Introdu tion to Syntax
2. Basi morphology: Morphemes and morphosynta ti features
Doreen Georgi
ENS, Paris
O tober 15, 2015
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 1 / 67
Goals
learn more about the internal stru ture of words (and hen e also about the
basi building blo ks of syntax)
motivate morphosynta ti features
introdu e important morphologi al terminology
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 2 / 67
Outline
1 A brief introdu tion to morphology
Words ome in ategories
Words are not atomi : morphemes
Types of morphemes
Morphosynta ti features
Exponen e
Morphemes as feature bundles
Morphologi al analysis
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 3 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology
What is morphology
starting point: senten es are built up from words
observation: words are a tually not the smallest units, they have internal
stru ture; words onsits of morphemes whi h in turn an be hara terized
as sets of features.
Morphology: the subdis ipline of linguisti s that deals with the internal
stru ture of omplex words as well as with the rules and prin iples that
govern the generation of words out of smaller units
These prin iples are indeed very similar to what we will en ounter in syntax.
Although we have a ommon-sense idea of what a word is, it is surprisingly
di� ult to hara terize it pre isely.
We may not need the notion of �word� anyway; the notions morpheme and
morphosynta ti features are su� ient.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 4 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words ome in ategories
Introdu tion
there are di�erent types of words: nouns, verbs, adje tives, et .
When linguists talk about the above mentioned types, they say that words
belong to di�erent ategories.
eviden e for the distin tion:
semanti s of the elements (traditional riterion)
distribution/behaviour of the elements in the lause
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 5 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words ome in ategories
Open vs. losed lass ategories
Open lass ategories:
have a large number of members
new words an be reated rather freely in these ategories
examples:
noun [N℄: table, a tion, évènement, paix
verb [V℄: ourir, arriver, rire, penser, faire
adje tive [A℄: grand, jaune, intelligent, légal
adverb [Adv℄: lentement, normalement, souvent, hier
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 6 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words ome in ategories
Open vs. losed lass ategories
Closed lass ategories:
have a limited number of members that speakers an enumerate
new members annot (easily) be reated in these ategories
examples:
preposition [P℄: à, de, hez, sur, pour, ave
determiner [D℄: le/la/les, un/une/des, e/ ette/ es, haque, quelques,
numeral [Num℄: un, deux, trois, quatre, ...
omplementizer [C℄: que (that), si (if), par e que, omme, bien que
onjun tion/ oordinator [Conj/Coord℄: et, ou, mais
auxiliaries [Aux℄: avoir, être, (some instan es of do in English)
modals [M, VMod ℄: pouvoir, devoir, will/would, an/ ould, may/might,
shall/should
negation [Neg℄: no, not, non, ne ... pas
⊲ This division is rather oarse grained, it will need to be re�ned in some ases
(sub ategories of ategories).
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A brief introdu tion to morphology Words ome in ategories
Category distin tions
Semanti riteria:
nouns refer to persons/obje ts, verbs to a tions, adje tives to qualities et .
while by and large true, this is too simple and hen e not a reliable test:
(1) a. raison → not a person or an obje t, abstra t on ept
b. Bill's betrayal of his friend → noun refers to an a tion
. that, à → meaning??
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 8 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words ome in ategories
Category distin tions
A more reliable test:
A ategory is a set of expressions that all behave in the same way in the
language.
⇒ distribution in the lause
⇒ in�e tion (variation in form depending on the synta ti ontext)
⇒ modi� ation
⇒ omplementary distribution
(to a ertain extent the riteria are language-spe i� )
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A brief introdu tion to morphology Words ome in ategories
Category distin tions
In�e tional eviden e:
Verbs agree with the subje t of the lause, but e.g. omplementizers,
prepositions do not (in Fren h or English).
Nouns/pronouns an be pluralized (travail/travaux, book/books), but e.g.
prepositions or adverbs annot.
Tense is expressed on verbs (dans-ed), but other elements annot be
ombined with tense markers.
Distributional eviden e (possibility to o ur in ertain frames):
This is my most book. → ok: interesting, re ent; *John, slept, arefully
the is here → ok: book, at, milk; *big, grow, very, from
When will John ? → ok: arrive, leave; *red, books, badly, above
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 10 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words ome in ategories
Category distin tions
Note
Sometimes a test returns a negative result, but this does not ne essarily falsify
your hypothesis about the ategory of the word (e.g.: *This is my most alleged
book.). There might always be independent reasons for why a test fails. Still,
other test may lead to the expe ted result. ⇒ Do as many tests as possible!
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 11 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words ome in ategories
Category distin tions
Modi� ation:
Words of a ertain ategory an only be modi�ed by ertain elements
A word that modi�es a verb is an adverb.
A word that modi�es a noun is an adje tive.
A word that modi�es an adje tive/adverb is a degree expression: very
sad(ly), too sad, more sad(ly)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 12 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words ome in ategories
Category distin tions
Complementary distribution:
Words that have the same ategory are in omplementary distribution.
Complementary ditsribution
Two elements are in omplementary distribution if they an o ur in the same
ontext but, ru ially, they annot o-o ur, i.e. if one appears, the other annot.
De�nite arti les and demonstrative pronouns are of the same ategory (and
of a di�erent ategiory than e.g. adje tives). Eviden e:
(2) a. books / livres
b. the books; les livres
. these books; es livres
d.*the these books; *les es livres
e. the/these old books; les/ es vieux livres
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 13 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words are not atomi : morphemes
Outline
1 A brief introdu tion to morphology
Words ome in ategories
Words are not atomi : morphemes
Types of morphemes
Morphosynta ti features
Exponen e
Morphemes as feature bundles
Morphologi al analysis
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 14 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words are not atomi : morphemes
Complex words
Intuitively, the words in (1) are simple words; they annot in any obvious
way be broken down into smaller (meaningful) units.
The words in two are omplex; they are ombined of what seem to be simple
words
(3) simple words:
a. table
b. joy
. bottle
d. with
e. go
(4) omplex words:
a. babysit
b. kit hen towel ra k
. writer lub address list
d. ouvre-bouteille
e. hau�e-eau
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 15 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words are not atomi : morphemes
Complex words
Words an also be omplex even though the not ea h of the individual parts
would be alled a word, but still ontributes meaning to the whole word:
1. Every lause of the form Y is X-able roughly has the meaning �It is possible
to X/one an X Y.�, see (5). -able has a �x form and meaning
(5) Y is drink-able ; One an drink Y.
Y is solv-able ; One an solve Y.
Y is hear-able ; One an hear Y.
Y is eat-able ; One an eat Y.
2. In (6), the 2nd part has an even more abstra t meaning, a so- alled
grammati al meaning.
(6) a. books → book-s
b. boats → boat-s
. raining → rain-ing
d. drinking → drink-ing
e. assignment → assign-ment
f. establishment → establish-ment
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 16 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words are not atomi : morphemes
Morphemes
The smallest units of morphology, the units of whi h words are built, are alled
morphemes:
De�nition of morpheme
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language, i.e. a unit with a
ertain phonologi al shape that orresponds to a �x (lexi al or grammati al)
meaning.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 17 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words are not atomi : morphemes
Morphemes
On the notion of meaning in the de�nition of morpheme:
1 lexi al meaning ( ontent features, refers to something in the world)
2 grammati al meaning (formal features, marks a grammati al ategory, e.g.
the plural -s on nouns in English).
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 18 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words are not atomi : morphemes
Morphemes
Words an also be broken down into other units, e.g. into syllables or the
individual sounds of whi h they onsist, see (7) for segmentations of table:
(7) a. te�.b@l
b. t + e + � + b + @ + l
These units might also be �useful� in linguisti s (→ phonology) but they are not
morphemes sin e they do not have a meaning on their own.
Note: Usually simple sounds do not have a meaning, but sometimes a morpheme
an indeed onsist of just a single sound (see Fren h ÷ufs, English a)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 19 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words are not atomi : morphemes
Morphemes
Side note:
Although sounds do not have a meaning, they an distinguish meanings:
(8) Sounds that distinguish meanings in Fren h:
a. vont [v�O℄
b. font [f�O℄
. bon [b�O℄
d. son [s�O℄
This separation of units into those that have meaning (morphemes) and
those that distinguish meanings but do not bear meaning (phonemes) is one
of the entral properties of human language. It is alled double arti ulation
(Martinet 1960).
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 20 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words are not atomi : morphemes
Morphemes
The orresponden e between the phonologi al shape of a morpheme and its
meaning is arbitrary (de Saussure 1916), i.e. it is a oin iden e, a histori al
�a ident�.
The same on ept is expressed through the sequen e of sounds [aKbK℄ in
Fren h, [tôi:℄ in English and [baUm℄ in German.
The relation between form and meaning is not ne essarily a one-to-one
mapping:
1 Homophony: same sequen e of sounds, di�erent meaning
Fr: dans / d'en / dent
Fr: pris / prix
2 Synonymy: di�erent sequen e of sounds but same meaning
Engl: lift / elevator
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 21 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Words are not atomi : morphemes
Morphemes
(9) Synonymy:
meaning X
/aba/
/bab/
/gom/
(10) Homophony:
/aba/
meaning 1
meaning 2
meaning 3
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 22 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Types of morphemes
Outline
1 A brief introdu tion to morphology
Words ome in ategories
Words are not atomi : morphemes
Types of morphemes
Morphosynta ti features
Exponen e
Morphemes as feature bundles
Morphologi al analysis
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 23 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Types of morphemes
Types of morphemes
Morphemes an be distinguished by the position they o upy relative to a base.
stem: a morpheme to whi h another morpheme atta hes
(11) a. nation-al
b. lis-ible
simple stem: onsists of a single morpheme
omplex stem: the stem onsists of several morphemes
(12) a. nation-al-ité
b. lis+ible+ité = lisibil-ité
A simple stem is also alled a root.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 24 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Types of morphemes
The dire tion of atta hment
Question: How do we know that morpheme X atta hes to morpheme Y?
Couldn't it just be the other way around?
Answer: X atta hes to Y (but not vi e-versa), if Y an o ur alone in the
lause, i.e. without an element of ategory X, but X annot o ur without
(an element of the ategory) Y.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 25 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Types of morphemes
Bound vs. free morphemes
Given this asymmetry, we distinguish between
1 bound morphemes and
2 free morphemes
A morpheme M is free if M an o ur in a lause without the need to
ombine with another morpheme.
A morpheme M is bound if M is not free.
Example: national : -al is bound, nation is free.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 26 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Types of morphemes
Bound roots
Usually, bound morphemes are a�xes and free morphemes are roots/stems. But
there are also languages in whi h roots are bound morphemes.
Example 1 (Spanish):
habl-ar �speak� viv-ir �live�
habl-o �I speak� viv-o �I live�
habl-as �You speak� viv-es �You live�
habl-ábamos �We spoke� viv-íamos �We lived�
habl-aríamos �We would speak� viv-iríamos �We would live�
habl-a �Speak!� viv-e �Live!�
*habl- *viv-
Example 2 (Ojibwa; Algonquian, USA/Canada):
(13) nidoon �my mouth� nigwis �my son�
gidoon �your mouth� gigwis �your son�
*-doon �mouth� *-gwis �son�
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 27 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Types of morphemes
A�xes
Morphemes that atta h to a stem are alled a�xes. There are di�erent types of
a�xes:
1 pre�xes: pre ede the stem
2 su�xes: follow the stem
3 in�xes: are �inside� the root, they split the root up
4 ir um�xes: embra e the stem (simultaneous pre�xation + su�xation)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 28 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Types of morphemes
A�xes
Su�xes:
(14) English:
a. -ity : profan-ity, omplex-ity, brev-ity
b. -er : kill-er, dry-er, driv-er
Pre�xes:
(15) English:
a. ir -: ir-relevant, ir-regular
b. de-: de-hydrate, de-nationalize
Exer ise
Provide examples for pre�xes and su�xes in Fren h!
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 29 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Types of morphemes
A�xes
Cir um�xes in Chi kasaw (Muskogean, North Ameri a): negation
(16) a. hokm-a,
�he is good�
ik- hokm-o
�he is not good�
b. lakn-a,
�it is yellow�
ik-lakn-o
�it is not yellow�
In�xes in Tagalog (Austronesian, Philippines): past tense is expressed by an in�x
(17) a. sulat,
�write�,
s-um-ulat
�the one who wrote�
b. gradwet,
��nish�
gr-um-adwet
�the one who �nished�
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 30 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Outline
1 A brief introdu tion to morphology
Words ome in ategories
Words are not atomi : morphemes
Types of morphemes
Morphosynta ti features
Exponen e
Morphemes as feature bundles
Morphologi al analysis
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 31 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
In�e tional features
Morphemes an have a grammati al meaning. What exa tly does that
mean?
Answer: Morphemes express morphosynta ti features. These features play
a entral role in in�e tion, i.e. the modi� ation of a word su h that it �ts
into the synta ti environment it o urs in.
We an distinguish between
1 nominal in�e tion (de lension)
number
person
gender
ase
2 verbal in�e tion ( onjugation)
tense
aspe t
mode
voi e
. . .
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 32 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Number
In the languages of the world one an �nd the following numbers:
singular (referen e to a single entity)
plural (referen e to more than one / to everything else but a single entity?)
dual (referen e to exa tly two entities)
trial (referen e to exa tly three entities)
pau al (referen e to a small group of entities)
minimal vs. augmented systems (similar to singular/plural opposition but
with di�eren es in the treatment of 1st person in lusive)
Note: Pau al and trial o ur mainly in Austronesian languages;
minimal-augmented systems an be found in Australian languages.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 33 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Person
three persons in the languages of the world: 1st, 2nd, 3rd person
Meaning of person:
1st: refers to the speaker
2nd: refers to the addressee
3rd: refers to individuals that are neither the speaker nor the addressee
Note: 1st and 2nd person are frequently referred to as spee h a t
parti ipants (SAP) or lo al persons
Nouns are always 3rd person, only pronouns an be 1st or 2nd person.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 34 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Person
Person marking in Italian (regular verbs in -are, indi ative, present, singular),
e.g. antare `to sing'
(18)
io ant-o `I sing'
tu ant-i `you sing'
lui/lei ant-a `s/he sings'
Person marking in Yavapai (Yuman, intransitive verb)
(19)
1st P- / Ø-
2nd m-
3rd Ø-
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 35 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Person
Some languages distinguish morphologi ally between two forsm of the 1st
person plural (�we�)
1 ex lusive
2 in lusive
1 ex lusive: �I and some others, but not you without the addressee
2 in lusive = �I and you (and some others)� in luding the addressee
Example: Walmajarri (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
(20)
dual plural
1st ex l. ngayarra nganimpa
1st in l. ngaliyarra ngalimpa
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 36 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Gender
In many languages nouns have a feature alled gender.
There is a ru ial distin tion between a morpho-synta ti and a semanti
variant of gender
Terminology:
The relevant morphosynta ti feature is alled gender (feminine,
mas uline, neuter).
The relevant feature in the semanti s is alled natural gender or sex
(female, male, neuter).
Gender and sex often diverge:
(21) a. la table vs. la �lle
b. die Frau (the woman, f.) vs. der Dra he (the dragon)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 37 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Gender
Indo-European languages usually have only two or three genders
1 feminine
2 mas uline
3 neuter
Not all languages have gender distin tions for nouns (e.g. English - but it
does have them in pronouns!).
Some languages have a lot more than 3 genders: in the Niger-Congo family,
there are languages whi h are laimed to have about 25 di�erent genders
(e.g. Fula)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 38 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Gender
Very often gender annot be dete ted by looking at the noun � there is no
spe ial gender marking or no one-to-one- orresponden e between a marker
and a gender.
(22) Latin: -us often orreponds to mas . gender, but not ne essarily
a. asinus (mas .) � donkey
b. dominus (mas .) � master
. domus (fem.) � house
(23) Italian: -a usually orresponds to feminine gender, but not always
a. amera (fem.) � room
b. porta (fem.) � door
. problema (mas .) � problem
⇒ Gender on nouns is (at least to a ertain degree) arbitrary, it must be
stored with the noun in the mental lexi on
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 39 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Gender
Usually, the gender of a noun only be omes visible on other elements that
agree with the noun in gender (adje tives, arti les).
(24) Gender in Latin:
a. magn-us [mas ℄ asinus �big donkey�
*magn-a [fem℄ asinus
b. *magn-us [mas ℄ domus �big house�
magn-a [fem℄ domus
(25) Gender in Italian:
a. la [fem℄ amera �the room�
*il [mas ℄ amera
b. *la [fem℄ problema �the problem�
il [mas ℄ problema
(26) Gender in Fren h:
a. la vieille haise �the old hair�
*le vieux haise
b. *la vielle fauteuil �the old arm hair �
le vieux fauteuil
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 40 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Phi-features
Person, number and gender form a group that is alled φ-features (phi).
They have a spe ial status as they are prominently involved in agreement.
(27) Gender agreement in Russian
past tense:
`read' mas . fem. neut.
sg £ita-l £ita-l-a £ita-l-o
pl £ita-l-i £ita-l-i £ita-l-i
(28) Gender (and number) agreement
in Standard Arabi :
a. Al-'awlaaduu
art-boy.mas .pl
qadim-uu
ame-mas .pl
`The boys ame.'
b. Al-bintaani
art-girls.fem.du
qadim-ataa
ame-fem.du
`The two girsl ame.'
.*Al-'awlaaduu
art-boy.mas .pl
qadim-ataa
kam-fem.du
`The boys ame.'
d.*Al-bintaani
art-girls.fem.dl
qadim-uu
ame-mas .pl
`The two girsl ame.'
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 41 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Phi-features
Exer ise
Whi h φ-features are involved in Fren h subje t-verb-agreement (present tense,
indi ative, a tive)? Give examples to illustrate this.
(29) Conjugation of her her :
1st sg je her he
/SEKS/2nd sg tu her hes
3rd sg il her he
1st pl nous her hons /SEKS�O/
2nd pl vous her hez /SEKSe/
3rd pl ils her hent /SEKS/
(30) a. Paul her he /SEKS/.
b. Marie her he /SEKS/.
. Nous, Paul et Ja ques,
her hons /SEKS�O/.
d. Nous, Claire et Marie,
her hons /SEKS�O/.
⇒ person and number, not gender
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 42 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Case
Case is a grammati al tool used mainly to identify the grammati al fun tion of an
element (subje t vs. obje t)
(Note: This is not totally a urate as we will see, but as a �rst approximation this
working hypothesis is su� ient.)
(31) Case in English
a. He saw me.
b. I saw him.
. I gave him a book.
d. I gave him to Mary.
e. my book
f. his/her/its book
g. the girl's book
Nominative/a usative are only
distinguished in pronouns, not in full
nouns. The prenominal genitive (Saxon
genitive) is expressed on nouns and
pronouns.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 43 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Case
Other languages like e.g. Latin and Russian have ase markers on nouns:
(32) Case on nouns in Latin:
a. Puer
boy.nom
homin-em
man-a
vidit.
saw
`The boy saw the man.'
b. Puer-um
boy-a
homo
man.nom
vidit.
sah
`Der Mann sah den Jungen.'
Latin distinguishes 6 ases: nominative, a usative, dative, genitive,
ablative, vo ative.
There are languages that have even more distin tions (Urali languages, for
example, tend to have more than 10 di�erent ases).
Exer ise
What about Case in Fren h? How many ases an be distinguished and whi h
elements show ase marking?
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 44 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Tense
Tense marks when an event happened with respe t to the time of utteran e.
Three tenses:
1 present (at the time of utteran e)
2 past (before the time of utteran e)
3 future (after the time of utteran e)
Tense in Fren h:
je vais � j'allais � j'irai
En oding of tense:
syntheti : in a �single word�
Fren h: see ex. above, distinguished by the stem form and the endings
analyti /periphrasti : en oded by the ombination of an in�e ted
auxiliary (have, be) + a non-�nite form of the main verb
analyti future in Fren h: je vais aller
also: present/past perfe t, future perfe t, ...
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 45 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Aspe t
Aspe t allows for more �ne-grained distin tions wrt. the internal temporal
stru ture of events and a tions (in the same tense)
a prominent distin tion in the languages of the world
1 perfe tive: a bounded, unitary event, a ompleted a tion
2 imperfe tive: ontinuous or repetitive events, a tions that are not
omplete
Fren h: j'ai fait vs. je faisais
(33) Perfe tive/imperfe tive in Cze h:
imperfe tive perfe tive meaning
psát na-psat �to write�
d¥kovat po-d¥kovat �to thank�
vítat p°i-vítat �to re eive�
jíst s-níst �to eat�
volat za-volat �to all�
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 46 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphosynta ti features
Other features / oppositions
polarity (a�rmative vs. negative)
voi e / diathesis (a tive, passive, antipassive, middle)
de�niteness (de�nite, inde�nite, spe i� , non-spe i� )
anima y (human, animate, inanimate)
...
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 47 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Exponen e
Outline
1 A brief introdu tion to morphology
Words ome in ategories
Words are not atomi : morphemes
Types of morphemes
Morphosynta ti features
Exponen e
Morphemes as feature bundles
Morphologi al analysis
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 48 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Exponen e
Exponents
The phonologi al realization (shape) of a morphosynta ti feature X is
alled the exponent of X.
There are three types of exponents.
If an exponent expresses exa tly one feature, it is alled a simple exponent.
Example: The past tense forms of (regular) verbs in English is always -ed
(/d/); this morpheme doesn't express anything else su h as person or
number
(34) singular plural
1st wait-ed wait-ed
2nd wait-ed wait-ed
3rd wait-ed wait-ed
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 49 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Exponen e
Exponents
If a morpheme expresses more than one morphosynta ti feature, the
exponent is alled a umulative exponent.
Example 1: The su�x -o in verb forms of Latin expresses the features 1st
person, singular, indi ative, present, a tive, see (35-a).
(35) a. ant-o
sing-1sg.ind.pres.a t
�I sing.�
b. ant-as
sing-2sg.ind.pres.a t
�You sing.�
. ant-at
sing-3sg.ind.pres.akt
�He sings.�
d. ant-amus
sing-1pl.ind.pres.a t
�We sing.�
e. ant-abam
sing-1sg.ind.pst.a t
�I sang.�
f. ant-em
sing-1sg. ond.pres.a t
�I would sing.�
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 50 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Exponen e
Exponents
Example 2: In Cherokee (Iroquoian, USA) verbal pre�xes indi ate features of
the subje t and the obje t of the verb (wrt. anima y, person, number).
A single pre�x an express both subje t and obje t properties simultaneously.
(36) a. ski-, skw- 2sg.subj/1.sg.obj
b. sti:- 2du.subj/3.sg.inanim.obj
. ka i:y- 1sg.subj/3pl.anim.obj
d. i:y- 1sg.subj/3sg.anim.obj
(37) a. sv:kthv
apple
ka i:-
1sg.subj/3pl.anim.obj
ne:lv:Pi
give.perf
�I gave them an apple.�
b. i:-
1sg.subj/3sg.anim.obj.
ko:wthiha
see.pres
�I see him.�
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 51 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Exponen e
Exponents
If a single morphosynta ti feature is realized by more than one exponent,
this is a ase of extended exponen e.
Example 1: An ient Greek. In (38-b) the perfe t is expressed by
1 the long vowel vowel in the stem (-ly- vs. -lý-)
2 redupli ation of parts of the stem (le-)
3 the in�x -k-
(38) a. -ly- �solve�
b. e-le-lý-k-ete �You solved.�
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 52 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Exponen e
Exponents
Example 2: In Swahili, negative forms of the past tense are expressed by the
pre�x ha- (negation) and the marker -ku- (past in the ontext of negation)
(li- = Pst., tu- = 1st person plural).
(39) a. tu-li-taka �We wanted.�
b. ha-tu-ku-taka �We didn't want.�
Example 3: Latin. In (40) the perfe t is expressed by extended exponen e as
well as by umulative exponen e:
1 perfe tive stem (rex- instead of reg-)
2 a su�x that expresses
1 perfe tive as well as
2 person, number, mode and voi e
(40) a. reg-es �You reign.�
b. reg-ent �They reign.�
. rex-isti �You reigned.�
d. rex-erunt �They reigned.�
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 53 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Exponen e
Portmanteau morphemes
A notion that is losely related to umulative exponen e is the term
portmanteau morpheme (introdu ed by Ho kett 1947).
A portmanteau also expresses several morphosynta ti features.
However � traditionally at least � it has been assumed that a morpheme is a
portmanteau only if the features involved are expressed by separate
morphemes in other ontexts.
Example: Fren h de�nite arti les and prepositions
(41) a. à la plage �at tge bea h�
b. de la plage �from the bea h�
(42) a. *a le mar hé �at the market�
b. au mar hé
. *de le mar hé �from the market�
d. du mar hé
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 54 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphemes as feature bundles
Morphemes as bundles of features
A morpheme M an be hara terised as a set of three types of features:
phonologi al features P (determine how the morpheme is pronoun ed)
semanti features S (determine the meaning of the morpheme)
morphosynta ti features MS (determine morphosynta ti properties, e.g.
the distribution in the word/ lause)
⇒ M { P / S / MS },This information is stored in the mental lexi on.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 55 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Outline
1 A brief introdu tion to morphology
Words ome in ategories
Words are not atomi : morphemes
Types of morphemes
Morphosynta ti features
Exponen e
Morphemes as feature bundles
Morphologi al analysis
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 56 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Morphologi al analysis
Morphologi al analysis � step 1: segmentation of words into morphemes
A few remarks / hints:
1 A onstant string of sounds that has the same meaning in all its o urren es
onstitutes a morpheme.
(43) Superlatives in Spanish:
bueno (�good�)
buen-ísimo (�very good�)
ri o (�deli ious�)
riqu-ísimo (�very deli ious�)
útil (�useful�)
util-ísimo (�very useful�)
⇒ ísimo is a morpheme
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 57 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Morphologi al analysis
2. allomorphy: If two exponents (a) have the same meaning, but (b) a di�erent
phonologi al shape, and (iii) are in omplementary distribution, they are
allomorphs of the same morpheme.
Re all : omplementary distribution means that they o ur in di�erent
ontexts (di�erent e.g. in terms of phonologi al, semanti or lexi al features)
(44) Allomorphy in the English plural:
a. house- s
b. �sh-Ø
. ox-en
⇒ -s, -Ø and -en all mean [plural℄ but have di�erent phonologi al shapes;
they are in omplementarydistribution (*house-en, *�sh-es, *ox-en-s, et )
⇒ they are allomorphs of the plural morpheme
⇒ ontexts: lexi ally distinguished, i.e. the hoi e depends on the on rete
noun (stored in the mental lexi on, probably not predi table on independent
grounds)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 58 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Morphologi al analysis
(45) Allomorphy in Kujamaat Jóola (Niger-Congo)
Verbs fall into di�erent lasses. The lasses are indi ated by verbal pre�xes.
Criterion for lass membership: the number of syllables of the stem
monosyllabi stems: lass-3-pre�x E-
polysyllabi stems: lass-7-pre�x ka-
(46) lass 3, E-
E-ga �throw�
E-is �show�
(47) lass 7, ka-
ka-tundo �keep omatose�
k@-ti¯k@r �be without�
If a monosyllabi stem be omes polysyllabi through a�xation, the verb
swit hes to lass 7.
(48) a. e-yem (�be red�)
b. -En ( ausative a�x)
. k@-yem-en, *e-yem-en (�redden / ause to be ome red�)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 59 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Morphologi al analysis
3. A feature an be expressed by a phonologi ally zero exponent, a so- alled
zero morpheme Ø.
Common assumption: A zero morpheme for a feature M an be postulated
if M has an overt, i.e. a non-zero realization in a di�erent ontext in the
same language.
(49) English number:
sg pl
house house-s
�sh �sh-Ø
sheep sheep-Ø
(50) German ase exponents on nouns (Grund `reason'):
nominative: Grund-Ø
a usative: Grund-Ø
genitive: Grund-es
dative: Grund(-e)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 60 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Morphologi al analysis
4. Morphemes an be non-segmental.
A morpheme is segmental if it an be represented by a ontinuous string of
sounds.
Non-segmental: The morpheme onsists (also) of exponents that are
subsegmental, i.e. smaller than a segment (a sound).
Example: irregular past and past parti iple forms in English with hanges in
quality of the stem vowel (ablaut)
(51) a. sing � sang � sung
b. run � ran � run
. bring � brought � brought
Possible analysis: There is a zero allomorph of the past su�x (-ed) that
arries a feature that is shifted to the stem (a �oating feature) where it
triggers a phonologi al pro ess, resulting in ablaut.
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 61 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Some languages express a morphologi al distin tion by the reversal of two
sounds = metathesis
(52) Mutsun (Penutian,
USA) a. [to:her℄ �the ough� [tohre℄ �to ough�
b. [lullup℄ �the �ute� [lulpu℄ �to play the �ute�
. [posol℄ �a stew� [poslo-℄ �prepare a stew�
d. [la:lak℄ �goose� [lalka-℄ �to herd geese�
In other languages morphologi al distin tions are expressed by the removal
of sounds = subtra tive morphology
(53) Imperfe tive and perfe tive in Tohono O'odham (Uto-Azte an, USA)
Imperf Perf
Sg Pl Sg Pl
him �running� hihim hi: �run� hihi
hi:nk �barking� hihink hi:n �barked� hihin
gatwid �shooting� gagtwid gatwi �shot� gagtwi
'elpig �peeling� 'e'elpig 'elpi �peeled� 'e'elpi
hehem �laughing� hehem hehe �laughed� hehe
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 62 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Subtra tive morphology in Fren h?
If subtra tive morphology seems �exoti � to you, look at the gender alternation of
Fren h adje tives in (54):
(54)
mas uline feminine
gros [gKo℄ grosse [gKos℄
mauvais [movE℄ mauvaise [movEz℄
heureux [øKø℄ heureuse [øKøz℄
petit [p@ti℄ petite [p@tit℄
grand [gK�A℄ grande [gK�Ad℄
froid [fKwa℄ froide [fKwad℄
soûl [su℄ soûle [sul℄
bon [bõ℄ bonne [bOn℄
frais [fKE℄ fraî� he [fKES℄
long [lõ℄ longue [lõg℄
permier [pK÷mje℄ première [pK÷mjEK℄
entier [�Atje℄ entière [�AtjEK℄
gentil [Z�Ati℄ gentille [Z�Atij℄
net [nEt℄ nette [nEt℄
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 63 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Segmentation
Another strategy to express morphosynta ti features is redupli ation =
opying of stem material + a�xation of this material to the stem
full redupli ation: a whole morpheme/word is opied
(55) Warlpiri (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
Sg Pl
kurdu kurdu-kurdu � hildren�
kamina kamina-kamina �girls�
mardukuja mardukuja-mardukuja �women�
partial redupli ation: a part of a morpheme/word is opied
(56) Ilokano (Austronesian, Philippines)
Sg Pl
kaldiN kal-kaldiN �geese�
púsa pus-púsa � ats�
kláse klas-kláse � lasses�
róPot ro:-róPot �rubbish(Pl.)�
talon tal-talon ��elds�
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 64 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Segmentation: Inuktitut (Eskimo-Aleut, Greenland)
(57) igluga �my house�
iglumi �in a house�
igluNa �her house�
iglutut �like a house �
uiga �my husband�
uitut �like a husband�
uiNa �her husband�
tupiqtut �like a tent�
nunaga �my ountry�
paniktut �like a daughter�
qukiutiga �my gun�
aggagtut �like a dog�
iglurjuaq `big house�
umiarjuag �big boat�
umialik �someone with a boat�
uilik �someone with a man�
umilik �someone with a beard�
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 65 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Segmentation: Inuktitut (Eskimo-Aleut, Greenland)
Note: The inde�nite arti le is not present in the Inuktitut data in (57), it is
in luded in the English translation to make them grammati al!
The �rst 4 lines express the meaning �house�. The onstant string of sounds
that all four examples share is iglu ⇒ iglu means �house�
Now you an subtra t iglu from the omplex words.
Examples:
igluga �my house� → ga means �my�
iglumi �in a house� → mi means �in� et .
Now you an subtra t the new morphemes ga and mi from other words to
dis over new morphemes.
Example:
uiga �my husband� → ui means �husband�
et .
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 66 / 67
A brief introdu tion to morphology Morphologi al analysis
Summary: important terminology
morphology
open vs. lose lass ategories
eviden e for di�erent ategories (noun, verb, et .)
omplementary distribution
morpheme
allomorph
types of morphemes (root, stem, a�x, types of a�xes, zero morphemes,
bound vs. free morphemes)
morphosynta ti features
exponen e / types of exponents (simple, umulative, extended;
portmanteaux)
Doreen Georgi (ENS, Paris) Introdu tion to Syntax O tober 15, 2015 67 / 67