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‘Nations without States:’ Globalisation, States, and Identity Conflicts in Postcolonies
Mohammad J. una
!e"a#tment of Sociolo$y
%smanu !anfodiyo %ni&e#sity
So'oto(Ni$e#ia
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’Nations without States:’ Globalization, States, and Identity Conflicts in Postcolonies
Abstract
Although there is a significant body of literature on the relationshi between globalisation
and identity conflicts, discourse has often been loc!ed in the binary and theoretically steriledebates of the "erits or de"erits of the global rocess# So"e of this discourse no doubt
illu"inates the "a$or transfor"ations in states and olitical co""unities in recent ti"es% "ost
howe&er o&erloo! rocesses of the interenetration of the global and the local, and the way
this dialectic radically reconfigures states'olitical co""unities# (eeening and e)anding
the &ertical integration of ostcolonies into an e&er*growing world "ar!et, globalisation e)erts
ressure on the ostcolonial state as a so&ereign, territorially bounded olitical entity not only
fro" abo&e +sura*national organizations, but also fro" below +sub'infra*national
"o&e"ents# -ow this dialectic unfolds'"anifests itself in &arious historically secific
conte)ts will be a "a$or deter"inant of the nature and for" of the future state in ostcolonies#
States are howe&er, also fighting bac!, as de"onstrated in their e)anding role in broad social
and econo"ic "anage"ent re.uiring the i"osition of se&ere anti*eole neo*liberal refor"s#/nderlying the whole intensely contradictory rocess are atte"ts at the reconfiguration and
rein&ention of ostcolonial states and olitical co""unities# 0he broad features of this
reconfiguration aear underinned by a struggle between inherited state ro$ects'discourses
reinforced by neo*liberal ideologies of globalis" on the one hand, and an increasing +disarray
of forces challenging these ro$ects and discourses on the other# 0his aer argues that
identity conflicts in ostcolonies are conse.uences of the dialectic of global flows’ and local
closures, of atte"ts to reconfigure state ower, and of the rein&ention of olitical
co""unities in the face of deeening radical uncertainties arising fro" une&en
internationalisation#
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‘Nations without States:’ Globalisation, States, and Identity Conflicts in Postcolonies
0hroughout the country###ethnic "inorities are in fer"ent# 0hey are stri&ing tosha!e off age*long usurations, to cast off the yo!e of distant suzerains and to ta!e
their own destinies in their own hands# 0his fer"ent3is what has been subsu"edunder the national .uestion30o retend that it does not e)ist is to be deluded# 0he
nationalists faced not an altogether different tas!, though they had to resond totwo "a$or ressures in their atte"ts to create a co""unity# 0hey had not only toin&ent a co""unity that would see" to be, and in certain significant resects wasideologically oosed to colonial rule, the nationalists also had to "a!e sure thatsuch an oosition to colonial rule while stri!ing a chord with their own eoles,does not thereby .uestion the colonial order or its basis# 0hus nationalists had to
ut across to two antagonistic audiences * the colonizer and the colonized * thenotion of olitical co""unity in which, on the one hand either a historical ast isrecreated, or in&ented anew, and on the other one which would &ery "uch beaccetable to the colonizer# In this dual concetion of the co""unity nationalistssought not $ust to relace colonial rule, but also to legiti"ate their rule if not to the
aro&al of both antagonistic forces, then at least to the aro&al of the colonizer#After all, the general adage is see! ye the olitical !ingdo" first#’ 44444444440he Guardian 5ditorial, 6agos, 7ebruary 8, 1889
Introduction
0hroughout Africa and in the ostcolonial world, the fer"ents’ to which the oening
.uotation refers +contestable assertions therein notwithstanding, are fast beco"ing central in
challenging the state and in reconfiguring ostcolonial olitical co""unities# 7ro" low
intensity conflicts to syste"atic e)ter"inations of the Other , co""unal, religious, and ethic
&iolence o&er "e"bershi are increasingly assu"ing do"inance in the fra"ing'deter"ination
of olitical de"ands'clai"s# ne only needs reflect on the intensity and scale of destruction of
hu"an li&es in ;osnia, 6iberia, Sierra 6eone, So"alia, <wanda, ;urundi as well as Nigeria in
conte"orary history# 0he ro"inence of these conflicts is reflected in renewed scholarly
concerns with .uestions of membership: citizenshi +Anderson: 18=9% 0illy: 188>% &an
Steenbergen: 188?% and @erbner: 22, nation*'state*hood +Si"on: 188B% S"ith: 1881%
0ho"son: 21% 0olz: 188=% ;iswas: 22, ethnicity +;ruba!er and 6aitin: 188=% ;igo:
188=% 7ried"an: 188=% <iggs: 188=% 6a!e and <othchild: 188=% lza! and 0sutsui: 188=%
5ller: 1888 and aferer: 21% , identity +@endt: 188?% S"ith: 1881% Geschiere and ;irgit:
188=% Den!ins: 2 and Eerrett: 21, and religion +Schiller and ;a"bang: 22% 0estas:
22#
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7or "any, the statist colonial legacies and discourses that sought to unify luralistic
ostcolonial states through the obliteration of difference +6aas!o and lu!oshi: 18=8% una:
1888 are being increasingly interrogated by the contradictions arsing fro" the conte"orary
interface of the global and the local# It is these contradictions that are un*"i)ing’
heterogeneous and forcibly "i)ed’ societies by colonial encounters +;ruba!er: 188>, leading
to the fer"ents alluded to in the oening .uotation# It is against this bac!ground that this
aer argues that identity conflicts in ostcolonies are conse.uences of the dialectic of Fglobal
flowsF and Flocal closuresF and of atte"ts to reconfigure inherited statist ro$ects and olitical
co""unities in the face of deeening radical uncertainties arising fro" une&en
internationalisation#
Sur&eying the literature on the i"act of globalisation on states and olitical
co""unities re&eals two broad &iews# n the one hand are argu"ents that hold that financial,
cultural, technological, and infor"ation networ!s ha&e led to a "ore closely integrated global
society’ that has rendered' is rendering the &ery idea of the nation*state and associated
discourses, do"inant since the 0reaty of @esthalia in 1?=, assH# (ri&en by neo*liberal
econo"ic and olitical rogra""es states, the argu"ent goes, are "o&ing towards greater
integration in a de-territorialized global conte)t wherein age*old barriers of geograhy,
identity and culture are' will be suerseded# n the other, oosing argu"ents hold that on the
contrary, one of the "ost significant things about globalisation is its reinforcement 'creation of
&arious for"s of particularisms# <ather than loosening age old boundaries of territory, culture
and identity, globalisation in fact rigidifies the"# ;y creating anew or reinforcing ethno*
religious, cultural and olitical boundaries, globalisation loosens, as it were, the ties that
bound’ nation*states, contesting the &ery bases of "e"bershi, and thus generating intense and
deadly conflicts +6a!e and <othchild: 188=, an idea catured "ost clearly by the notion of
nations without states +Guibernau: 188=#’
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0his aer e)a"ines the i"act of these rocesses on states and olitical co""unities in
ost colonial societies in se&en "ain sections# Section two lays out the argu"ent of the aer#
Section three discusses the concet of globalisation and its historical tra$ectories# Section four
e)a"ines the i"act of globalisation on conte"orary states, noting that while there has been
ob&ious erosion in the autono"y and so&ereignty of the ostcolonial state that "ay ha&e
radically altered its stateness,’ e&idence suggests that rather than decline, this erhas
constitutes a co"le) rocess of reconfiguration# Section fi&e ta!es u "ore closely one of
the issues "ost indicati&e of state +i" otence: the rise of sub'infra*state for"s of
"obilization within national boundaries and how these affect state caabilities# Section si)
e)a"ines, in the conte)t of the foregoing, the strengths and li"its of the Nigerian state, and
focuses on the i"act of globalisation on the state within the conte)t of the unfolding rocess
of the ethnocisation of conflicts# Section se&en concludes by suggesting trends and otions
oen to the state in the current global era#
The Argument
An identity is a distinguishing label that ob$ecti&ely e)ists, is sub$ecti&ely felt, and
enables its bearers e)erience indi&idually and collecti&ely a sense of solidarity# As a label, it
can be assu"ed by, or i"osed on bearers# It is also a ris" by which ob$ects, eole, and
collecti&ities are sorted, organized, "aed and ordered into "eaningful understandable units#
Identities are socially constructed, dyna"ic, and "ultifaceted +Den!ins: 188B, 2#
Sub$ecti&ely, identification with a category is si"ultaneously a definition of self, so that
grous co"e to identify the"sel&es in ethnic, religious, occuational, national or other ter"s#
b$ecti&ely, indi&iduals do not identify in general, but do so in relation to others’ definitions of
the"sel&es, and to the boundaries i"lied in such definitions# 0he .uestion then is what is the
historical origin of these categorizations and under which conditions do they assu"e
do"inance in fra"ing of olitical clai"s#
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As defining categories, identities often for" the basis of social action# 0hey are
"obilizing fra"es that could be used, deending on the secific historical circu"stance, as
&ehicles for fra"ing'deter"ining clai"s# ne of the "ost i"ortant aroaches to identity
conflicts draws attention to the notion of radical uncertainty +Aadurai: 188=# 7ocusing
essentially on notions of doubt, uncertainty and indeter"inacy as integral characteristics of
ost"odernity, it argues that gi&en the growing "ultilicity, contingency, and aarent
fungibility of identities a&ailable to ersons in the conte"orary world, there is a growing
sense of radical social uncertainty about eole, situations, e&ents, nor"s, and e&en
cos"ologies’ +;au"an: 188B% 8# 0hese uncertainties arise fro", and are reinforced by
forces generated by globalization and the resistance to it across the ostcolonial world#
+;reiceo*6eJn and Kubillaga: 22# Eoreo&er, wea!ened states, the decline of left*wing
and ascendance of neoliberal econo"ic'olitical ideologies as "obilizing fra"es +;ruba!er
and 6aitin: 18=8, growing econo"ic refugees and internally dislaced ersons, increasing
syste"ic for"s of auerization and cri"inalization ha&e brought to bear intense ressure on
erstwhile ho"ogenising discourses and ro$ects across the ostcolonial world# State*building
efforts were the"sel&es art of the general fra"ewor! for the creation of categories, only now
beco"ing "ore olitically acti&e "obilizers in the current historical con$uncture#
<adical uncertainty is largely anchored in these state olicies which, through
docu"entation, classification, and bounding +censuses, artitions, constitutions, and the
de"arcation of boundaries create dormant mobilizing categories# Co""enting secifically
on India, Cohn +18=B shows how LcountingM beca"e a crucial "echanis" of control not only
in econo"ic, but also in olitical, cultural and religious sheres of life# 0hus as in other
;ritish colonies, ad"inistrati&e techni.ues of docu"entation and classification, LcountingM
constructed the bases for the othering of Si!hs, Eusli"s and -indus that beca"e owerful
fra"es for olitical "obilization +Cha!ra&arty: 188>b% Sundar 2# Si"ilarly, Eargo and
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7ienberg +2 reort that until the Ci&il <ights Eo&e"ent of the 18s, ro&isions of the /S
1B=8 constitution institutionalised race as an official classification for the uroses of
congregational allocations of funds# 7inally, the colonial state in Nigeria created, through
boundaries hysical and social rocesses of othering between and within geograhical
areas that constitute+d the "a$or fra"es for olitical action +una: 2># ;ut radical
uncertainty is underinned by the nature and structure of the state in the new global era#
0he state has "ore than e&er before beco"e an arena of intense contestations that focus
on its &ery origins wherein co"eting grous within and outside its boundaries atte"t to
redefine its ower# 0hese atte"ts create co"eting and criss*crossing oc!ets of influence
often within, but also across national territories that tend to wea!en it in certain i"ortant
resects e&en as they reinforce it in others# It is in the wea!ening of the states’ legiti"acy,
"obilisational caacities, collasing social infrastructure, heightening le&els of econo"ic and
social e)clusion, and in the absence of broad national’ latfor"s for fra"ing co"eting
clai"s'de"ands, that sub'infra*national identities as owerful "echanis"s'ideological
referents for olitical action could be located# 0his aarent de-centring of ower see"s to
ha&e generated gestalts’ or fields’ in which, though the state is still a do"inant layer +cf di,
Ka!i ;ia", or indeed the i"osition of econo"ic refor"s, it ne&ertheless see"s to ha&e lost a
considerable ortion of its ower to contenders that co""and a greater degree of legitimacy
than it could# In e)tre"e cases, sub'infra national contenders act li!e states within a state, and
though for"ally still constituent units of the larger body, they ha&e "anaged to aroriate,
and in so"e cases e&en sulanted the state in the ro&ision of critical ser&ices, articularly
security +cf 0he O’odua Peoples’ Congress in the South*@est and to a lesser e)tent, the Bakasi
Boys in the South*5ast# @here infra*national organizations ta!eo&er roles such as the security
of state officials +cf the ta!eo&er of the Presidents ersonal security by the OPC on a state &isit
to gun State or traffic control, we can begin to fatho" the deth of the state’s crisis in
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ostcolonies# It is within this broad theoretical conte)t that I wish to e)a"ine the rising sate
of identity conflicts in ostcolonial societies with secific reference to Nigeria#
Globalisation: Conceptions, Trajectories, Debates
Globalisation, li!e "any other social science concets, is FFcontested#FF 0here is &irtually
no agree"ent as to its "eaning "uch less a consensus about its theoretical &alue# 7ro" both
the left and right ideological sectru"s, it has drawn a great deal of criticis" for its
"ethodological inconsistencies, e"irical &agueness, theoretical i"recision and ahistoricity
+Geschiere and Eeyer: 188=% elly: 188=% 6owy: 188=% ennedy: 188=% -eld and EcGrew:
2% 0herborn: 2# According to Aadurai +188=:8B*8=, globalization
both as a socio*econo"ic for"ation and as a ter" of fol! ideology in $ournalis" and in the
cororate world "ar!s a set of transitions in the global olitical econo"y since the 18Bs,
in which "ultinational for"s of caitalist organization began to be relaced by
transnational, fle)ible, and irregular for"s of organization, as labour, finance, technology,
and technological caital began to be asse"bled in ways that treated national boundaries as
"ere constraints or fictions 3O0hese transnational cororations ha&e increasingly begun to
roduce reco"binant arrange"ents of labour, caital, and technical e)ertise which roduce
new for"s of law, "anage"ent, and distribution3O0hat has led to a decline in the
so&ereignty of national states in resect of the wor!ings of global caital# 0hese changes *with acco"anying changes in law, accounting, atenting, and other ad"inistrati&e
technologies * ha&e created Qnew "ar!ets for loyaltyQ and called "odels of territorial
so&ereignty into .uestion#
Seen thus, it i"lies a range of rocesses, institutions, actors, and discourses that include
the "obility and fle)ibility of caital, labour, and sy"bolic reresentations% increasing
challenges to the nation*state and the disaggregation of so&ereignty arising fro" subnational,
transnational and suranational forces +;iswas: 22% satialization of the social +referring to
the flattening of social rocesses Owhere the co"le)ity of .ualities, issues of deth and
shallowness, and the dialectics of contradictions tend to get lost’ 0herborn: 2% 1>?%
e"ergence of e&er*widening, "ulti*ronged, and inter"eshed global roduction and
consu"tion networ!s% rise of new sur&eillance structures re.uired to handle growing
co"le)ities legally and e)tra*legally+Gessner: 2% and the deterritorialization of culture
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+referring to the growing inability of states to control sociality within national boundaries,
0herborn: 2#
0hese rocesses, institution, agents and acti&ities to which globalization refers are
e"bedded within broader discourses# 0herborn +2: 1>1*2, identifies at least fi&e such
discourses: co"etition econo"ics,’ whose "a$or focus is the analysis of the rocesses and
atterns of global co"etition and its effects on caital, labour, and states +EcNally: 188=%
;airoch: 2% Castells: 2a% (ic!ens: 2% Garrett: 2% une&en internationalisation,’
whose "ain focus is the analyses of the rocesses of the &ertical integration of bac!ward social
for"ations through trade, international finance, technology, and culture +-oog&elt: 2%
Castells: 2b% 7ieldhouse: 2% state +i"otence,’ that as!s whether, and in what ways
globalisation strengthens or wea!ens state ower within and outside national boundaries
+Guibernau: 1888% Gio&anni and ;e&erly: 1888% ;ull: 2% Eann: 1889, 2% Strange:
2% cultural analyses, whose focus is on global cultural flows, co""unications and
sy"bolic reresentations’ +5ller: 1888% Guibernau: 1888% Pens!y: 2% Sassen: 2%
aferer: 21% Eerrett: 21% and finally, lanetary ecology’ that focuses on the analyses of
hu"an!ind and global society as art of a single lanetary ecosyste" +0herborn: 2#
6oo!ing at these broad discourses, there is so"e $ustification in the criticis"s against the
&alidity and recision of the concet# 0o begin with, all these rocesses and concerns ha&e
historically been integral to the de&elo"ent of caitalis"# 0here is thus an historical
di"ension to globalisation +elly: 188=% ;airoch: 2% @ood: 188=% EHszRros: 188=% -irst
and 0ho"son: 2a, and that with reference secifically to international trade and the
global accu"ulation rocess, the concet "ight be "isleading in so far as it see!s to cature
rocesses that ha&e been haening for > years’ +@allerstein: 2% 2?8 as if they were
new# So"e ha&e e&en ushed its historical tra$ectory further bac! to the series of wa&es that
began with the diffusion of world religions and the establish"ent of transcontinental
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ci&ilizations since the fourth ?th century C#5# +0herborn: 2# As such, the obser&ations
about the i"act of the current e)ansion of global caitalis": co"ression of ti"e and sace%
"obility of caital, labour, and the seed of sy"bolic reresentations across national
boundaries% contradictory rocess of the ho"ogenization and frag"entation of societies%
si"ultaneous strengthening and wea!ening of nation*states and so on are different largely in
scale and intensity alone# <ather than altogether new heno"ena therefore, these ha&e been
integral to the continuous if une&en, de&elo"ent of inter-nationalisation’ +-irst and
0ho"son .uoted in ennedy: 188=# It is the ahistoricisation in "ost of the concetions of
globalization that re- resents an otherwise old and ongoing rocess, with a renewed &igour to
be sure, as new#
So"e scholars go further to suggest that e&en this re*resentation is only artially
correct# Panitch +188= argues that a significant nu"ber of the catalogue of effects attributed
to globalisation is con$ectural#’ 0he "ost significant of these con$ectures’ include the notion
of the ascendancy of caitalis", the triu"h’ of neo*liberalis", the broadening of
international class for"ation, and "ore secifically, transnational integration a"ong caitalist
classes# 0he notion of the ascendancy of caitalis" has been challenged on the grounds that
the e&idence si"ly does not suort that &iew for a"ong other things, the rapidly increasing
le&els of o&erty and social e)clusion Oare sreading to all arts of the globe,’ and the decline
in the arasitic acti&ities of global finance "ar!ets all indicate atterns of collase than of
ascendancy +ennedy: 188=% 9*?# Ne&ertheless, it is this ascendancy thesis and its correlate,
the triu"h of liberalis" that for"s the basis of the notions of a global culture’ and global
&illage#’ 0his is the thesis behind the Ec(onaldization and Coca*Colazation of the world, a
thesis atly catured in EcEichael’s +188: ? obser&ation that coca cola is no longer the cry
of i"erialist do"ination, but the nectar of uni&ersal roserity#’
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-owe&er, it is difficult to accede to the thesis of coca cola being the nectar of uni&ersal
roserity’ esecially with the increasing &ertical integration of ostcolonial societies into the
world syste"# Is there such a thing as a global culture,’ and ha&e these rocesses created a
ho"ogeneous global landscae As Geschiere and Eeyer +188= correctly obser&ed, the
notion of a ho"ogeneous global culture’ is only a artial icture of the current transfor"ation
rocess# 0here certainly is a sense in which goods and cultural reresentations are uniformly
ercei&ed% it is recisely this unifor"ity howe&er, that often generates strong identifications
with local cultures in a way that reinforces and rigidifies, rather than dissol&es the"# 0here is
thus no unidirectional "o&e"ent% what obtains is a dialectic of flu)’ and fi)’ wherein global
cultural flows’ are confronted with local cultural closures’ and where the ho"ogenizing’
influences of global flows are contradicted in the re*affir"ation of cultural identities and
authenticities# 0hus,
it has beco"e increasingly clear that this unifor"ization generates an e"hasis on cultural
difference# ften it is the rocess of globalisation itself that aears to lead to a hardening
of cultural contrasts or e&en to engender new oositions Oand as the global and local aretwo faces of the sa"e "o&e"ent’, arado)ically, the culturally ho"ogenizing tendencies of
globalisation i"ly continued or e&en reinforced cultural heterogeneity30here is "uch
e"irical e&idence that eole’s awareness of being in&ol&ed in oen*ended global flows
see"s to trigger a search for fi)ed orientation oints and action fra"es, as well as
deter"ined efforts to affir" old and construct new boundaries +Geschiere and Eeyer: 188=%
2#
0here is neither irony nor arado) in this rocess, for caitalist de&elo"ent has
historically been characterised by this contradiction# Globalisation is not $ust a rocess of the
le&elling of cultural, social, econo"ic and other differences# It is an inherently frag"enting
rocess clearly de"onstrated in the concentration of wealth on the one hand and the deeening
of un*e&en de&elo"ent on the other% in the growth of in&est"ent and caital flows &ersus its
di&est"ent and caital flight% in the heightening of deadly intra*state conflicts% and in atte"ts
to, through these, reconfigure olitical co""unities +5ller: 22# And it is these last two
issues, the .uestion of the i"act of globalisation on states and of the conflicts arising
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therefro" that are of interest to this aer# It is "y oinion that we can hardly begin to
roerly roble"atize identity conflicts in ostcolonies without first co"ing to ter"s with how
the state "anages the dialectic of the global’ and the local#’ 0he analysis of how well or
oorly states ha&e done this and their i"lications is the tas! of the ne)t two sections#
Globalization and the State
ne of the "ost hotly debated issues in the globalisation literature is gauging its i"act
on the nation*state# Argu"ents &ary widely, but two broad ositions can be identified: those
that argue that state ower has been eroded by global rocesses, and those that hold that its
ower has been reinforced# Proonents of the erosion thesis contend that globalisation has
unleashed certain forces e)ternal and internal that ha&e radically affected the ability of the
nation*state to e)ercise its traditional roles# ;oth ha&e challenged the notion of the nation*
state as a body +a ha&ing a "onooly o&er the use and deloy"ent of force% +b in which
absolute so&ereignty is &ested% +c ha&ing a resence’ o&er set boundaries and +d controlling
sociality within these boundaries# 0hese e)ternal forces are co"li"ented by internal
challenges, the "ost ro"inent of which are &arious for"s of sub*nationalis"s that often, but
not always ta!e ethnic, religious, and other infra*state fra"es# ;oth forces challenge the
state’s legiti"acy and authority thereby under"ining its ability to i"ose its resence within,
and so"eti"es e&en outside its internationally recognized borders#
onents of the erosion thesis argue that globalisation has in fact reinforced state*ower
and that its disengage"ent fro" sites’ traditionally associated with it should neither be
confused with wea!ness, nor conflated with its atte"t to redefine a "ore conte"orary role#
0his disengage"ent is in itself a central re.uire"ent of the new global era, for it gi&es the state
a greater suer&isory role and ower to dictate new rules of accu"ulation, to "ore radically
and unilaterally inter&ene in hedging off caitalist crises, and to reorganize or reosition class
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forces in the atte"t to reorder the rules of accu"ulation# 6et us e)a"ine the argu"ents "ore
closely#
State Im"otence
0he idea of wea! or i"otent’ states organizations that ha&e the $uridical roerties of
states but lac! their e"irical attributes is not a new one +Dac!son and <oseberg: 18=2#
@hat is rather new is that the nature and caabilities of such states now ha&e to be analysed
within the conte)t of globalisation# Eany co""entators ha&e drawn attention to how the
"obility of caital and labour, the role of transnational cororations, the rise of a global
culture% the e)ansion of new infor"ation technologies, the e"ergence of new organizational
and sur&eillance structures and on the whole, the e)traordinary enetration of econo"ic
"ar!et relations into al"ost all asects of hu"an life criss*cross territorial boundaries, "a!ing
it i"ossible for the state to control certain i"ortant rocesses ta!ing lace within its borders’
+Ca"illeri and 7al!: 1882% ?# Eoreo&er, the roliferation of and growth in the ower of
sura*national organizations +/nited Nations, International Eonetary 7und, @orld ;an!,
@orld 0rade rganization etc, the frag"entation of the So&iet /nion and for"er Co""unist
nations in 5astern 5uroe, the i"act of instantaneous e&ents and sy"bolic reresentations on
local and national ublics, and the renewed &igour of transnational cororations are osed as
e&idence of the erosion of the ower of the nation state +Guibernau: 1888% Ca"illeri and 7al!:
1882#
0he nation*state is said to be in dee crisis that has at lest two crucial i"lications# 0he
first is a crisis of rationality reflected in the state’s inability to fulfil its traditional functions,’
and second, a crisis of legiti"acy reflected in its inability to achie&e "assi&e loyalty’ +-eld:
188>:19# ;oth underscore the growing asserti&eness of infra*'sub*state for"s of
"obilization and their role in challenging the state by in&o!ing the &ery rinciles uon which
it is based# As -eld +188>: 19 obser&ed,
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the nu"ber of grous which clai" the rincile of de"ocratic legiti"acy when de"anding
the right to control their olitical destiny is increasing# At the sa"e ti"e, the rele&ance and
content of this rincile is being altered by the intensification of globalisation rocesses#
New atterns of local and regional go&ern"ent and de&elo"ent ha&e e"erged, and that
while national so&ereignty, e&en in regions with o&erlaing and di&ided authority
structures, has not been wholly sub&erted, olitical do"ains clearly e)ist with criss*crossingloyalties, conflicting interretations of rights and duties, and interconnected structures which
dislace notions of so&ereignty as an illi"itable, indi&isible and e)clusi&e for" of ublic
ower#
So"e of these challenges arise fro" and are anchored in the i"act of neo*classical
econo"ic'olitical rogra""es that insist on down*sizing and li"iting this state’s role to one
of the chief suerintendent’ of caitalist de&elo"ent +Panitch: 188=# -istorically, such
doctrines ronounced the state a fetter to the de&elo"ent of caitalis", a osition that has
been rogressi&ely cha"ioned by the ;reton @oods Institutions# Indeed, the &arious neo*
liberal econo"ic refor"s i"osed on ostcolonies by these institutions are re*affir"ations of
this ercei&ed new role# At least in ostcolonial societies, rolling bac! the state "eans the
i"osition of structural ad$ust"ent rogra""es# Such rogra""es as we will see in the case
of Nigeria deeen rocesses of "arginalization, challenging so"e of the "a$or discourses and
ro$ects that hitherto legiti"ated the state#
0he deeening "arginalization of ostcolonies reflected in rising o&erty le&els, and a
loosening’ of so"e of the inherited structures and discourses on which olitical co""unities
were built generates forces whose olitical clai"s, discourses and actions no longer find
anchor in broad national ideologies, but in "icro*'infra*state for"s of "obilization# 0hese
forces "a!e ossible new i"agined co""unities’ see!ing to secede fro" the ostcolony,
obtain regional autono"y, or restructure e)isting ower arrange"ents ercei&ed to be
defecti&e# 0hese newly i"agined co""unities, constitute, or are ercei&ed to constitute an
e)tre"e case of FnationsF within broader Fstates#F Guibernau +1888: 2* holds that nations
without states’ are cultural co""unities that either once en$oyed or are now i"agining a
searate olitical and'or cultural identity that is now being created, in&o!ed, re&italized and
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adated#’ +Guibernau 1888:2* 0he in&ocation of historical "e"ories or construction of new
ones to assert sub*state identities is of course not a new heno"enon in the history of state
for"ation +Anderson: 18=9# @hat "a!es this different fro" earlier historical atterns is the
twin*ressures con&erging on state ower, na"ely those fro" below +sub*'infra*state and
those fro" abo&e +sura*state# 0he loosening of the ower of the state o&er constituent units
and the increasing assertion of the autono"y of these units reflects a rocess of the Ferosion of
ci&ic culture,F i#e# the erosion fro" the state of hitherto broader national ties that held it
together#
In conse.uence, a good deal of the state’ legiti"acy is lost, further wea!ening its ability
to re-order old or establish "ore inclusi&e ara"eters for olitical action# 0he state is thus
unable, in the current historical con$uncture, to create "ore inclusi&e national political
frameworks whose "e"bershi could transcend the e)clusi&eness of sub-national
particularisms# 0he twin rocesses of the erosion and reinforce"ent of inclusi&e and
e)clusi&e fra"ewor!s of olitical action now oen a &ast filed in which the caabilities of the
state co"e under challenge# In a "ulti*ethnic society, the erosion of the legiti"acy of
inclusi&e fra"ewor!s of olitical action ser&e to reinforce e)clusi&e fra"es, and where the
state is ursuing neo*liberal olicies that further entrench social and econo"ic e)clusion, infra
state "o&e"ents then use "ore e)clusionary for"s of olitical action#
State Potence
0here is howe&er the other argu"ent which holds that the ower of the state has been
reinforced by globalisation# 6indberg and Ca"bell +188: 9>* in their study of
organizational transfor"ation in so"e "a$or industrial concerns in the /S +steel, auto"obile,
nuclear energy and teleco""unications, de"onstrate that the caacity to establish roerty
rights gi&es the state enor"ous owers to shae the institutional basis of the econo"y, order
social relations and, therefore, deter"ine olitical struggles a"ong classes# Proerty rights
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define, deter"ine and enforce the rules and conditions of the ownershi and control of the
"eans of roduction, establishing relations between eole, since one erson’s ownershi and
control usually corresonds to another’s absence of ownershi and control’ and in that way,
they define the institutional basis of ower relations not only in the i""ediate rocess of
roduction, but also throughout society# State actions
Create ressures for change that lead actors to loo! for new for"s of econo"ic organization#
0he state also assists, leads, or constrains the rocess of selecting new for"s of econo"ic
organization that e"erge in resonse to these ressures, and it "ay or "ay not ratify these
new for"s3Proerty rights not only create ressures for change that cause actors to loo!
for new organizational for"s, but they also constrain and influence how actors select
different for"s# 0he state creates ressure for change and constrains this selection rocessnot only as an actor but also as an institutional structure * a set of ad"inistrati&e, legislati&e,
and $udicial organizations with resonsibility for olicy*"a!ing and i"le"entation#
In addition to these, states still retain enor"ous owers in ordering eoles’ day*to*day
li&es through ta)ation, censuses, tra&el'identification docu"ents, and a whole range of other
ad"inistrati&e structures# Eore secifically, a state is indisensable for caitalist
de&elo"ent, for it is the only ense"ble caable of standing abo&e society’ as it were, and of
suer&ising 'i"osing institutional and $uridical structures necessary for accu"ulation# In this
sense, the i"osition of &arious for"s of liberal econo"ic refor"s in ostcolonial societies
would ha&e been i"ossible without a strong state# 7urther"ore, state ower has been
reinforced if only because states are the "a$or architects of globalisation in so far as it is the
changes they "ade in the rules go&erning caital "o&e"ents, in&est"ent, currency e)change,
and trade that er"itted a new stage of global accu"ulation to co"e about#’ States Fset the
rules of the ga"e in artnershi with "ar!ets Othey ta), rohibit, unish, and to re.uire
articiation3the stateFs ower to ta) enables it to finance the ro&ision of ublic goods% its
ower to rohibit and unish enables it to rotect ersonal safety and roerty rights% and its
ower to re.uire articiation enables it to "ini"ize free riding’ +Panitch: 188=:2># In this
sense, the state’s suer&isory role o&er caital and labour ha&e in fact been reinforced, for as it
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charts new rules of accu"ulation it at the sa"e ti"e "anages the frag"entation of labour#
@hile ensuring "ini"u" conditions of accu"ulation, states do not withdraw fro" the
econo"y but restructure their relationshi to it, reordering their aaratuses and the role each
lays in reresenting and regulating social actors and "ar!ets#’ 0hus, the de*centring of ower
itself and the "eans of force fro" state to non*state sectors, rather than an indication of
wea!ness, is actually art of the this reconfiguration of the state in the current disensation# It
indicates a "o&e"ent towards the ri&atisation of e&erything including &iolence, e)cet in
instances where the cororate e)istence of the state itself is directly in .uestion +Panitch:
188=:1?#
In general therefore, it is "ore analytically fruitful to sea! of the reconfiguration of state
ower in the global era than of a sterile debate o&er its otency# 0his reconfiguration "ay
ha&e forced the state to cede or de&ol&e control of certain functions to other contenders# 0hus
the decline in the functional caabilities of the state in e&eryday life has led to a flourishing of
sub*'infra state organizations that ha&e sought to occuy so"e of the saces it &acated#
-owe&er, globalisation has also e)anded old and created newer sources of ower that while
"a!ing the state less &isible, at the sa"e ti"e "a!es it "ore intrusi&e in the +re organisation
of econo"ic and social life# 0he state in turn resonds to these rocesses, acting on and
reacting to the &arious forces subnational, transnational, and suranational that i"inge
and see! to influence or e&en usur so"e of its functions# 0he central issue then beco"es not
of state collase but the way in which the state as currently constituted resonds to and refracts
old and e"ergent tensions#
Globalisation and Infra-State obilization in !ostcolonies
ne of the "ost ro"inent challenges states and olitical co""unities face in the
ostcolony is the tension between the global and the local# 0he decline in interstate and the
heightening of intrastate conflicts in&ol&ing eoles and co""unities that ca"e to be fra"ed
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in cultural, religious, or ethnic ter"s is one conse.uence of the i"act of the contradictions of
the interface of global flows’ confront local closures’ +5ller: 1888# Although the dyna"ics
of this interface are e"irical .uestions that "ust be e)a"ined in secific historical conte)ts,
scholars ha&e drawn attention to a nu"ber of general trends# 7irst, the e"ergence of a new
world order’ "ade "ore do"inant by the collase of so&iet socialis" and aartheid in South
Africa has generated two "a$or ressures on states and olitical co""unities: ressure for
neo*liberal econo"ic refor"s and for the e)ansion of olitical saces through
de"ocratisation# Indeed for "any ostcolonies, the i"osition of neo*liberal econo"ic
refor"s began "uch earlier in the 18Bs# 0hus, neo*liberal econo"ic refor"s structural
ad$ust"ent and the New 5cono"ic 5"ower"ent and (e&elo"ent Strategy +N55(S in
Nigeria are art of the neo*liberal rogra""e for econo"ic and olitical refor"s#
Second, the new world order also generated its own disorder,’ for the ost*cold war era
has had a dra"atic i"act on the state# Eore secifically, the collase of left*right
ideological fra"ewor!s’ that constituted $ustificatory rinciles for wars and conflicts +inter*
and intra state since the 1=th century radically affected the dyna"ics of &iolence and the state’
caabilities in dealing with the"# Eoreo&er, diasoric co""unities are significant in heling
ethnic grous within national boundaries with &arious !inds of resources, and ha&e no doubt in
a nu"ber of cases strengthened or heled oularise the de"ands of !in co""unities within
national boundaries +;ruba!er and 6aitin% 188=: ?2?# 7inally, the intensification and
inter"eshing of global roduction centres% e)ansion of international financial networ!s
electronic trading% increasing seed of co""unication technology and the world wide
trans"ission of sy"bolic reresentations ha&e also had tre"endous i"act on states and
olitical co""unities#
;oth states and olitical co""unities had to ad$ust to these new forces in a way that has
radically altered olitical landscaes# 7or one thing, state ower had to be reconfigured to
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"eet the new de"ands of conte"orary global caitalist e)ansion# State ower was
reinforced by globalization in certain resects, articularly in its role as the suerintendent of
the accu"ulation rocess# 0he i"osition of neo*liberal ad$ust"ent rogra""es re.uired a
strong state, although this role has to so"e e)tent eroded the state’s legiti"acy# 0he erosion of
the state’s legiti"acy considerably wea!ened its caabilities, and as it began to withdraw fro"
the ro&ision of basic and critical social ser&ices +including security, other contenders began
to sulant it# 0hese forces led to the wea!ening of national’ organizational and institutional
fra"ewor!s while at the sa"e ti"e reinforcing sub*'infra*state for"s of social "obilization#
0hus central to the heno"enon of identity conflicts is the weakening of national and the
strengthening of sub-/infra- state fra"ewor!s of "obilisation for olitical action# Si"ilarly,
the heated debates o&er fears of do"ination are directly lin!ed to the insecurities e"anating
fro" the deconstruction of a national’ and the +re construction of a sub*national identity as
deter"ined by the way both the state and olitical co""unities reacted to globalization# New
co""unities are being i"agined within olitical and social saces that contrast in the "ain,
with earlier national’ fra"es that are no longer i"aginable,’ or at the &ery best, whose
discourses and ractices ha&e waned#
"adical #ncertaint$ and Identit$ Conflicts in %igeria
7or "any obser&ers, the state in Africa generally +with the ossible e)cetion of South
Africa, and its &ersion in Nigeria secifically, there is a ercetible decline in the
functionality of the state in ter"s of caacity to deli&er goods and ser&ices# 0he decline in the
state’s functional caability is no doubt a "a$or de*legiti"ating factor# 0his functional
disability has created a &acuu" that was ostensibly to be filled by the organized ri&ate sector%
in "ost ostcolonies howe&er, the saces &acated by the state were occuied by sub*state
forces, so"ething that has intensified e)clusionary for"s of olitical action# 0he
intensification and reinforce"ent of ethnic and ri"ordial for"s of identity could easily be
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established across Nigeria# 0hroughout our cities, and in certain &illages, a range of social
ser&ices hitherto ro&ided by the state are now the reser&e of ethnic or religious
organizations: hositals, schools, transortation syste"s, and so on# Eore and "ore eole
identify with their own co""unal organizations than with the state# 0he state’ functional
disability generates insecurities that has encouraged the ethnocisation of social relations#
0hese insecurities are "anifest in the increasing and continuing econo"ic auerization
and "arginalization of indi&iduals and grous# n the indi&idual le&el, it "anifests itself in
indi&iduals’ inability to secure basic necessities# 0he increasing auerization of the
oulation sharly contrasts with the increased wealth of a few indi&iduals# ;oth classes are
unable to deend on the state for security, as "anifest in increased residential fortifications, as
well as in the ac.uisition of ersonal ar"s by indi&iduals# Tery few would today doubt that
"ost houses in our cities closely rese"ble risons# 0he le&el of insecurity and fear is
widesread, for it is li"ited not $ust to cities, but in the countryside# In certain arts of the
country the Northeast, Ana"bra and 5do cri"inal gangs and ar"ed bandits, so"e of who"
ha&e connections to the state terrorize citizens at will# 0he failure of the state to secure life and
roerty reinforces grou ties and identities as grous and indi&iduals "a!e alternate
ro&isions for their own security# Peole increasingly rely on narrower ethnic and ri"ordial
identities in the absence of a larger, national fra"e# Pri"ordial grous ca"e to be co"asses
for, and anchors of indi&idual actions, and this heightens grou categorization and social
difference# Tiolent intra and inter grou conflicts then beco"e nor"al "echanis"s for the
resolution of social and olitical conflicts#
Conclusion
In general therefore, it does aear that the recurrence of identity conflict in
ostcolonial societies has to be e)a"ined in the light of the co"le) interface between the
global and the local# Although identities are labels or categorizations that often ser&e as
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owerful referents for olitical action, whether or not and by which rocess a secific label
beco"es a "obilizing fra"ewor! deends on historically secific conditions# In the
ostcolonies, a co"le) set of factors articularly since the late 18=s has generated
conditions of radical uncertainty and insecurity that not only challenged the basis of statist
ostcolonial ro$ects, but the ha&e also ro&ided a&enues for fra"ing conflicts through
sub*'infra*national ris"s# 0hus these forces constitute a&enues through which newer for"s
of olitical co""unities are being i"agined, and in so"e cases created# 0he state in general,
rather than being wea!ened, is being reconfigured, and this reconfiguration "ay show the
direction the future nation state is tending towards#
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