www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–58
Late Quaternary palaeolake levels in Tengger Desert, NW China
H.C. Zhanga,b,*, J.L. Pengc, Y.Z. Maa, G.J. Chend, Z.-D. Fenga,e, B. Lia,H.F. Fana, F.Q. Changa, G.L. Leia, B. Wunnemannf
aKey Laboratory of Western China’s Environmental Systems (Lanzhou University), Ministry of Education;
College of Earth Sciences and Environments, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, ChinabNanjing Institute of Geography & Limnology, eAS, 73 East Beijing Road,Nanjing 21000, China
cNanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Academia Sinica, Nanjing 210008, ChinadDepartment of Geography, Mary Immaculate College, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
eDepartment of Earth and Environmental Studies, Montclair State University, Upper Montclair, NJ 07043, USAf Interdisciplinary Center for Ecosystem Dynamics in Central Asia, Free University of Berlin,
Malteserstr. 74-100, 12249 Berlin, Germany
Received 21 November 2002; received in revised form 4 November 2003; accepted 13 April 2004
Abstract
Comprehensive field investigations and laboratory analyses show that palaeolakes, including the Megalake Tengger, and
other semi-connected and isolated water bodies, during late Pleistocene covered an area of more than 20,000 km2. This is an
area more than half the size of the Tengger Desert in NW China. Stratigraphic correlations and chronological evidence indicate
that the palaeolakes started to develop around 42,000 14C year BP (uncalibrated, all throughout the paper) but their extent was
limited until 37,000 14C year BP. Based on the chronology of representative lacustrine deposits, it can be deduced that the
Megalake Tengger was established around 35,000 14C year BP and maintained until 22,000 14C year BP, leading to the
formation of the Baijian Hu terraces, which are regarded as firm evidence of the existence of palaeolakes. The formation
mechanism is unclear and the climate situation at the time is still an open question.
The Holocene palaeolakes started to develop around 12,000 14C year BP. The Baijian Hu terraces indicate that the high
water levels in the area occurred around 8500, 5400–5100, 3500, and 1860–1370 14C year BP. The extent of the Holocene
palaeolakes, primarily migratory lakes, was smaller than that of the Late Pleistocene palaeolakes.
D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Late Pleistocene; Lake level; Tengger Desert; NW China; 14C data
1. Introduction
Climate change during the late Pleistocene has
been a focus of recent studies to understand the
natural state of the Earth’s climatic systems. Although
0031-0182/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.04.006
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected],
[email protected] (H.C. Zhang).
the astronomic forces have been well demonstrated to
modulate the general rhythms of long-term climatic
changes (Imbrie et al., 1984), the controlling mecha-
nisms of some major climatic variations remain un-
accounted for. For example, O–D oscillations
(Dansgaard et al., 1993), Heinrich Events (Heinrich,
1988), and abrupt climate events during the classical
Last Glaciation have been widely documented
throughout the world (Bender et al., 1994; McManus
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–5846
et al., 1994; Porter and An, 1995) yet their forcing
mechanisms remain controversial (Cane, 1998). Our
understanding of climatic stability and forcing mech-
anisms during the Holocene, the current interglacial, is
at least as blurred as our understanding of conditions
during the late Pleistocene (Overpeck, 1993; Rind and
Overpeck, 1993). Multiple lines of evidence show that
the climate and associated environments during the
marine isotope stage 3 (MIS 3) are unique in the
geological records and in climatic reconstructions
(Anderson and Lozhkin, 2001; Chen et al., 1990;
Pachur et al., 1995; Shi et al., 2001; Thompson et
al., 1997; Van Andel, 2002; Yao et al., 1997; Zhang et
al., 2001, 2002). In other words, the geological
record-based climatic reconstruction of MIS 3 cannot
Fig. 1. Study areas. (The study areas include arid–semiarid Tengger Dese
Sections and/or studied sites, stars mark the drilling sites).
be explained by means of our current understanding
of climatic change (Anderson and Lozhkin, 2001;
Dam et al., 2001; Shi et al., 2001; Van Andel, 2002;
Zhang et al., 2001, 2002).
During the last 10 years extensive, systematic and
detailed field investigations have been conducted in
NW China by both Chinese scientists and scientists
from a Sino-German bilateral cooperation group.
Geomorphological, sedimentological, palaeobiologi-
cal and chronological studies have led us to conclude
that there existed vast areas of lakes in the Tengger
Desert and its adjacent areas including the Qilian
Mountains and Badanjilin Desert (Fig. 1) in the period
between 35,000 and 22,000 year BP (Pachur et al.,
1995; Zhang and Wunnemann, 1997; Zhang et al.,
rt, hyper-arid Badanjilin Desert and cold-high Qilian Mountains. z:
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–58 47
2001, 2002; Wunnemann et al., 1998). Synchronous
high lake levels have also been found in northern
Xinjiang (Rhodes et al., 1996) and in the Tibetan
Plateau (Li et al., 1991; Li and Zhu, 2001). In
addition, multiple soil-forming events in the northern
Mongolian Plateau from approximately 40,000 to
22,000 year BP (Feng, 2001), and reducing-dominat-
ed environmental events in the western Chinese Loess
Plateau from approximately 40,000 to 20,000 year BP
(Feng et al., 1998) might also correspond to the
expansion of palaeolakes in the arid areas. Palaeolake
expansion during the later MIS 3 in the presently arid
and semiarid areas of the Old World Desert Belts
(OWDB) may have had global climatic significance.
Developing our earlier work (Pachur et al., 1995;
Zhang and Wunnemann, 1997), we extended our
research area and intensified our research effort on
several previously studied sections in order to re-
construct the spatial distribution of palaeolakes and
their lake-level history. This paper presents regional
evidence from these investigations in the Tengger
Desert that sheds new light on the nature of the later
MIS 3 environments. This study also provides re-
gional evidence of Holocene lake-level variations in
the Tengger Desert that may be useful for further
understanding the abrupt events of the classic last
glaciation and the feedback mechanisms of climatic
forcing.
2. Study area
Tengger Desert is located in the arid–semiarid area
of northwestern China and is a key component of the
OWDB (Fig. 1). With a total area of 36,000 km2, it is
the fourth largest desert in China (Zhu et al., 1986). The
desert is bounded by the Qilian Mountains in the
southwest and by the Yabulai Mountain in the north-
west. The Helan Mountain, a barrier for the East Asian
Monsoon, separates the Tengger Desert from the Mo
Us sandy land to the east. To the south, the desert
stretches as far as the Loess Plateau. Climatically, the
area is situated at the conjunction of the arid and hyper-
arid northwest, the arid–semiarid southeast and the
cold-high mountain-plateau regions in the southwest.
The strong seasonal influence of the East Asian Mon-
soon, coupled with the meandering of the Westerly-Jet
results in concentrated rainfalls during summer. Cold
and dry air masses originating in the Siberian–Mon-
golian High Pressure cell generally prevail during
winter. The mean annual temperature and precipitation
are 7.8 jC and 115 mm, respectively, while the mean
annual potential evaporation is about 2600 mm (Agri-
cultural Regional Commission, 1985). The Tengger
Desert is primarily covered with mobile sand dunes and
its elevation ranges from 1000 to 1500 m above sea
level (a.s.l.). The vegetation, predominantly grasses
and shrubs (e.g. Nitraria tangutorum, N. sphaero-
carpa, Haloxylon ammodendron, Aneurolepidium
dasystachys, Kalidium, Reaumuria soongorica, Ephe-
dra, Artemisia xerophytica, Brachanthemum, Ajania,
and Stipa breviflora), is concentrated in low flat areas
and in inter-dune depressions where the groundwater
level is near the surface.
3. Methods
The locations and elevations of previously stud-
ied sections (Pachur et al., 1995; Zhang and Wun-
nemann, 1997; Ma et al., 1998; Peng et al., 1998)
were systematically measured by GPS survey and
crosschecked with topographical map gridding. For
this study, we excavated and sampled several new
sections and refined the chronology and stratigraphy
of Baijian Hu terraces, which were first reported by
Pachur et al. (1995). We also re-excavated two of
the previously studied sections, Duantouliang (DTL,
39j37V21WN, 103j55V13WE) and Tudongcao (TDC,
39j32V53WN, 103j46V37WE), and re-sampled them at
denser intervals for various analyses.
Conventional 14C dating (Table 1) was conducted
in three different laboratories: Lanzhou University,
Lanzhou Desert Institute of China, and the Bunde-
sanstalt fur Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe in
Hannover, Germany. AMS dating was carried out at
Beta Analytic, Miami, USA. The materials used for14C dating include organic carbon (bulk samples),
charcoal, and carbonate. When there was no alterna-
tive, fossil shells were used. To avoid inconsistencies,
we chose mollusk shells of the same species that did
not appear to be reworked. The samples were cleaned
with 5% HCl for 2 to 3 h and then washed with
distilled water. The pre-treated samples were treated
again in the laboratory before analysis to make sure
the samples were uncontaminated. At the same time,
Table 1
Radiocarbon dates in Tengger Desert and its adjacent areas
Locality North latitude East longitude Depth/height C-14 age Material/Lab.a Source/remarks
(cm) (year BP)
Jilantai Site 1 in Fig. 6 135 9360F 120 Carbonate/LDI Uncalibrated/
192 15770F 210 Carbonate/LDI Author
240 7130F 106 Organic/LDI
240 25230F 610 Carbonate/LDI
Yabulai 39j43V51W 103j07V09W 325 25390F 690 Organic/LDI Uncalibrated/
202 29430F 1090 Charcoal/LDI Author
DTL 39j37V21W 103j55V13W 37 18860F 340 Organic/LDI Uncalibrated/
77.5 20060F 410 Organic/LDI Author
116 21150F 420 Shell/LDI
172.5 22950F 530 Organic/LDI
214.5 24150F 600 Organic/LDI
222 24660F 610 Organic/LDI
244 25820F 660 Organic/LDI
292 30520F 1260 Organic/LDI
319.5 35160F 1930 Organic/LDI
TDC 39j32V53W 103j46V37W 42 20420F 400 Organic/LDI Uncalibrated/
82.5 21910F 460 Organic/LDI Author
127 23770F 590 Organic/LDI
137.5 24480F 640 Organic/LDI
164 26270F 760 Organic/LDI
198.5 29780F 1150 Organic/LDI
226.5 32260F 1540 Organic/LDI
263 37410F 2850 Organic/LDI
Baijian Hu 39j09V 104j10V T21 32520F 840 Shell/LZU Uncalibrated/
Terrace T22 31520F 840 Shell/LZU Author
31360F 1240 Shell/LDI
T23 29480F 560 Shell/LZU
26430F 980 Shell/LDI
22710F 380 Shell/LDI
22480F 590 Shell/LZU
22220F 180 Shell/LZU
T3 8450F 90 Snail/LZU
T4 5360F 60 Snail/LZU
5100F 70 Snail/LZU
T5 3560F 60 Snail/LZU
T6 1860F 60 Carbonate/Hv
1370F 60 Carbonate/LZU
Baijian Hu Core 39j01V17W 104j01V37W 638 31060F 220 Organic (AMS)/Beta Uncalibrated/
670 26990F 1060 Carbonate /Hv authors
820 27150F 620 Carbonate /Hv
936.5 35660F 420 Organic (AMS)/Beta
Baijian Hu 39j00V54W 104j00V54W 26 970F 60 Carbonate/LZU Uncalibrated/
Section 34 1910F 60 Carbonate/LZU authors
56.5 3320F 130 Carbonate/Hv
92 6420F 70 Carbonate/LZU
92 6670F 100 Carbonate/Hv
Alashanzuoqi Site 11 in Fig. 6 112.5 21020F 360 Organic/LDI Uncalibrated/
author
197.5 19900F 330 Uncalibrated/
212.5 15850F 220 author
312.5 9720F 120
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–5848
Table 1 (continued)
Locality North latitude East longitude Depth/height C-14 age Material/Lab.a Source/remarks
(cm) (year BP)
Hongshui River 38j10V46W 102j45V53W 7.5 3160F 90 Organic/LDI
57.5 3620F 120
122.5 4410F 80
127.5 4520F 90
192.5 5060F 120
277.5 5840F 120
325 6550F 80
400 6920F 70
475 7290F 120
Hongshui River 38j10V44W 102j45V56W 95 9760F 130 Organic/LDI Uncalibrated/
(Lower) 175 10370F 130 Organic/LDI author
275 10738F 150 Organic/LDI
345 11470F 160 Organic/LDI
13220F 100 Carbonate/LDI
370 12030F 90 Organic/LZU
11760F 590 Organic/LDI
416 16330F 190 Organic/LZU
16520F 160 Organic/LDI
580 20600F 260 Organic/LZU
20690F 860 Organic/LZU
Shiquanzi 39j47V00W 99j09V17W 22.5 3360F 80 Organic/LDI Uncalibrated/
62.5 5430F 100 author
97.5 7080F 110
180 9390F 150
297 14500F 260
373.5 19240F 440
450 20490F 400
479 25250F 820
655 29360F 1240
719.5 31550F 1580
794 35500F 2610
Hala Lake 38j12V16W 97j44V06W 26190F 520 Carbonate/LDI Uncalibrated/
author
Qinghai Lake 36j46V14W 99j42V29W 33980F 1100 Snail/LDI Uncalibrated/
27210F 470 Carbonate/LDI author
a LDI =Lanzhou Desert Research Institute, Academia Sinica, Lanzhou, China; LZU=Geography Department, Lanzhou University,
Lanzhou, China; Hv =Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenchaften und Rohstoffe in Hannover, Germany; Beta =Beta Analytic, Miami, USA.
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–58 49
the shells used for dating were analyzed by X-ray
diffraction to ensure that they consisted only of
aragonite without any recrystallization, to ascertain
that carbonate exchange did not occur between the
ground waters and the shells. A half-life of 5568
years was used for the calculation and the results
have not yet been calibrated. No data is presented on
d13C for the organic matter here because: first some
of the data are missing and second our dates were
measured at different times in different laboratories.
Our test results show that there are few aquatic plants
in the organic component and we found great differ-
ences between the data from different laboratories.
The reliability of these radio carbon dates have been
and are being tested using independent methods (e.g.
Pa–Th–U; OSL , IRSL and TSL) and a separate
paper dealing with this issue is in preparation.
The dates listed in Table 1 appear to be acceptable
for three reasons. First, the dates of organic carbon
from different laboratories are stratigraphically com-
parable. Second, almost all of the dates of organic
carbon at the same section, e.g. DTL and TDC
sections, are stratigraphically in order. Third, dates
from the same stratigraphic layer but different sam-
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–5850
pling sites are also stratigraphically comparable. For
example, samples from the Baijian Hu terrace T22
(obtained from the same layer at different times and
different sites and analyzed at two different laborato-
ries) were dated at 31,520F 840 and 31,360F 1240
year BP (Table 1). It should be noted here that dates on
inorganic carbon (CaCO3) are variable and are usually
older than the dates on organic carbon because of the
dead carbon effect. Thus, our discussions are primarily
based on the dates of organic carbon and mollusk
shells.
4. Palaeolake level records
4.1. Baijian Hu terraces and fossil assemblages
Complete and well-preserved lake terrace sequen-
ces and associated fossil assemblages are probably the
best evidence for reconstructing palaeolake levels.
Our investigations identified six terraces in Baijian
Hu (39j09VN, 104j10VE) (Fig. 2). The highest terrace
T1 is 30–31 m above the present Baijian Hu playa
surface. The second terrace T2, the Main Terrace, is
about 22 m above the playa surface. T2 can be divided
into three parts: a broken terrace T21 on the outer side
and two well preserved parallel terraces T22 and T23
on the inner side. The terrace T21 was partially eroded
by lake water during the formation of T22, suggesting
that the water level during T22 might have been higher
Fig. 2. Cross section of lake terraces
than during T21. On all three terraces, we found
abundant fresh water fossil mollusk shells (e.g. Cor-
bicula fluminea and Cubicula largillierti) and snail
(e.g. Gyraulus chinensis).
Other terraces (T3, T4, T5 and T6) occur at 15.7,
14, 7–8 and 4–4.5 m above the playa surface,
respectively. Their sediments are rich in fossil snails,
which sometimes occur as distinctive layers about 5
cm in thickness. T1 is not dated for lack of datable
matter. T21 was dated at 32,560F 1090 year 14C BP.
Two dates for T22 are 31,520F 840 and 31,360F1240 year BP. Five dates obtained for T23 range
from 30,000 to 22,000 year BP (29,480F 560,
26,430F 980, 22,710F 380, 22,480F 590 and
22,220F 180 year BP). T3 was dated at 8450F 90
year BP. T4 has two dates: 5360F 60 and 5100F 70
year BP. T5 was dated at 3560F 60 year BP and the
lacustrine deposits associated with T6 were dated at
1860F 60 and 1370F 60 year BP.
4.2. Jilantai section and its correlation with nearby
fluvial deposits
Lacustrine deposits are widely distributed in the
Tengger Desert and adjacent areas. Typical sections
that represent the Late Pleistocene Megalake Tengger
are shown in Fig. 3. Jilantai Section (number 1 in
Fig. 1) is 800 cm thick, with the portion from 240 to
687 cm being composed of fine clayey deposits (Fig.
3). Sedimentary and geochemical properties indicate
at Baijian Hu and their dates.
Fig. 3. Stratigraphical columns of the Late Pleistocene palaeolake deposits. (The numbers indicate localities of the sections and/or studied sites
shown in Fig. 6. At site 6, late Pleistocene stratigraphy is marked as core100 and Holocene stratigraphy is marked as BJH in Fig. 4).
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–58 51
that this portion was deposited under stable and
deep-water conditions. The top of the clayey deposit
was dated at 25,230F 610 year 14C BP using a
carbonate nodule. We disregarded the macrofossil
(root) date obtained from the same level (7130F110 year 14C BP) because the tree may have
become established later. The clayey silt deposit at
210–185 cm depth was dated at 15,770F 210 year
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–5852
BP and a carbonate crust at depth 140–130 cm at
9360 year BP. These two carbonate-enriched layers
are widely distributed in the area, indicating a
widespread shallow water swamp or semi-lacustrine
environment.
Vast fluvial fan deposits occur to the northwest of
the Jilantai section associated with traceable terraces.
Fossil shells in the fluvial fan deposits include Cor-
bicula fluminea and Cubicula largillierti and snails
Gyraulus chinensis, similar to the species found in the
Baijian Hu terraces, implying that these fluvial-fan
associated terraces correlate with the main palaeolake
terraces at Baijian Hu. It can also be correlated with
the fan deposits dated between 30,350F 470 and
21,970F 160 year BP in the foothills of Helan Moun-
tain (Hofmann, 1994). Although there is no age
control at the bottom of the lacustrine deposit (240–
687 cm), regional stratigraphic correlation and radio-
carbon dates higher in this unit suggest that the
lacustrine deposit at the Jilantai section was deposited
synchronously with those at the TDC and DTL
sections. The date of 35,660F 420 year BP in the
middle of the lacustrine deposit of the Baijian Hu core
(number 6 in Fig. 6) is an anomaly in interpretation
that Megalake Tengger was at its maximum from
approximately 35,000 to 22,000 year BP. A possible
explanation is that the Baijian Hu core is located in the
central part of the Megalake Tengger, and the older
date at the bottom of the lacustrine deposit may
simply mean that Megalake Tengger evolved earlier
in its center. A regional correlation of these represen-
tative sections shows that the late Pleistocene palae-
olake deposits are thinner and coarser in the western
part of the Tengger Desert (e.g. Duantouliang and
Tudongcao) than in the eastern part (e.g. Jilantai). The
oldest date at the lower part of DTL section is
35,160F 1930 and 35,660F 420 year BP in the
Baijian Hu core. Using the sedimentation rates inter-
polated from age to depth relationships (Fig. 3), the
extrapolated date for the bottom of the lacustrine
deposit, i.e. the beginning of the palaeolake develop-
ment, is 42,000–40,000 year BP.
The Holocene lacustrine deposits are much more
variable in the Tengger Desert (Fig. 4). It is impos-
sible to establish regional stratigraphy of the Holo-
cene lacustrine deposits because the extent of the
Holocene palaeolakes was limited and their positions
were movable. The dates of the Hongshui River
section (13 L in Fig. 4 and number 13 in Fig. 6)
show that the Holocene lacustrine deposits were
deposited as early as 12,030F 90 14C year BP in
the Tengger Desert.
4.3. Yabulai section and its correlation with Baijian
Hu terraces
Drilling data from the Yabulai Basin in the western
part of the Tengger Desert revealed that the Quater-
nary deposits are more than 400 m thick and domi-
nated by lacustrine sediments. On the eastern slope of
the Yabulai Mountain, flat-topped fluvial fans, prob-
ably fluvial terraces, developed at elevations between
1300 and 1350 m (a.s.l., Fig. 5a). We investigated a 4-
m-thick section (Fig. 5b) exposed by river erosion and
observed six layers of fine silt-clay, marked as A, B,
C, D, E and F. Three samples, YBL1, YBL2 and
YBL3, were taken for pollen and microfossil analyses.
A charcoal sample in YBL1 and an organic matter
sample in YBL2 were dated at 29,430F 1090 and
25,390F 690 year BP, respectively. The species of
ostracod microfossils include Iiyocypris gibba, Heter-
ocypris salina, eucypris sp., Candona candida, Can-
dona compressa, Limnocythere inopinata and
Cyprideis torosa. These species indicate a fresh-water
deltaic-lacustrine environment (Peng et al., 1998),
suggesting that these six layers of fine silt-clay were
deposited in transitional environments between river
and paleaolake.
The sporo-pollen assemblages identified from three
samples (YBL1, YBL2 and YBL3. Table 2) indicate
that trees including needleleaf trees (mainly Cupres-
saseae, Picea and Larix) and broadleaf trees (mainly
Quercus and Populus) were dominant during the
Megalake Tengger period. Forests must have appeared
on the nearby Yabulai Mountains below 1800 m
(a.s.l.) since there are only a few peaks with limited
areas above this elevation.
Based on the E–W gradient of the lower limits of
the modern treeline from the Helan Mountain on the
east to the Qilian Mountains on the west, we infer that
the modern potential lower limit of treeline in the
Yabulai Mountain would be 2200–2400 m a.s.l. The
difference between the present potential lower limit of
treeline and the inferred lower limit of the Megalake
Tengger treeline suggests that the lower limit of the
treeline during the Magelake Tengger period was
Fig. 4. Stratigraphical columns of the Holocene paleaolake deposits of the Tengger Desert. (The numbers indicate localities of the sections and/
or studied sites showing in Fig. 6. At site 13, Hongshui River Section (HS) is composed by two parts: the upper part HSU and lower part HSL).
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–58 53
about 400–600 m lower than that of today. At the
present time, the Yabulai Mountain is almost bare and
free of vegetation and the vegetation in the lowland
area is dominated by desert types (e.g. Artemisia
sphaerocephala, Calligonum mongolicum and Halox-
ylon ammodendron).
5. Discussion and conclusion
Based on the elevation of the Baijian Hu terraces
and the distribution and elevation of lacustrine-fluvial
deposits in the Yabulai Mountain area, it can be
deduced that the high water level of the Megalake
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–5854
Tengger during the Late Pleistocene was between
1310 and 1321 m above sea level. The palaeolake
area calculated along the 1310 m contour is 16,000
km2 (Pachur et al., 1995), which is almost four times
as big as Qinghai Lake, the biggest inland lake in
China. Later field investigations and C-14 dates
confirmed that the Main Terrace T2 was formed
between 22,000 and 32,000 year BP and is 2 m higher
than the 1310 m hypsometeric contour (Zhang and
Wunnemann, 1997). Therefore, instead of 1310 m
contour used by Pachur et al. (1995), we here used the
1312 m contour to recalculate the paleaolake area for
the western part of Tengger Desert where the Mega-
lake Tengger and other connected water bodies
existed. We added to the paleaolake area the palae-
olake areas in the eastern part of the Tengger Desert
where only isolated water bodies existed at the time.
The total area of the palaeolakes in the Tengger Desert
Fig. 5. Geomorphological map of Yabulai M
during the Megalake Tengger period was about
20,000 km2 (Fig. 6), or more than half of the total
area of Tengger Desert. The palaeolake area might
have been considerably larger during the Megalake
Tengger period if T1 was formed at the time. Based on
microfossil (Peng et al., 1998) and geochemical data
(Zhang et al., 2002), it is deduced that Megalake
Tengger was a fresh to mesohaline lake with a depth
ranging from 20 to 60 m.
Megalake Tengger started to develop around
42,000–40,000 year BP and maintained its highest
water level between 35,000 and 22,000 14C year BP.
The vast paleaolake area and high water level, as well
as biological (Ma et al., 1998; Peng et al., 1998) and
geochemical data (Zhang et al., 2002), indicate that
the climate was much moister than today. It is most
likely that the palaeolakes were sustained by the water
from the surrounding mountains and local rainfall.
ountain (a) and cross section A–B (b).
Fig. 5 (continued).
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–58 55
High lake-level during the Megalake Tengger pe-
riod (35,000–22,000 year BP) was not only a local
phenomenon. Synchronous palaeolakes with high
water levels have also been found in northwestern
Bandanjilin Desert (Wunnemann et al., 1998) and
north Xinjiang (Rhodes et al., 1996). Our recent
investigation and analyses show that the fresh-water
species of fossil snail found in a beach gravel layer of
the Qinghai Lake, situated about 140 m higher than
Table 2
Statistical data of pollen assemblages from Yabulai section
Sample Needleleaf trees Broa
YBL-1 41.29% 41.9
Cupressaseae (28.39%) Quer
Larix (10.32%) Popu
(+ Juniperus + Picea)
YBL-2 43.69% 14.2
Cupressaseae (33.61%) Popu
(+ Juniperus +Larix + Picea) (+Q
YBL-3 27.18% 55.8
Cupressaseae (23.30%) Betu
(+ Picea + Larix) Popu
Quer
(+U
the present lake level, date from 33,980F 1100 14C
year BP. A carbonate crust covering the gravel layer is
dated at 27,210F 470 year BP (Zhang et al., unpub-
lished data). Around the Hala Lake area (see Fig. 1), a
carbonate crust covering a beach gravel layer at an
elevation much higher than the present lake level is
dated at 26,190F 520 year BP. The carbonate crusts
both in the Qinghai and Hala lakes in the northeastern
Tibetan Plateau suggest a drastic decline of the lake
dleaf trees + shrubs Herbs + aquatic taxa
4% 16.78%
cus (29.68%) Artemisia (11.62%)
lus (12.25%) Chenopodiaceae (3.87%)
(+Gramisia)
8% 42.10%
lus (7.56%) Artemisia (30.25%)
uercus +Betula) Chenopodiaceae (6.72%)
(+ Typha + Polygum+Ephadra)
2% 16.99%
la (24.76%) Artemisia (6.80%)
lus (24.27%) Gramisia (4.37%)
cus (4.85%) Chenopodiaceae (2.91%)
lmus) (+ Lilium)
Fig. 6. Reconstructed extent of palaeolakes in the Tengger Desert and adjacent areas based on the distribution patterns of the palaeolake deposits
and morphological closure. Localities of the studied sections are designated by the circled numbers.
Fig. 7. Reconstructed water level fluctuations of palaeolakes in Tengger Desert (solid line indicates the measured height of the terraces and
dashed line shows the possible water level fluctuation processes).
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–5856
H.C. Zhang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 211 (2004) 45–58 57
levels. Towards the interior of the Tibetan Plateau,
high palaeolake levels have also been extensively
documented to have occurred around 20,000 to
40,000 14C year BP (Li et al., 1991; Li and Zhu,
2001). The climate conditions during this period
were unique to the area and have no modern
analogue. Geological evidence implies that the cli-
mate, especially the hydrological circulation, might
have been very different from that of today (Zhang
et al., 2001, 2002). However, the mechanisms con-
trolling how these Megalakes were formed remains
an open question.
The stratigraphic evidence shows that no lakes
existed in the Tengger Desert during the LGM cen-
tered around 18,000 14C year BP (Zhang et al., 2002).
Lacustrine deposits show that the palaeolakes reap-
peared as early as 12,000 year BP. In the Baijian Hu
area, high water levels indicated by Holocene terraces
occurred around 8500, 5400–5100, 3500, and 1860–
1370 year BP (Table 1), but the water levels were
considerably lower than that during the Megalake
Tengger period. The periodic appearances of the
Holocene palaeolakes and drastic fluctuations of the
lake levels (Fig. 7) might be attributable to the
alternating strengthening and weakening of the sum-
mer monsoon circulation (Kutzbach, 1981; Gasse et
al., 1991, 1996; Zhang et al., 2000).
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by NSFC (No.
49971015, 40001022 and 40371117). We sincerely
thank T.C. Johnson and J. Casanova for their kind and
patient reviewing of this paper and making valuable
suggestions for its improvement.
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