LEARNINGLEARNING
a relatively permanent change in a relatively permanent change in behavior as the result of an behavior as the result of an experience.experience.
essential process enabling animals and humans to adapt to their changing environments, and thus survive.
Two main theories which psychologists studying behaviorism use to explain learning:
–Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning
–Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning
CLASSICAL ConditioningCLASSICAL Conditioning
- Stimulus- something that produces a reaction
-Response- The reaction from a person or animal
June 2
CLASSICAL ConditioningCLASSICAL Conditioning
Simple form of learning in which stimulus and response work together
Neutral stimulus occurs with a stimulus that evokes a response
Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes to evoke a similar response
PAVLOVPAVLOV
1920s Trained dogs to associate a tone with
a food-reward Before experiment the dogs showed
no reaction to the tone sound After the tone is paired with food –
the dogs begin to salivate when they hear the tone
TermsTerms USUS = (Unconditioned stimulus)
= causes a response that is automatic or not learned
URUR = (Unconditioned response) = Automatic Response to US
CSCS = (Conditioned stimulus) = learned response to a stimulus that was neutral
CRCR = (Conditioned response) = learned response to neutral stim.
Needed Factors for Conditioning:Needed Factors for Conditioning:
Strong stimulus Order in which presented is
important Number of trials Spacing of trials
Conditioning TerminologyConditioning Terminology
Taste AversionTaste Aversion= = learned learned avoidance to a particular foodavoidance to a particular food
ExtinctionExtinction = gradual disappearance of a conditioned response once the conditioned stimulus is no longer reinforced
Conditioning TerminologyConditioning Terminology
Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery= = remember the learned behavior remember the learned behavior after time “off”after time “off”
GeneralizationGeneralization = act of responding in the same way to similar stimuli
Discrimination= Responding differently to stimuli that are not similar
Case of “Little Albert” 1920 – published study of “Little
Albert” Albert was a 11th month old boy Was not easily frightened Liked animals – psychologists then
paired a loud, harsh sound with the presence of a rat..Result???
Little Albert Video
Applications of Applications of classical conditioningclassical conditioning Two methods for reducing fears are based
on the principle of extinction: Maury
FloodingFlooding = a person is exposed to the (fear-provoking) harmless stimulus until the fear is extinguished
Systematic desensitizationSystematic desensitization = person is taught relaxation techniques & then exposed gradually to fearful stimulus
Period 6 – Jan4
OTHER USES FOR CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
DESENSITIZATIONDESENSITIZATION
• Step 1Step 1
–PicturesPictures
–From a DistanceFrom a Distance
–Close- up to fearClose- up to fear COUNTERCONDITIONING –COUNTERCONDITIONING –
– PLEASANT STIMULUS IS PAIRED PLEASANT STIMULUS IS PAIRED W/ UNPLEASANT STIMULUSW/ UNPLEASANT STIMULUS
OPERANT ConditioningOPERANT Conditioning
Learning is strengthened when Learning is strengthened when behavior is followed by behavior is followed by reinforcementreinforcement
Learning from the Learning from the consequencesconsequences of actionsof actions
OPERANT ConditioningOPERANT Conditioning
Principles of Operant Conditioning were developed by B.F. Skinner
Ideas based on studies with animals
Skinner BoxSkinner Box
Typically contains:Typically contains:– one or more levers which an one or more levers which an
animal can press animal can press
– one or more stimulus lightsone or more stimulus lights
– one or more places in which one or more places in which reinforcers like reinforcers like food can befood can be delivered. delivered.
ReinforcementReinforcement
Process by which Process by which a stimulus a stimulus increases the chances of a increases the chances of a preceding behaviorpreceding behavior
Types of ReinforcersTypes of Reinforcers
PrimaryPrimary = reinforcers that function due to biological make-up of the organism
• food, water, warmth
SecondarySecondary =Value must be learned Ex. money, attention, social approval, good grades, etc.
Types of ReinforcersTypes of Reinforcers
PositivePositive = increase frequency of the behavior they follow when applied
= receives something they want = brings pleasant consequences
Negative Negative = A particular behavior is increased by the introduction of an unpleasant element
- ex. = discomfort, fear, & social disapproval
Pd1- Jan4
RewardsRewards
Increase the frequency of a behavior
Liked reinforcers increase frequency of behavior– concrete rewardsconcrete rewards (money, toys,
stickers, candy, etc.)
– intangible rewardsintangible rewards (affection, praise, attention, etc.).
PunishmentPunishment
Unwanted events thatUnwanted events that decreasedecrease the frequency of the the frequency of the behavior they follow when behavior they follow when appliedapplied
E.L. Thorndike's E.L. Thorndike's Law of EffectLaw of Effect (1) Rewards increased the likelihood
of responses which preceded them (2) punishments decreased the
likelihood of responses which preceded them.
Therefore, punishment either decreases or eliminates a particular behavior.
Schedule of reinforcementSchedule of reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio (FR)Fixed-Ratio (FR) =
–Reinforcement is given after a set number of times the behavior is performed
• Fixed-Interval (FI)Fixed-Interval (FI) =• Reinforcement is given after a set
amount of time the behavior has been performed
• Variable-Interval (VI)Variable-Interval (VI) =•Reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time the behavior has been performed
• Variable-Ratio (VR)Variable-Ratio (VR) =•Reinforcement is given after varying number of times the behavior has been performed
Ex. Playing slot machines
Schedule of Reinforcement
When and how often reinforcement When and how often reinforcement occursoccurs
Continuous- reinforcement every Continuous- reinforcement every time a behavior occurstime a behavior occurs
Partial- Not reinforced everytimePartial- Not reinforced everytime
Extinction- Occurs when performance is repeated without reinforcement
Shaping- Way of teaching complex behaviors by reinforcing behavior in steps
Cognitive Psychology
• Studies what people and animals know because of learning
• See learning as purposeful and not mechanical.
Cognitive Psychology
•Psychologists believe many behaviors are learned without reinforcement…
•2 types of learning without reinforcement are:
•Latent Learning
•Observational Learning
Cognitive Psychology•LATENT LEARNING -- Learning that remains hidden until it is needed.
Observation Learning
•We acquire knowledge and skills through observation and imitation.
•Studied by Albert Bandura•Kids learn from parents
•Most learning is done this way•Learning from the media