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MIXTURES INVOLVING WATER
• THREE TYPES
• SUSPENSIONS
• COLLOIDS
• SOLUTIONS
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• THE DIFFERENCE AMONG THESE IS THE SIZE OF THE PARTICLES OF THE SOLUTE
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SUSPENSION
• MIXTURE CONTAINING LARGE PARTICLES IN A SOLVENT
• PARTICLES WILL SETTLE OUT
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• PARTICLES REFLECT LIGHT WHEN A BEAM IS DIRECTED THROUGH THE MIXTURE (CALLED THE TYNDALL EFFECT)
• EXAMPLE: MUDDY WATER
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COLLOID
• MIXTURE OF MEDIUM SIZED PARTICLES IN A SOLVENT
• PARTICLES WILL NOT SETTLE OUT
• SHOWS THE TYNDALL EFFECT
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SOLUTIONS
• MIXTURE OF SMALL PARTICLES (ATOMS, IONS, MOLECULES) IN A SOLVENT
• PARTICLES WILL NOT SETTLE OUT
• NO TYNDALL EFFECT
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SOLUTION TERMS
• SOLUBLE – DOES DISSOLVE
• INSOLUBLE – DOES NOT DISSOLVE
• SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE – VERY LITTLE DISSOLVES
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• AQUEOUS – WATER IS THE SOLVENT
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SOLUTION TERMS CONTINUED
• MISCIBLE – LIQUIDS THAT CAN DISSOLVE EACH OTHER (EX. WATER AND ALCOHOL)
• IMMISCIBLE – LIQUIDS THAT CANNOT DISSOLVE EACH OTHER (EX. OIL AND WATER)
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• COMPLETELY MISCIBLE – LIQUIDS THAT CAN DISSOLVE EACH OTHER IN ANY AMOUNTS
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SATURATED SOLUTION
• A SOLUTION THAT HAS THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF SOLUTE DISSOLVED IN IT AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE
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• IF MORE SOLUTE IS ADDED, IT WILL NOT DISSOLVE (FALLS TO THE BOTTOM)
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UNSATURATED SOLUTION
• A SOLUTION THAT HAS LESS THAN THE MAXIMUM AMOUNT IT CAN DISSOLVE AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE
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SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION
• A SOLUTION THAT HAS MORE SOLUTE DISSOLVED THAN IT SHOULD AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE
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SOLUBILITY
• THE AMOUNT OF A SUBSTANCE THAT CAN BE DISSOLVED IN 100 GRAMS OF SOLVENT TO MAKE A SATURATED SOLUTION AT A GIVEN TEMPERATURE
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EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON
SOLUBILITY• SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS
USUALLY INCREASES AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES
• SOLUBILITY OF GASES DECREASES AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES
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CONCENTRATION
• THE AMOUNT OF SOLUTE DISSOLVED IN A GIVEN AMOUNT OF SOLUTION
• MANY WAYS TO EXPRESS CONCENTRATION
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PERCENT BY MASS
CONC (IN %) =
(100%)_MASS OF SOLUTE
MASS OF SOLUTION
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MASS OF SOLUTE
MASS OF SOLUTE =
(CONC)( MASS OF SOLN)
100%
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EXAMPLE 1
WHAT IS CONCENTRATION WHEN 5 GRAMS OF SALT IS DISSOLVED IN 95 GRAMS OF WATER?
5 g / (5 g + 95 g)= 5/100= 0.05 = 5%
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EXAMPLE 2
WHAT IS CONCENTRATION WHEN 5 GRAMS OF SALT IS DISSOLVED IN 50 GRAMS OF WATER?
5 g / (5 g + 50 g)= 5 / 55= 0.09 = 9%
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EXAMPLE 3
HOW MUCH SALT IS NEEDED TO MAKE 50 GRAMS OF 10% SOLUTION?
= (10%)(50 g) / 100%= 500 g / 1005 g
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EXAMPLE 4
HOW MUCH SALT IS NEEDED TO MAKE 250 GRAMS OF 7% SOLUTION
= (7%)(250 g) / 100%= 1750 g / 10017.5 g
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PARTS CONCENTRATION
• DEFINED AS MASS OF SOLUTE / MASS OF SOLUTION
• 1 g OF SOLUTE / 100 g OF SOLUTION IS 1 PART PER HUNDRED
• EXPRESSED AS 1 pph
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PARTS ABBREVIATIONS
• pph IS PARTS PER HUNDRED
• ppth IS PARTS PER THOUSAND
• ppm IS PARTS PER MILLION
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• ppb IS PARTS PER BILLION
• ppt IS PARTS PER TRILLION
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RELATING % AND PARTS CONCENTRATIONS
1% = 1/100
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EXAMPLE 5
EXPRESS THE CONCENTRATION OF AN 8% SOLUTION IN PPM
8% = 8/100= 80,000/1,000,000= 80,000 PPM
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EXAMPLE 6
EXPRESS 40% IN PPTH
40% = 40/100
= 400/1000
= 400 PPTH
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EXAMPLE 7
EXPRESS 20 PPH IN %
20 PPH = 20/100
= 20%
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EXAMPLE 8
EXPRESS 350 PPM IN %
350 PPM = 350/1,000,000
= 0.035/100
= 0.035 %
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CHEMICALS USED IN HOMES AND ON FARMS
• FERTILIZERS
• PESTICIDES
• MANY ARE USED AS SOLUTIONS OR SUSPENSIONS
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PLANT NUTRIENTS
• DIVIDED INTO MACRONUTRIENTS, SECONDARY NUTRIENTS, AND MICRONUTRIENTS
• MAY BE IN THE SOIL BUT MAY NOT BE IN A FORM THAT PLANTS CAN USE
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MACRONUTRIENTS
• ELEMENTS PLANTS NEED IN LARGE AMOUNTS
• CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, & POTASSIUM
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• CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN ARE READILY AVAILABLE FROM AIR AND WATER
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SECONDARY NUTRIENTS
• ELEMENTS NEEDED IN MODERATE AMOUNTS
• CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM, AND SULFUR
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MICRONUTRIENTS
• ELEMENTS NEEDED BY PLANTS IN SMALL AMOUNTS
• BORON, CHLORINE, COBALT, COPPER, IRON, MANGANESE, SODIUM, MOLYBDENUM, & ZINC
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FERTILIZERS
• SUBSTANCES USED TO ADD NUTRIENTS TO SOIL
• MOST INCLUDE NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, & POTASSIUM
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• MAY INCLUDE SOME SECONDARY & MICRONUTRIENTS
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FERTILIZERS CONTINUED
• THESE NUTRIENTS ARE ABSORBED BY PLANTS AS IONS
• FERTILIZERS MUST BREAK DOWN INTO USABLE IONS
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USABLE IONS
• NITROGEN IS ABSORBED AS NH4
+1 OR NO3-1
• PHOSPHORUS (ALSO CALLED PHOSPHATE) IS ABSORBED IN AS H2PO4
-1
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• POTASSIUM (ALSO CALLED POTASH) IS ABSORBED AS K+1
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NITROGEN SOURCES
• SOURCES INCLUDE AMMONIACAL NITROGEN, NITRATES, AND UREA
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AMMONIACAL NITROGEN
• MEANS THE AMMONIUM CATION (NH4
+1)
• USUALLY IS NH4NO3 OR (NH4)2SO4
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NITRATE
• THE ANION NO3-1
• USUALLY IS NH4NO3 OR Ca(NO3)2
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UREA
• H2NCONH2
• REACTS WITH WATER TO FORM NH4
+1
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PHOSPHORUS SOURCES
• SOURCES INCLUDE ROCK PHOSPHATE (NATURAL), SUPER PHOSPHATE, OR AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE
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• ROCK PHOSPHATE IS Ca3(PO4)2 COMBINED WITH OTHER CALCIUM COMPOUNDS
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PHOSPHORUS SOURCES CONTINUED
• SUPERPHOSPHATE IS Ca(H2PO4)2 MIXED WITH CaSO4 (ALSO CALLED GYPSUM)
• AMMONIUM PHOSPHATE IS NH4H2PO4
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POTASSIUM SOURCES
• POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KCl), POTASSIUM SULFATE (K2SO4), POTASSIUM NITRATE (KNO3), & POTASSIUM MAGNESIUM SULFATE (KMgSO4)
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FERTILIZER LABELING
• DESCRIBED BY 3 NUMBERS THAT INDICATE THE PERCENT COMPOSITION OF EACH MACRONUTRIENT
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EXAMPLE
• 5-10-8 MEANS 5% NITROGEN, 10% PHOSPHORUS, AND 8% POTASSIUM
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FERTILIZER ANALYSES
• LABEL IS REQUIRED TO SHOW A GUARANTEED ANALYSIS
• LISTS PHOSPHORUS (OR PHOSPHATE), POTASSIUM (OR POTASH), AND ALL FORMS OF NITROGEN
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• SHOWS PERCENT COMPOSITION OF EACH NUTRIENT
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PROBLEMS WITH FERTILIZERS
• NUTRIENTS IN RUNOFF CAUSE EXCESSIVE PLANT GROWTH THAT DECREASES OXYGEN FOR AQUATIC LIFE
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• CONTAIN TRACE AMOUNTS OF UNDESIRABLE HEAVY METALS SUCH AS ARSENIC, CADMIUM, MERCURY, NICKEL, AND LEAD
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PROBLEMS CONTINUED
• CAN RUN OFF IN RAIN TO CONTAMINATE STREAMS AND PONDS
• HEAVY METALS CONTAMINATE AND MAY KILL AQUATIC LIFE
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PROBLEMS CONTINUED
• OFTEN LIFEFORMS DO NOT HAVE A WAY TO RID THESE FROM THEIR BODIES – SO THEY STAY THERE
• THIS IS CALLED BIOACCUMULATION
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• SOME HEAVY METALS MOVE UP THE FOOD CHAIN AS AQUATIC LIFE ARE EATEN
• THIS IS CALLED BIOMAGNIFICATION
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PESTICIDES
• ANY CHEMICAL USED TO KILL OR CONTROL UNWANTED FUNGI, ANIMALS, OR PLANTS
• UNWANTED PLANTS ARE CALLED WEEDS
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PESTICIDE TYPES
• INSECTICIDES
• FUNGICIDES
• RODENTICIDES
• HERBICIDES
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PESTICIDE EFFECTS
• MANY PESTICIDES ARE NOT SPECIFIC AND CAN KILL NON-TARGETED ORGANISMS
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• MANY PESTICIDES CAN CAUSE HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS WHEN HANDLING – SO SPECIAL SAFETY TRAINING AND LICENSING IS REQUIRED
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INSECTICIDES
• HALF-LIFE IS THE TIME FOR HALF OF THE CHEMICAL TO HAVE DECOMPOSED INTO SOMETHING ELSE
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• THOSE WITH LONG HALF-LIVES ARE CALLED PERSISTENT
• RESIDUES AFTER DECOMPOSITION MAY BE HARMFUL
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ORGANOCHLORIDES
• CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS ARE COMPLEX ARRANGEMENTS OF CARBON, HYDROGEN, AND CHLORINE
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• EXAMPLE: DDT (WAS 1ST SYNTHETIC ORGANIC INSECTICIDE)
• DICHLORODIPHENYLTRICHLOROETHANE
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ORGANOCHLORIDES CONTINUED
• OTHERS INCLUDE CHLORDANE, AND DIELDRIN
• ARE NEUROTOXINS• HAVE VERY LONG HALF-
LIVES• THEY BIOACCUMULATE
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• MOST ARE NOT USED ANY MORE BECAUSE OF NEGATIVE EFFECTS
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ORGANOPHOSPHATES
• NEUROTOXINS• HAVE SHORT HALF-LIVES
(REQUIRE FREQUENT APPLICATIONS)
• VERY DANGEROUS TO FARM WORKERS
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• DO NOT BIOACCUMULATE
• EXAMPLES: MALATHION, ORTHENE, DIAZINON
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CARBAMATES
• NEUROTOXINS
• HAVE SHORT HALF-LIVES
• DO NOT BIOACCUMULATE
• EXAMPLE CARBAMATES: SEVIN AND ALDICARB
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HERBICIDES
• USED TO CONTROL UNWANTED PLANTS
• USED ON POWER-LINE AND RAILROAD RIGHTS-OF-WAY, HIGHWAYS, LAWNS, AND CROPLAND
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• USED MOSTLY TO SAVE TIME AND COST OF WEEDING
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HERBICIDES CONTINUED
• TWO MAJOR TYPES• ONE CAUSES PLANTS TO
OUTGROW THEIR FOOD PRODUCING CAPABILITY (GROW TOO FAST AND DIE)
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• EXAMPLE: 2,4 D (IN MOST LAWN WEED KILLERS)
• 2,4 DICHLOROPHENOXYACETIC ACID
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HERBICIDES CONTINUED
• OTHER TYPE ATTACKS CELLS OR PROCESSES IN PLANTS TO KILL THEM
• EXAMPLE: ROUNDUP
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THE PERFECT PESTICIDE
• INEXPENSIVE• AFFECT ONLY TARGET
ORGANISM• SHORT HALF LIFE• BREAK DOWN INTO
HARMLESS SUBSTANCES• DOES NOT EXIST!
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PROBLEMS WITH PESTICIDES
• NOT SPECIFIC – CAN KILL BENEFICIAL ORGANISMS
• INSECTS OFTEN DEVELOP A RESISTANCE TO PESTICIDES
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• BIOACCUMULATION (ESPECIALLY FATTY AREAS)
• BIOMAGNIFICATION
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PROBLEMS CONTINUED
• DDT EXAMPLE – ALMOST WIPED OUT EAGLES DUE TO BIOMAGNIFICATION
• SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS
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PROBLEMS CONTINUED
• THEY ARE SAFE IF PROPERLY APPLIED, BUT DEATHS HAVE OCCURRED WHEN IMPROPERLY APPLIED
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• MOST PEOPLE HAVE EXPOSURE TO SMALL QUANTITIES OR RESIDUES IN FOOD OR IN THE ENVIRONMENT
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AIR COMPOSITION
• 78% NITROGEN• 21% OXYGEN• TRACE AMOUNTS OF
CARBON DIOXIDE, WATER VAPOR, ARGON, AND FEW OTHERS
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POLLUTION
• SOMETHING PRODUCED BY HUMANS THAT INTERFERES WITH OUR WELL BEING
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• WHILE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS PRODUCE SIMILAR PROBLEMS, THEY ARE NOT MAN MADE POLLUTION
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AIR POLLUTION
• GASES OR SMALL PARTICLES RELEASED INTO THE ATMOSPHERE
• THESE ARE CALLED PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
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• SECONDARY POLLUTANTS ARE THINGS FORMED BY THE INTERACTION OF PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
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PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
• CARBON MONOXIDE
• HYDROCARBONS
• PARTICULATES
• SULFUR DIOXIDE
• NITROGEN OXIDES
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CARBON MONOXIDE SOURCES
• CREATED FROM INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION OF HYDROCARBONS AND TOBACCO SMOKE
• CARS PRODUCE THE MOST
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• SMOKING TOBACCO IS THE NEXT GREATEST SOURCE
• FACTORIES AND POWER PLANTS ALSO PRODUCE SOME
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CO HAZARDS
• BREATHING AIR CONTAINING 0.001% FOR SEVERAL HOURS CAN CAUSE DEATH
• ATTACHES TO HEMOGLOBIN AND PREVENTS OXYGEN TRANSPORT
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• SMALLER DOSES CAUSE HEADACHE, DROWSINESS, & BLURRED VISION
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CO REMOVAL
• REACTS WITH OXYGEN TO FORM CARBON DIOXIDE
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HYDROCARBONS
• RELEASED BY EVAPORATION OF FUEL OR REMNANTS OF INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
• CARS PRODUCE THE MOST
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• REFINERIES AND OTHER INDUSTRY ALSO RELEASE IT
• NOT A GREAT PROBLEM BY THEMSELVES
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HYDROCARBONS CONTINUED
• THEY WASH OUT AND CAUSE AN OILY FILM ON SURFACES
• A NUISANCE PROBLEM
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• THEY REACT WITH OZONE TO FORM SECONDARY POLLUTANTS
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VOLATILE
• MEANS EASILY EVAPORATES
• VOCs ARE VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• MANY FUELS ARE VOCs
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PARTICULATES
• SMALL PIECES OF SOLID MATERIALS
• SMOKE FROM FIRES• BITS OF ASBESTOS FROM
BRAKE LININGS AND INSULATION
• DUST
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• ASH FROM INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
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PARTICULATES CONTINUED
• SOME ARE HARMLESS
• OTHERS ARE CARCINOGENIC (ASBESTOS)
• VERY VISIBLE
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• ACT AS NUCLEI FOR THE FORMATION OF DROPLETS OF WATER AND OTHER DISSOLVED POLLUTANTS
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PARTICULATE SIZES
• MICRON – MEANS MICROMETER
• EQUALS 0.000001 m OR 0.0001 cm
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• PARTICLES BETWEEN 10 AND 2.5 MICRONS ARE COARSE AND ARE EASILY FILTERED BY THE BODY
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• PARTICLES < 2.5 MICRONS ARE FINE PARTICLES AND ARE NOT EASILY FILTERED BY THE BODY
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SULFUR DIOXIDE
• PRODUCT OF COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS (IMPURE HYDROCARBONS)
• SHARP ODOR• IRITATES RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
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• REACTS WITH WATER AND OXYGEN TO FORM SULFURIC AND SULFUROUS ACIDS
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NITROGEN OXIDES
• NO AND NO2
• FORMED DURING COMBUSTION IN AIR
• CARS PRODUCE THE MOST
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• REACT WITH WATER & OXYGEN TO FORM NITRIC AND NITROUS ACIDS
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SMOG
• MIXTURE OF SMOKE AND FOG
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SECONDARY POLLUTANTS
• PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG• MADE FROM NITROGEN
OXIDES AND HYDROCARBONS
• REACTION CAUSED BY UV LIGHT
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• PRODUCES OZONE AND PEROXYACETYLNITRATES
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CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
• CATALYTIC CONVERTERS ADDED TO REDUCE HYDROCARBONS, NITROGEN OXIDES, AND CARBON MONOXIDE FROM CARS
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• POSITIVE CRANKCASE VENTILATION (PCV) VALVES REDUCE HYDROCARBON LOSS
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CONTROL CONTINUED
• GAS CAPS WITH AIR POLLUTION CONTROL VALVES REDUCE HYDROCARBON LOSS
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• INDUSTRIAL PLANTS FITTED WITH SCRUBBERS TO REDUCE PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
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AIR POLLUTION RELATED PROBLEMS
• BAD QUALITY AIR
• ACID RAIN
• GLOBAL WARMING
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BAD QUALITY AIR
• DIRECT HEALTH PROBLEM FOR PEOPLE
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ACID RAIN
• SULFUR DIOXIDE AND NITROGEN OXIDES REACT TO FORM ACIDS
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• THESE DISSOLVE IN VARIOUS FORMS OF PRECIPITATION INCLUDING RAIN AND SNOW
• AFFECTS PLANTS AND BODIES OF WATER
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GLOBAL WARMING
• CAUSED BY INCREASED AMOUNTS OF CARBON DIOXIDE, CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS, METHANE, AND DINITROGEN OXIDE
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• CO2 ABSORBS ENERGY FROM THE SUN AND RADIATES IT TO WARM THE ATMOSPHERE
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GLOBAL WARMING CONTINUED
• THE OTHER GASES REACT WITH OZONE TO FORM OXYGEN
• OZONE ABSORBS UV RAYS FROM THE SUN
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• LESS OZONE MEANS MORE UV RAYS PENETRATE TO THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE AND THE SURFACE – INCREASING AIR TEMPERATURE
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CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS
• HYDROCARBONS WITH CHLORINE AND/OR FLUORINE SUBSTITUTED FOR HYDROGEN
• EXAMPLE: FREON-12 (CF2Cl2)
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