Judicial ReviewFifth edition
Sir M ichael S upperstonc
Jam es G oud ie Q C
Sir Paul W alker
General editor:
P ro fesso r H elen Fenw ick
0̂ LexisNexis
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Contributors
Table of Statutes
Table of Statutory Instruments and Codes of Practice
Table of European and International legislation
Table of Foreign legislation
Table of Cases
C h a p te r 1: In tro d u c tio n P ro fesso r H elen Fenw ick
P re lim inary 1-1
S etting jud ic ia l review in co n tex t 1*2
Types o f activ ity th a t can be the sub ject o f judicial review 1.3
T h e n a tu re o f judicial review 1-4
G ro u n d s o f review 1.5
C ro w n Proceedings 1-6
E u ro p ean U nion law 1.7
R em edies an d w h o can seek them 1 -8
P rocedure 1.9
T he im p ac t o f devo lu tion o n jud ic ia l review 1-10
Jud ic ia l review in S cotland 1.11
C h a p te r 2: Jud ic ia l Review: the H isto rica l B ackgroundP rofesso r G avin D rew ry
In tro d u c tio n 2.1
7'he p re-h is to ry o f jud ic ia l review : rem edies 2 .2
Jud ic ia l review : the D iceyan legacy 2.3
Contents
T w entie th an d tw en ty -first cen tu ry developm ents
C h a p te r 3: Jud ic ia l Review: its P rovenance an d Scope Jude B unting
In tro d u c tio n
O rig in s o f C PR P art 54
Public law /p riva te law d icho tom y
T h e reasonab leness o f ad m in is tra tiv e d iscre tion
C onclusion
C h a p te r 4: T h e H u m an R ights A ct an d Jud ic ia l Review A nthony B radley Q C (H on) an d S arah F raser Butlin
T he b ack g ro u n d to the I lum an R ights Act 1998
The case for incorporation of Convention rights
T he s tru c tu re o f the H RA 1998
Convention rights - their definition and application
Incompatibility with a Convention right
Remedies for breach of Convention rights
Other provisions
Joint Committee on Human Rights
Im plications o f the H R A 1998 for jud ic ia l review
Distinction between primary and subordinate legislation
Review of subordinate legislation under HRA 1998
The duty of public authorities to act compatibly with Convention rights
Meaning of 'public authority’
Horizontality
Remedies
Compensation
Compensation in respect of judicial act
A spects o f E u ropean C onven tion law
The right to a hearing in matters of civil right
The interpretation of art 6(1)
The test of 'full jurisdiction’
The test of ‘full jurisdiction’ qualified
Public law decisions excluded from art 6(1)
Acts of public authorities must be ‘prescribed by law’
2 .4
3.1
3 .2
3.3
3 .4
3.5
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4 .9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4 .18
4.19
4.20
4.21
4.22
4.23
4.24
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Contents
M argin of appreciation and the discretionary area of judgment 4.25
C h ap te r 5: T h e A m bit o f Jud ic ia l Review Clive Sheldon Q C
W hen is judicial review available? 5.1
P rem atu rity 5 .2
W ho , o r w h a t, is am enab le to jud ic ia l review ? 5.3
E m ploym ent 5 .4
Land an d com m ercial tran sa c tio n s 5.5
Policy decisions 5 .6
N a tio n a l security 5 .7
T h e p rerogative 5 .8
P articu lar m a tte rs affecting ju risd ic tion 5 .9
A perspective from N o rth e rn Ire land 5 .1 0
T he re la tionsh ip of judicial review w ith o rd in ary ac tions 5.11
O u ste r o f jud ic ia l review 5.12
C h a p te r 6: Illegality: the P roblem o f Ju risd ic tio n Tom C ross
In tro d u c tio n 6.1
T he u ltra vires theory an d A n ism in ic 6 .2
C riticism s o f the com m on law position 6.3
Parliamentary sovereignty 6.4
Ouster clauses and the ultra vires theory 6.5
Ouster clauses and inferior courts 6.6
Ouster clauses and the rule of law 6.7
Collateral challenges 6.8
The position of the courts 6.9
T h e significance o f the d eb a te 6 .1 0
C onclusions 6.11
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Contents
C h a p te r 7: D isc re tion an d D uty: the Lim its o f Legality A zeem S u terw alla a n d K ath erin e O ’Byrne
In tro d u c tio n
D iscre tion an d du ty
Categories of discretion and duty
Duty to exercise power couched in discretionary terms
Duty to determine with discretion as to determination
Duty to act dependent on exercise of discretion
Duty to achieve a result with discretion as to how
Discretion whether to act at all but duty to act in a particular manner if discretion exercised
A discretion may be dependent on satisfaction of a precondition as to its exercise
Pure discretion
T he H u m an R ights A ct 1998
Are the re unrev iew able d iscretions?
P o ten tia l g ro u n d s o f challenge to the exercise o f d isc re tio n ary pow ers
U nlaw ful sub-delegation : fe ttering by d ivestm en t
Judicial and similar proceedings
Delegation and agency
Delegation and divestment
Acting under dictation
Government departments
Local authorities
F ette ring d iscre tion
Tribunals and licensing bodies
Other situations
Contract, estoppel and legitimate expectation
R elevan t/irre levan t co n s id era tio n s an d p ro p e r/im p ro p e r purposes
Relevant and irrelevant considerations
Improper purposes
Duality of purpose
Evidence of purposes
7.1
7 .2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
7.20
7.21
7.22
7.23
7.24
7.25
7.26
7.27
7.28
7.29
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Contents
C h a p te r 8: U nreasonab leness A dam S traw
In tro d u c tio n
Overview of unreasonableness as a ground of review
Review of a decision outside the limits of reason
Terminology
Time at which the decision is to be tested
Evidence with which the decision is to be tested
Consequences of a finding of unreasonableness
R e la tio n sh ip betw een ‘u n reaso n ab len ess’ and ‘illegality’
Unreasonableness and illegality as grounds of review
U nreasonab leness an d p ro ced u ra l im p ro p rie ty
U nreasonab leness an d o th e r g ro u n d s o f review
Q ualifications o n app licab ility o f the princip le
Prerogative powers
Can the court review the rationality of government policy?
Review for unreasonableness of decisions which have been, or must be, considered by Parliament
T he p rincip le in o p era tio n
A decision which is imperfect need not be unreasonable
A decision may be invalid for lack of clarity
The reasoning of the decision-maker may be examined in appropriate cases
Deficiencies of logic may render a decision unreasonable
A material finding of fact is unreasonable if made in the absence of evidence capable of warranting such a finding
Assessments of relevancy must be within the limits of reason
The decision-maker’s evaluation of the m atter may be reviewed
It may be unreasonable to require that which cannot lawfully be done
Evaluation of interference with human rights
It may be unreasonable to make a decision which reserves to the decision-maker the exercise of arbitrary power in the future
The im portant role of the rule of law
It is unreasonable to impose conditions upon a benefit which are manifestly unjust
8.18.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.23
8.24
8.25
8.26
8.27
8.28
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Delay
The court may consider whether information ought to he provided
Allocation of scarce resources
Considering exceptions to policy
Legitimate expectations and unfairness generally
Legitimate expectations and the substance of a decision
Unfair departure from promises, assurances or representations
Unfair treatment inconsistent with that afforded to others
Other unfair abuses of power
Substantive unfairness: a separate ground of review?
C h a p te r 9: P ro p o rtio n a lity A aron Baker
In tro d u c tio n
Overview of proportionality as a principle
Overview of the distinct functions for which the principle is employed
Terminology
T he logic o f p ro p o rtio n a lity in co m p ara tiv e perspective
Proportionality in the Kuropean Court of Justice
Proportionality and the European Convention on Human Rights
T he s tru c tu re o f p ro p o rtio n a lity as a test
Legitimate aim or pressing social need
Suitability
Necessity
Proportionality stricto sensu
EU p ro p o rtio n a lity in dom estic co u rts
The structure of the EC law test
P ro p o rtio n a lity u n d er the H u m an R ights A ct 1998
Section 6(1) LIRA and the standard of review
The inapplicability of the margin of appreciation
Deference and the area of discretionary judgment
Variable intensity of review and structured proportionality
Evidence to inform the proportionality balancing
P ro p o rtio n a lity as a free-stand ing g ro u n d o f review
8.29
8.30
8.31
8.32
8.33
8.34
8.35
8.36
8.37
8.38
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
9.19
9.20
9.21
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C h a p te r 10: P rocedural Rules an d C o n su lta tio n C h ris to p h e r K night
In tro d u c tio n 10-1
S ta tu to ry p ro ced u res 10.2
F ailu re to com ply: general 10.3
F ailu re to com ply: tim e lim its 10.4
S ta tu to ry p rocedu res an d the com m on law 10.5
C o n su lta tio n 10.6
Who should be consulted? 10.7
The nature of consultation 10.8
When should consultation begin 10.9
Providing appropriate information 10.10
Giving adequate time for response 10.11
Genuinely considering representations 10.12
Amending proposals: implications for consultation 10.13
Consequences of failure to consult 10.14
‘D ue in q u iry ’ 10.15
R easons 10 .16
Purposes and adequacy of reasons 10.17
Consequences of failure to give reasons 10.18
Contrast with appeals of judicial decisions 10.19
C h ap te r 11: N a tu ra l Justice an d Fairness: the A udi A lteramP artem RuleM ichael Beloff Q C an d R u p ert Beloff
In tro d u c tio n 11.1
Right to notice and opportunity to he heard 11-2
Co-extensive operation with the rule against bias 11.3
D evelopm ent o f the aud i a lte ram p artem ru le 11 -4
The Victorian era 11.5
Growth of interventionist government 11-6
T he c o u rts ’ reaction to regu la to ry functions 11 .7
The primrose path of deviation 11.8
The era of abdication 11.9
The Swinging Sixties 11.10
Fairness 11.11
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The duty to be fair
Scope and application of the principles of natural justice
Implication into statute
The reach of the principles
Private law bodies
Some exemptions and limitations
Overlap between scope and content
Right, interest and legitimate expectation
Legitimate expectation
Fairness as a substantive concept
Excluding or modifying natural justice
National security
Urgency
Practicability
Preliminary determinations
Investigations and inquiries
Suspensions pending investigations
Extradition
Prerogative
Primary legislation
Delegated legislation
Exclusion by law
Fault other than that of the decision-maker
T he c o n ten t o f n a tu ra l justice o r fairness
Technical rules, self-incrimination and privilege
Notification of the date, time and place of the hearing
There must be notification of the case to be met
O pportunity to respond
Duty of decision-maker to assist?
Adequate time to prepare one’s case in answer
Staying proceedings
Decision-makers must not rely on points not argued
Decision-makers must take into account material submitted
Disclosure of material available to the decision-maker
Decision-makers must not rely on their own private inquiries
11.12
11.13
11.14
11.15
11.16
11.17
11.18
11.19
11.20
11.21
11.22
11.23
11.24
11.25
11.26
11.27
11.28
11.29
11.30
11.31
11.32
11.33
11.34
11.35
11.36
11.37
11.38
1 1.39
11.40
11.41
11.42
11.43
11.44
11.45
11.46
X X I I
Contents
Access to material relevant to one’s case 11.47
Oral hearings and witnesses 11.48
Cross-examination 11.49
Legal representation 11.50
Assistance by friend 11.51
He who decides should hear 11.52
Reasons 11.53
Right of appeal 11.55
T h ird p a rty in terests 11 .56
R esults o f b reach 11 .57
Waiver of breach 11.58
Remedies for breach 11.59
Discretion 11.60
Special s itu a tio n s 11.61
Licences 11.61
Discipline 11.62
Trade unions 11.63
Aliens/Immigrants 11.64
Employment and office holders 11.65
Academic status 11.66
Planning 11.67
Sport 11.68
Regulators 11.69
Public Procurement 11.69A
C om m unity law 11.70
E C H R an d H R A 1998 11.71
In te rn a tio n a l law 11 .72
C h a p te r 12: Bias — In terest an d F avour Jam es G oud ie Q C
In tro d u c tio n 12.1
A ctual bias 12.2
A p p earan ce o f bias 12.3
Party to the cause 12.4
Pecuniary interest 12.5
The quantum of the interest 12.6
Contents
Contrast with remote or contingent and non-beneficialinterests J 2.7
Effect of pecuniary interest 12.8
Public authorities 12.9
Non-pecuniary interests 12.10
The test for bias 12.11
Non-judicial bodies 12.12
Kinds of non-pecuniary interest 12.13
Incompatible functions 12.14
T he am b it o f the ru le ag a in st bias 12 .15
E xcep tions to the ru le 12 .16
Waiver 12.17
Contract 12.18
Statute 12.19
Necessity 12.20
C h a p te r 13: O th e r G ro u n d s o f Review A lex G ask
In tro d u c tio n 13.1
Bad faith 13.2
P rocedu ral frau d o r m ishap 13.3
V agueness 13 .4
M istak e o f fact 13.5
F iduciary du ty 13.6
C h a p te r 14: C row n P roceedings J o n a th a n Swift Q C
In tro d u c tio n 14.1
T he C ro w n ’s im m un ity from process 14.2
In ju n ctio n s 14.3
Contempt of court 14.4
Stays 14.5
Interim declaration 14.6
Interim habeas corpus 14.7
T he C arltona p rincip le 14.8
Public in te rest im m un ity 14.9
D ec lara tions o f incom patib ility 14 .10
X X I V
Contents
D am ages aga in st the C ro w n 14.11
C h a p te r 15: E u ropean U nion Law H ugh M ercer Q C
T h e n a tu re o f E u ro p ean U nion law 15.1
T reaties as sources o f U n ion law 15 .2
L egislation as a source o f U nion law 15.3
Measures which may be taken by the Council orthe Commission 15.4
Consequences of insufficiently precise measures 15.5
G enera l princip les o f E u ropean U nion law 15 .6
E nforcem ent o f U nion Law 15.7
P re lim inary ru lings 15.8
R em edies in n a tio n a l cou rts 15 .9
E uropean C o u rt ac tions aga in st M em ber States 15 .10
E u ro p ean C o u rt ac tions ag a in st in stitu tio n s 15.11
C h a p te r 16: Rem edies: M an d ato ry , P roh ib iting & Q uash ing O rd e rsS tephen Reeder
T h e rem edies availab le on an ap p lica tio n lo r Judicial R eview 16.1
T he p rerogative o rd ers 16.2
Q u ash in g O rd e rs 16.3
P ro h ib itin g O rd e rs 16.4
Issues com m on to b o th q uash ing &c p ro h ib itin g o rders 16.5
M a n d a to ry O rd e rs 16 .6
C h a p te r 17: D ec lara tions, In junctions an d M oney an d R estitu- tio n a ry R em edies M a rtin W estgare Q C
In tro d u c tio n 17.1
The position prior to 1978 17.2
The 1977 Reforms and s 31 of the Supreme Court Act 1981 17.3
CPR Provisions relating to injunctions etc 17.4
Claims in the Upper Tribunal 17.5
Declarations, injunctions and money and restitutionary remedies in the context of judicial review 17.6
D ec lara tions 17.7
Nature of the declaration by way of judicial review 17.8
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Contents
Technical restrictions
Original and supervisory jurisdiction
Reliance on public law grounds of review
Relationship between the High Court and other courts
Interim declarations
Declarations affecting the Crown
Consequences of grant of a declaration
Cases unsuitable for declaration by way of judicial review
Factors affecting the grant of declarations
Advisory declarations
Giving advice at the request of the executive
Need for a proper contradictor, and negative declarations
Prematurity: lack of a defined issue and hypothetical disputes
Lack of practical significance
Flexibility of declarations and prospective declarations
In junctions
Nature of an injunction by way of judicial review
Technical restrictions
Supervisory jurisdiction
Reliance on public law grounds of review
Relationship between the High Court and other courts
Injunctions against the Crown
European Union Law
Injunctions and Parliament
Factors affecting the grant of injunctions
Practice and procedure
P roceedings co ncern ing pub lic an d m unic ipa l offices
M oney an d re s titu tio n a ry rem edies
Money and restitutionary claims and public law
Claims for money and restitution on an application for judicial review
No new cause of action
Need for a genuine primary claim to judicial review
Claims for costs of legal proceedings
Practice and procedure
17.9
17.10
17.11
17.12
17.13
17.14
17.15
17.16
17.17
17.18
17.19
17.20
17.21
17.22
17.23
17.24
17.25
17.26
17.27
17.28
17.29
17.30
17.31
17.32
17.33
17.34
17.35
17.36
17.37
17.38
17.39
17.40
17.41
17.42
X X V I
Contents
C h a p te r 18: R estric tions on the A vailability o f Jud ic ia l Review T im o th y P itt-Payne Q C
In tro d u c tio n 18.1
S tand ing 18 .2
History prior to CPR Pt 54 18.3
General principles 18.4
Procedure 18.5
Application of the ‘sufficient interest’ test 18.6
Different bases upon which claimant may assert he has standing 18.7
Personal standing 18.8
Representative standing 18.9
Standing under the Human Rights Act 1998 18.10
Standing and capacity to bring a claim 18.11
D isc re tionary restric tions on rem edies 18 .12
Delay by the claimant 18.13
Abuse of process and other conduct of the claimant 18.14
The existence of alternative remedies 18.15
Decisions of the Financial Services Authority 18.16
Decisions of the County Court 18.17
Absence of any practical purpose in granting a remedy 18.18
Effect of remedies on the defendant or on third parties 18.19
Criminal Justice and Courts Bill 18.20
C h a p te r 19: P rocedure: the Early StagesR ichard D rab b le Q C , Tim Buley, Toby Fisher an d A listair M ills
In tro d u c tio n 19.1
T h e p re-ac tio n p ro to co l fo r jud ic ia l review 19.2
The need to follow the protocol 19.3
Alternative dispute resolution 19.3A
Letter before claim 19.4
Letter of response 19.5
The relevance of the protocol to delay 19.6
B eginning the claim 19 .7
The claim form 19.8
Duty of full and frank disclosure 19.9
Documents filed with the claim form 19.10
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A cknow ledgem en t o f service
Consequences of failure to file an acknowledgement of service
Reply to acknowledgement of service
G ra n t o f perm ission
The public interest
Consideration on the papers
Renewal of the permission application
Limited grant of permission
Procedure from grant of permission onwards
R o lled up hearings
C osts in the early stages
Costs where permission, or other application, granted
Costs where permission refused
Costs following settlement/concession by defendant
Protective costs orders
Security for costs
In terim relief
P rocedure: u rgen t ap p lica tio n s fo r perm ission o r in terim relief
Out of hours applications
D isclosure
Statutory rights to access government information
C ross-exam ina tion
O th e r d irec tions an d o rders
Amendment
Expedition
Hearing of a preliminary issue
Bail
Transfer
Listing
Jud ic ia l review p ro ced u re in the U pper T ribunal
Applications to the Upper Tribunal
Transfers to and from the High Court
Jud ic ia l review p ro ce d u re in the P lann ing C o u rt
19.11
19.12
19.13
19 .14
19.15
19.16
19.17
19.18
19.18A
19.19
19.2019.21
19.22
19.22 A
19.23
19.24
19.25
19.26
19.27
19.28
19.29
19.30
19.31
19.32
19.33
19.34
19.35
19.36
19.37
19.38
19.39
19.40
19.41
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Contents
C h ap te r 20: P rocedure: H earings an d A ppeals Jo a n n e C lem ent
In tro d u c tio n 20.1
Im m ediate ly before the hearin g 20 .2
N o h earing 20.3
A spects o f a hearing : general 20 .4
A spects o f a hearing: open justice 20.5
A spects o f a hearing : judgm en ts 20 .6
T ransfer o f p roceedings 20 .7
Evidence 20 .8
Relevance and admissibility 20.9
Disclosure and cross examination 20.10
‘Supplementing’ the reasons for a decision 20.11
Use of Parliamentary materials: the rule in Pepper v Hart 20.12
Expert evidence 20.13
Precedent 20 .14
A ppeals 20 .15
Appeals at the permission stage 20.16
Appeals against interim remedies 20.17
Parties to an appeal 20.18
Appeals following a final determination 20.19
Permission to appeal 20.20
C osts 20.21
Costs at the permission stage 20.22
The exercise of the discretion generally 20.23
Costs protection: public interest litigation 20.24
Protected Costs Orders: Proposals for Reform 20.25
Costs: interested parties 20.26
Costs: defendants who do not appear 20.27
Costs orders against third parties 20.28
Costs against non-parties 20.29
Costs against publicly-funded parties 20.30
Costs in discontinued or compromised claims 20.31
Wasted costs 20.32
C h ap te r 21: D evo lu tion
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Contents
N o rth e rn Ire land: G o rd o n A n th o n y ; S co tland : C hris H im s- w o rth ; W ales: M r Ju stice Lewis an d T h e Rt. H o n . L ord Justice L loyd Jones
A im o f th is ch a p te r
N o rth e rn Ire land
Introduction
The operation of the Northern Ireland Act 1998
Judicial review
Devolution issues
The procedural regime
Experience in relation to devolution issues
Conclusion
Jud ic ia l review an d d ev o lu tio n in S co tland
Devolution issues
Special procedural provisions
Challenges in which devolution issues arise
Review of Acts of the Scottish Parliament
Legislative competence over judicial review
W ales
The Institutions
The Welsh Assembly Government
The Administrative Court in Wales
Devolution issues
Remedies
C h a p te r 22: Jud ic ia l R eview in S co tland C hris H im sw o rth
In tro d u c tio n
A pp lica tion for judicial review
S uperv iso ry ju risd ic tion o f the C o u rt o f Session an d the scope o f jud ic ia l review
M a n d a to ry to p roceed by judicial review
A lte rna tive s ta tu to ry rem edies an d the s ta tu to ry exclusion o f jud ic ia l review
S tand ing to app ly for judicial review
M o ra , ta c itu rn ity an d acquiescence
G enera l pow ers o f the co u rt
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6
2 1 . 7
21.8
21.10 21.11
21.12
21.13
2 1 . 1 4
21 . 15
2 1 .1 6
2 1 . 1 7
21.18
2 1 . 1 9
21.20
21.21
22.1
22.2
22.3
22 .4
22 .5
22.6
2 2 .7
22.8
X X X
Index
Contents
G ro u n d s o f judicial review 22 .9
Similarity of general principles 22.10
Illegality 22.11
Excess of jurisdiction 22.12
Irrationality 22.13
Irrationality and delegated legislation 22.14
Disproportionality 22.15
Procedural impropriety 22.16
Legitimate expectation 22.17
Incompatibility with Convention rights 22.18
R em edies in jud ic ia l review 22 .1 9
P rocedure 2 2 .2 0
xxxi