NAVY IN THE NAPOLEONIC ERA1783-1815
Sea Power & Maritime AffairsLesson 3
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Last Class
American Revolution– Causes– Battles– Outcomes– Role of Navies
Today
1. Navy after American Revolution2. Barbary Wars– Reestablishment of Navy (1794)– Piracy
3. Anglo-French (“Napoleonic”) Wars– Quasi War–War of 1812
8 Key Themes
1. Navy as an instrument of foreign policy2. Interaction between Congress and Navy3. Interservice relations4. Technology5. Leadership6. Strategy & Tactics7. Evolution of US Naval Doctrine8. Future missions of Navy and USMC
WarningFor the sake of clarity, this information is presented in thematic order, rather than chronological order. Please be mindful of this as you study it.
Napoleonic and Barbary Wars
Video
Treaty of ParisUS Independent
– Must organize itself
Key issues– Defense
• GB/Spain/France/Native Americans
• No maritime protection
– Trade• Between states• On oceans
– Brit trade advantage lost– Protection from pirates
– States v. Central Gov’t• Division of power?
1783
Fate of Navy and Marines
Articles of Confederation – Ratified 1781– “No state may maintain a peace-time
standing army or navy.”– Congress must collect taxes to create
Navy
Results– Continental Navy and Marine disbanded– All ships sold by 1785
2nd Constitution Convention
Problems with Articles of Confederation – States too powerful | central gov’t too weak– Saw military as “rifle on mantelpiece”– Federalist Papers
• Federalist No. 11: Hamilton argues for Navy
New Constitution– Ratified 1788– Expands powers of central government– Article 1, Section 8:
• “…Congress shall have Power…to provide and maintain a navy” (but none created until 1794)
Navalists Non-Navalists
Continued Debate
Want large navy for:– Symbol of national
greatness– Balance of power in Europe– Protect commerce
Want small/no navy because:– Expensive– Provocation for war
• Didn’t want drawn into European wars
– Hire fleet if needed
Who are they?– Citizens of merchant towns– Particularly north-east– Federalists
• John Adams, Hamilton, John Jay
Who are they?– Rural farmers– Particularly south– Democrats
• Thomas Jefferson
Barbary Pirates
Drive to re-establish Navy and Marine Corps
(1794)
Barbary Pirates
Reason for Navy/USMC: Barbary Pirates– No Navy to protect commerce– Pirates began capturing American
merchantmen in Med and Atlantic–We create fleet to quash them
Barbary States
Barbary Pirates
Tribute System– Most countries paid a “tribute” to Barbary Pirates– Colonies no longer protected under British tribute– Pirates began attacking American merchantmen
• Started during revolution | increased after• Captured and sold US ships• Sold crew for ransom or into slavery
Reaches a boiling point when– Portugal signs treaty with pirates
• No longer policing them, or keeping them pinned in Med• Pirates take a few American ships in a few weeks
Congress Debates Response
Pay tribute? Declare war on pirates? How to fight without Navy?
Agreement: Naval Act of 1794– Build Navy while seeking treaty• One-time authorization for “6 Frigates”• Explicit purpose to defeat Barbary pirates
– If treaty signed, ships will not be completed– Ships designed with 44 guns because largest
Barbary warship had 44 guns
• Secretary of War responsible for Navy Dept.
Humphrey’s Frigates
3 of 44 guns, 3 of 36 guns– Joshua Humphreys designed them• Highly advanced ribbed design• Made to last 100 years• Georgia live oak exterior• Rated to 50+ guns
– Establish five Navy shipyards to build them• Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Portsmouth,
Baltimore, Norfolk• Logistical mess
Humphreys
Treaty with Pirates
US signed treaties – Algiers (1795) | Tripoli (1796) | Tunis (1797)– Pay tribute for safe passage
Big Question: Complete the ships?• Navalists want all six• Non-navalists want zero
– Settlement: Complete three• United States (44), Constellation (36),
Constitution (44)
All commissioned by 1797
USS Constitution
USS Constellation
USS United States
1st Barbary War
1801-1805
1st Barbary WarShort Video
1st Barbary WarLonger Video
1.5 min
13 min
1st Barbary War
Cause1. Pirates continued to harass American shipping
• Despite treaty and tribute
2. Dey of Tripoli demanded higher tribute
Congress debated– Tribute or war?– Jefferson’s opinion:
• Always opposed tribute• Maintain a navy squadron in Med for protection
Decision: Sent a squadron to defeat pirates
1801 - 1805
1st Barbary War
1801-1802
Divided fleet– Weak blockade of
Tripoli harbor– Escorted
merchantmen Ineffective, but
– Inadequate force– No US declaration
of war
Richard Dale1802-1803
– 7 frigates, 1 sloop– Family with him
Disobeyed orders– “Lie off Tripoli”– Commits force to
convoy escort Highly ineffective
– Recalled and dismissed from Navy
Edward Morris1803-1805
Adept leader/fighter “Preble’s Boys” Credited with
defeating Pirates
Edward Preble
CommodoresTipoli declared war while Dale enroute
The Man
1st Barbary WarPreble1802-1804
Blunders and Heroes USS Philadelphia Decatur & USS Intrepid Gunfire against fort Gunboats Action at other Barbary States
1st Barbary War
Presley O’Bannon
William Eaton
Eaton, Hamet, O’Bannon
Dey agrees to terms $60,000 for release of prisoners No more tribute payments
1st Barbary War
What it taught U.S.1. Diplomacy• Validates Navy = useful & effective• First example of “gunboat diplomacy”
2. Tactics• Gunboats with forts = effective• Validates blockading
3. Heroes & heroics = national pride
Jeffersonian Naval Policy
President (1801-1809) Wanted navy for:
1. Defense• For ports: Gunboats and forts• For coast: Small cruising frigates & ships-of-
the-line
2. Settle manageable disputes• Ability to fight weak adversaries
– i.e. Barbary Pirates
Congress cuts Navy funding
Gunboat NavyCost:
– Frigate: $300,000– Gunboat: $10,000
Crew: 20
Propulsion: – Small sails and oars
Guns: 2 or 3 cannon– 18-, 24-, and 32-pound
Stationed in major cities 172 at peak, but utter
failure during War of 1812 without support of forts.
Jefferson Presidency: 1807-1809
Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars
1792-1815
Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars
Resumed with French Revolution (1789)–Monarchy overthrown• French King & Queen beheaded (1793)
– Brits declared war– 7 wars over 22 years• World War: all European nations entwined• Napoleon rises to power (1799)
– Conquers most of Europe
• France controlled the land (5x size British Army)
• Brits controlled the seas (2x size French Navy)
Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars
Formal treaty with France American-style revolution Pro: Thomas Jefferson
Trade/heritage with Britain British invasion dangerous Pro: John Adams & Hamilton
France Great Britain
America in the middle – Mixed allegiances and motives
1. Alliance with France2. Trade issues
• British blockaded France across globe• “Orders in Council” – no foreign trade with France• “Continental System” – French response• Difference: British could enforce it
Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars
Official US policy: “Neutral”Reasons
1. No appetite for ongoing European wars– 7 Years War, Am Revolution, now more wars
2. Money – Economy booming– Trade with both was enormously profitable
Washington declared 3. American alliance was only with French king
– His execution ended American military obligation
4. US proclaims right to trade with both nations
Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars
Neutrality Issues– Adams Administration
• US merchant ships captured by French & British• Adam’s reaction:
– Jay’s Treaty (1797)– Quasi War (1798)
– Jefferson Administration• More merchant ships captured• Jefferson’s reaction: Embargo Act (1807)
– Highly unpopular= destroyed merchant economy– US navy ordered to blockade its own coast – Did not work. James Madison repealed
Anglo-French “Napoleonic” Wars
Neutrality Issues–Madison Administration• Repealed Embargo Act• Passes Non-Intercourse Act of 1809
– Trade with everyone but France and England.
• Macon's bill No. 2 (1810)– Trade with everyone including France and England– US would reward whichever would first repeal its
trade restrictions against US. – Napoleon agreed, and US re-imposed embargo on
England in February 1811
Battles & Wars
7 Wars in 22 years 1792-1815
Land war Culminates in
failed French invasion of Russia
Sea war Culminates at
Battle of Trafalgar (1805)
GB v. France
Quasi War 1798 - 1800 Where?
– Caribbean First US naval
victories
US v France
War of 1812 1812-1815 Where?
– Great Lakes– Chesapeake– Atlantic – Gulf– Europe– Pacific
Stunning victories, but US doesn’t really win or lose war
US v GB
Battle of Trafalgar
Culmination of naval war Napoleon wanted to invade Britain– Had conquered most of Europe except Britain– British Navy was only thing stopping him
Napoleon ordered fleet out of port– French & Spanish reluctantly got underway– Engaged British off Trafalgar, Spain
• British: ADM Horatio Nelson | 27 Ships-of-the-line• French/Spanish: ADM Villeneuve | 33 ships-of-the-
line
1805
Battle of Trafalgar1805
Battle of Trafalgar
British• ADM Horatio Nelson• 27 Ships-of-the-line• Seasoned fighters
French/Spanish • ADM Villeneuve• 33 ships-of-the-line• In port for years
1805
Melee tactics
Formal Tactics
Battle of Trafalgar
Outcome: British decimated French/Spanish– Most one-sided victory since Spanish
Armada– Brits retained absolute dominance of seas• Lord ADM Horatio Nelson made British hero
– No French invasion of Britain– British tightened blockade• Tensions increased with U.S. on seas• Compounded toward War of 1812
1805
Quasi War
Undeclared war with France1798-1800
Quasi War
Who: US v. FranceCauses
1. French anger at US• US refusal to honor Revolutionary War alliance
against Great Britain• Jay’s Treaty: GB “most favored [trade] nation”
2. Economic embargos• Continental System | Orders in Council
3. French privateering • Attacking American merchants in Caribbean
Quasi War4. XYZ Affair (1797)
• French refused to receive American ambassador• Adams sent a delegation to peacefully settle issues• French Foreign Minister demanded $250,000 to
speak to him• Americans outraged
– “millions in defense, but not one cent in tribute.”
Angry Congress reacted– Formally annulled Treaty of Alliance with France– Authorized
• Attacks on French warships• Letters of Marque & Reprisal
Main Players
President during war Outraged at French
impudence, but avoids official declaration of war
Appointed 1st SECNAV Oversees:
– Naval war effort– Ambitious ship-building
Very adept SECNAV
John Adams Benjamin Stoddert
Benjamin StoddertJohn Adams
Main Players
First COMMO of US Navy– Oversees operations in
Caribbean
USS Constellation Hero of Quasi Wars
– Two victories in frigate duals with French
COMMO John Barry COMMO Thomas Truxton
COMMO Thomas TruxtonCOMMO John Barry
Quasi War1798 - 1800
Defeated: L’Insurgente Damaged: La Vengeance
Defeated: Le Berceau
USS Constellation (Truxton)
USS Boston
Only one US warship captured– USS Retaliation off NJ.
Later recaptured by US. Multiple amphibious ops Both nations engaged in
– Privateering – Guerre de course
Other Action
American Advantage1. Most of French fleet stuck in
Europe behind British blockade
2. Brits also fight French Navy
Outcome of WarNo formal declarations of war
– But was effectively war for navies
Treaty of Mortefontaine (Paris, 1800)– France agreed to end of alliance– Both countries returned captured ships– Free passage of goods (no embargo)
Navy outcome: Boon for US Navy– All-Navy war – Navy is source of national pride– Tripled size of fleet
• Even now have ships-of-the-line
Outcome of War
Problem for Navy Thomas Jefferson elected president– Expected to completely eliminate navy– Navalists voluntarily reduced Navy size to
forestall more draconian reductions Peace Establishment Act (1800)– Congress cut Navy from 50 to 13 ships– Only 17 ships at beginning of War of 1812
War of 1812
1812-1814 (1815)
War of 1812
Causes1. Economic trade sanctions• British Orders in Council• Blockade of France (only legal if effective)• GB violation of neutral commerce
2. Sanctity of US ships• Merchantmen:
– GB stopped and searched US ships for contraband and deserters. Felt they could do it anywhere
• Warships:– Illegal search of US warships for British deserters
War of 1812
Causes3. Impressment• Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (1807)• HMS Little Belt (1811)
4. Native American Uprisings Great Lakes• Blamed on British
5. Warhawks in Congress• Interest in annexing Canada
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair1807
USS Chesapeake• CAPT James Barron• 2 British deserters on boardAffair1. British hail and demand to
board. Barron refuses.2. British open fire3. Barron strikes flag4. British board, take 4 sailors,
then sail away5. Chesapeake hobbles back
into port and Barron relieved for failure to clear guns for action
6. Ignites diplomatic crisis over impressment and legal sanctity of US warships
7. British return 2 of 4 sailors, but 1 had been already executed and another died in prison
President v. Little Belt1807
USS President• CAPT John Rodgers
Affair1. HMS Guerriere stopped US
ship and impressed an American sailor.
2. USS President pursued3. Stumbled upon British sloop
HMS Little Belt in middle of night, mistaken it for Guerriere.
4. President opened fire5. Little Belt returned fire, but
then ceased—severely damaged.
6. Ships parted ways7. British angered, but
Americans saw it as just revenge for Chesapeake-Leopard Affair.
Looming War
Army preparations1. US calls up militia2. Sends US troops to Canadian border3. Supply, logistics, production
Navy preparations– Nothing • Congress repeatedly rejects appropriation bills
to increase ships and funds• Unprepared for war
Declaration of War
1. US declared war on Great Britain2. Britain declared war on U.S.– But must fight with hand tied behind back
because of European war– Declare blockade (“paper blockade”)
Primary Battleground: Canadian border– Both fixated on invasion along border–Most fighting occurred there
June 18, 1812
New Orleans (Dec 1814 - Jan 1815)
Washington D.C. (24 Aug 1814)Baltimore (13 Sept 1814)
Lake Erie (Sept. 10, 1813)
Lake Ontario (1812-1814)
Lake Champlain (11 Sep 1814)
Naval Blockade (1812 - 1814)Major Battles
Strategies
Land focus (not seas)– We can’t hope to control
the seas, but we can control the land
Army Strategy– Invade Canada– Strengthen costal defenses– Hold boarders
Navy Strategy– Gunboats for costal
defense– Guerre de course– Privateering
Balance Military Forces– Still at war with France.
Cannot commit total effort to US.
Army Strategy– Defend Canada– Counter-offensive from
Canada Navy Strategy
– Blockade– Commerce convoys– Army Support
• Supply & Transport
United States Great Britain
David vs. Goliath
Blue Water Navy
War on the Atlantic
US Naval Debate
What naval strategy?1. Guerre de course– USS Argus and Wasp in English
Channel– USS Essex in Pacific– Privateering (Letters of Marque and Reprisal)
2. Guerre de escadre– Cruise of the US Fleet– Frigate duals
Rodgers
Decatur
Bainbridge
US Naval Debate
How to deploy naval forces?
1. Squadron Sailing – CAPT John Rodgers (senior)– Argument: Concentrated fleet will force British
warships to concentrate, allowing merchant ships to escape blockade.
2. Singles or doubles– CAPT Stephen Decatur & William Bainbridge– Argument: No chance of competing with British
sea power. Only hope is guerre de course, and one-on-one engagements with smaller ships.
Rodgers
Decatur
Bainbridge
Naval Debate
Who Wins?
1. Rodgers– At start of war– “Cruise of the US Fleet” (1812)
2. Decatur & Bainbridge– After frigate victories and
Rodger’s unsuccessful fleet cruise– Policy: depart port as squadron,
then disperse at sea
Rodgers
Decatur
Bainbridge
Cruise of the US Fleet
Jamaica Convoy
Jun – Aug 1812
Returns having captured zero ships
Frigate Duals
Constitution v. Java• 29 Dec 1812• Defeats frigate HMS
Java off coast of Brazil.
United States v. Macednoia• 25 Oct 1812• Defeats frigate HMS
Macedonia in mid-Atlantic
Constitution v. Guerriere• 29 Dec 1812• Defeats frigate HMS
Guerriere off New England coast.
British Order: No more one-on-one frigate battles
Decatur
Bainbridge
Isaac Hull
Cruise of the EssexDavid Porter
Frigate USS EssexAtlantic• Commerce raidingPacific• First US warship to round
Cape Horn• Obliterates GB whaling
fleet (never recovers)• Defeated by two British
frigates off Valparaiso• Inspiration for book
“Master and Commander”
Guerre de Course
Privateers and Commerce Raiders– US warships ordered to prey on shipping,
not engage the enemy Captured 1,300 ships Drove up shipping insurance rates– Agitated British people
Blue Water Navy
Take-aways1. British Navy still dominant
• Blockade strong• Fleet bigger
2. U.S. Navy is victorious 1-v-1 only• US Frigates are better• Source of national pride
3. Guerre de course mostly ineffective• Commerce Raiding (Essex)• Letters of Marque & Reprisal• Marginally successful at harassing British trade
Costal Defense
“Sea Fencibles”
Costal Defense
Half of sailors involved in war– 6,500 of 10,000 sailors in Navy
– 3,250 Great Lakes, 450 at sea, and 405 in British prisons in 1814
–Manning gunboats and barges• Only 63 of 177 gunboats in service at
beginning of war
– Protecting forts and water choke-points– Unpopular service• No glory or prizes
Costal Defense
Highly ineffective– Lacked professionalism• Manned by militia volunteers• Poor leadership
– Easily defeated by British Navy• Needed forts/shore batteries for support• Most vessels captured, scuttled or burned
Only successes–Where forts/batteries also defended coast• Major ports like NYC, Portsmouth, Boston, etc.
Fresh Water Navy
War on the Great Lakes
War on the Great Lakes
Largest naval contribution of war– To be expected given mutual obsession
over Canadian boarder– Disproportionate assets go to Great Lakes• Ships, officers, sailors, guns, etc.
3 Major battles– Lake Ontario– Lake Erie– Lake Champlain
1812-1814
Lake Ontario
Lake Ontario (1812-1814)
Toronto(Burned 27 Apr 1813)
Chauncey’s HQ(Sackett’s Harbor)
COMMO Isaac ChaunceyCOMMO Sir James Yeo
• Both conservative officers and warfighters• Engage in arms race (rather than battles)• Never a decisive battle or tactical advantage• Chauncey earns strategic victory because the
British never feel able to launch an offensive into the US because they never control the Great Lakes.
1812-1814
Battle of Lake Erie
Lake Erie(Sept. 10, 1813)
Perry’s HQ(Presque Isle, Erie)
Master Commandant Oliver Hazard PerryCAPT Robert Barclay
• Perry sets sail with crew of army soldiers, forcing Barclay to fight.
• USS Lawrence devastated and sinking.• Perry takes command of the Niagara to
complete continue fighting.• Barclay surrenders.• “We have met the enemy and they are
ours.”• Victory prevents British invasion.
Sept 1813
Battle of Lake Erie
Battle of Lake Champlain
Lake Champlain (11 Sep 1814)
Master Commandant Thomas MacdonoughCAPT John Downie
• Gen Prevost refuses to continue campaign until Champlain secured
• British have longer guns, so Macdonough must force close action
• American sailors inexperienced • Macdonough’s brilliance: anchors
south of Plattsburg • “Kedge Anchors”
Sept 1814
aka “Battle of Plattsburg”
Battle of Lake ChamplainSept 1814
aka “Battle of Plattsburg”
Washington D.C. (24 Aug 1814)Baltimore (13 Sept 1814)
Washington Campaign Gunboat Flotilla
– COMMO Joshua Barney– Battle of St. Leonard's
Creek Battle of Bladensburg Sack Washington DC
– Burnt Capitol Baltimore
– Ft. McHenry– Francis Scott Key– Star Spangled Banner– Baltimore never falls
Summer 1814
Washington CampaignSummer 1814
Baltimore CampaignSummer 1814
Treaty of Ghent
Treaty Terms– “Status Quo Ante Bellum”– No more Orders in Council– No more impressment
Dec. 24, 1814
New Orleans (Dec 1814 - Jan 1815)
Battle of New OrleansDec 1814 - Jan 1815
Battle of New OrleansDec 1814 - Jan 1815
Andrew Jackson
Assessment of Navies
War of 1812
Navy Influences
1. Victory on the Great Lakes– Created strategically
valuable stalemate– Prevented invasion
2. Commerce raiding– Ultimately ineffective
3. Single ship engagements– Boost national morale– Ineffective against
blockade
4. Gunboats Ineffective
1. Dominant throughout– Unfettered troop
movement– Commerce raiding– Blockade effective
2. Only failure: Great Lakes
3. Only Weakness: Divided forces because of war in Europe
US Great Britain
Impact on U.S. Navy
1. Navy was American darling– No demobilization of Navy after war– “Act for the Gradual Increase of the Navy”• Largest appropriations yet• 9 new ships-of-the-line• USS Pennsylvania – 120 Guns
2. Experienced Navy & USMC– Officers and sailors
What did we learn about strategy, tactics, or naval strength?
8 Key Themes
1. Navy as an instrument of foreign policy2. Interaction between Congress and Navy3. Interservice relations4. Technology5. Leadership6. Strategy & Tactics7. Evolution of US Naval Doctrine8. Future missions of Navy and USMC
Review
1. Navy after American Revolution2. Barbary Wars– Reestablishment of Navy (1794)– Piracy
3. Anglo-French (“Napoleonic”) Wars– Quasi War–War of 1812
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Additional Slides
Great Lakes