115, 116, 119, 124, 128, 132, 136, 137, 142, 152,
157
SCE · 116
Schmitt · 128, 136, 137, 140, 159
Schweickart · 82, 99, 100, 158
Scott · 82, 99, 100, 115, 128, 129, 130, 131, 159
Sea of Tranquillity · 103, 105
Service Module · 47, 52, 88, 90, 121, 122, 154, 155
Shepard · 11, 30, 124, 125, 126, 127, 131, 156, 157, 159
S-IC · 96, 129
sites · 12, 35, 98, 129, 134
S-IVB · 48, 80, 90, 96, 97, 102, 105, 116, 117, 120, 154,
158, 159
Skylab · 8, 48, 52, 59, 142, 159
Slayton · 91, 143, 156
One Giant Leap INDEX TABLE OF FIGURES Abbreviations
167
SM · 105, 116, 119, 120, 121, 133, 140, 155, 159
smoke · 84
soil · 36, 110, 111, 135, 140
solar energy · 148
solid-fuel · 39, 156
Solid-Fuel · 6, 38
South Pole-Aitken Basin · 35
Soviet · 20, 24, 25, 26, 30, 112, 143, 156
Soyuz · 8, 51, 52, 91, 143, 159
Space Adaption Syndrome · 97
Space Race · 5, 24, 25, 26, 104, 143
space shuttle · 40
spacecraft · 11, 26, 31, 32, 38, 46, 52, 54, 66, 67, 68, 69,
70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 80, 81, 83, 85, 86, 88, 91, 95,
96, 97, 98, 100, 102, 105, 116, 118, 130, 135, 143,
154, 157
spacesuit · 59, 60, 100, 109
splashdown · 8, 52, 55, 100, 118, 122, 123, 159
SPS · 90, 97, 98, 121, 135, 154
Sputnik · 26, 27
Stafford · 90, 101, 102, 103
stars · 113, 146, 147
Statio Cognitum · 117
steam · 15, 16
stirring · 120
Stringfellow · 16
sulphur · 38, 42
Sun · 34, 118, 143
Surveyor 3 · 115, 117, 118, 158
Swedenborg · 15
Swigert · 91, 119, 120
T
Technology · 8, 9, 143
TEI · 98, 155
telemetry · 64, 78, 79, 116
Tereshkova · 26
test. · 12, 83, 96
The Odyssey · 147
Theia · 34, 156
TLI · 8, 88, 96, 97, 105, 116, 120, 125, 129, 130, 133, 137,
155
Tranquility · 108, 158
tranquillityite · 111
TsAGI 1-EA · 20, 156
TV · 6, 30, 57, 91, 92, 98, 102, 103, 109, 111, 118, 122,
144, 146, 158
U
U.S. · 17, 23, 25, 26, 27, 85, 111, 143, 156, 157
Una Ronald · 146
unmanned · 16, 17, 30, 32, 45, 46, 48, 79, 87, 117, 142
untethered · 14
USS Hornet · 114, 118
USS New Orleans · 127
USS Ticonderoga · 135, 140
V
vacuum · 36, 38, 118, 156
Vehicle Assembly Building · 54, 55
velocity · 39, 78, 88, 96, 121
video · 12, 110
von Braun · 49
von Richthofen · 18
W
Walker · 29
water · 41, 59, 63, 92, 122, 123
Weißkopf · 17
White · 12, 32, 46, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 82, 83, 84,
85, 111, 156
Williams · 99, 101
wind · 36, 57, 146, 156
wings · 15, 29
Wintgens · 18
Worden · 115, 128, 129, 130, 131
World War I · 19
World War II · 19, 20, 21, 24, 25
Wright Brothers · 17, 156
X
X-1 · 23, 29
X-2 · 29
X-35 · 29
X-5 · 29
X-plane · 29
Y
Young · 90, 101, 102, 119, 132, 133, 135, 136, 156
Yuriev · 20
Z
zeppelin · 14, 20
One Giant Leap
168
One Giant Leap
Owain Bates