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Core Concepts in Athletic Training and Therapy

Susan Kay Hillman

FITNESS TESTING AND CONDITIONING IN ATHLETICS

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

• Identify ways in which information from fitness testing can help the athletic trainer.

• Discuss the rationale for conducting fitness testing at various times before, during, or after the sport or training season.

• Explain the method of establishing the 1-repetition maximum in weightlifting.

• Define aerobic and anaerobic with reference to energy systems and relate each to various activities.

• Define isotonic, isometric, and isokinetic exercise and give an example of each.

• Compare and contrast the two types of muscle contraction: concentric and eccentric.

• Discuss factors to consider in designing an exercise prescription.

• Define the overload principle and explain how it applies to conditioning and strength techniques.

INTRODUCTION

• Individual working with team should be familiar with different aspects of strength and conditioning

• Coaches, S & C specialist, athletic trainer

• Attention to proper warm up, stretching and exercise prescription

• Careful planning and exercise selection can help improve performance and decrease risk of injury

FITNESS TESTING PROCEDURES• Conditioning program requires knowledge of baseline of fitness

• Fitness test can help identify weaknesses, movement dysfunctions, body composition, flexibility, cardio respiratory function

• Preseason Participation Evaluation

• Used to assess individuals level of conditioning

• Determine weaknesses and establish conditioning/training program

• Ongoing Evaluations

• Determine effectiveness of program

• Evaluation of program could allow the person implementing program to better individualize lifting program of each participant

• Indicate individuals progress toward fitness goals

• Postseason Fitness Evaluations

• Establish specific areas to address during off-season

• Better understanding of goals to to reach during off-season

FITNESS TESTING PARAMETERS

• Muscle Function

• Muscle strength

• Maximum amount of force that a muscle or muscle group can generate during specific movement pattern at a specified velocity

• Muscle Endurance

• Ability of muscle or group of muscles to perform repetitive actions

• Sports like cross country , some events in track and swimming require great amount of endurance

• Repeated movement can cause trauma in weak or unconditioned muscles


• Muscle Power

• Work during a unit of time

• Weight lifted (force) x Range of movement (vertical distance)/time required to perform lift.

• Develop power by lifting same (or greater) amount of weight the same distance in shorter period of time


• Evaluating Muscle Strength

• 1RM: amount of weight lifted 1 time

• 50%-75%-90%-100% of predicted weight

• Add weight until person unable to complete lift

• Repetition maximum: maximum # of repetitions person can lift at particular weight

• # of repetitions at specific weight can also measure strength, but also endurance

• Testing Muscle Endurance and Evaluating Muscle Power

• Endurance uses different energy source

• Sport specific evaluation or general endurance evaluation

• Squat at given weight to test leg endurance=specific

• Sit up test (# in 60 sec)= general test

• Power

• Maximal force in short period of time

• Vertical jump

Fitness Testing Parameters• Cardiorespiratory Function

• Function of Heart and Lungs working together

• Measuring Anaerobic Power: “ Without Oxygen

• Activities of short duration=uses source of energy that does not require as much O2

• Sprints/Explosive Movements

• Shuttle run, vertical jump

• Evaluating Aerobic Power: “With Oxygen”

• Athletic events that require O2 consumption during performance

• Longer duration. Energy source that is dependant on O2

• 1.5 mile run=standard for measuring aerobic power

• Table 2.2

• SIDEBAR: Aerobic Tests


• Agility and Speed

• Agility: ability to start, stop and change direction

• Useful in most sports

• Testing Agility

• Rapid acceleration, deceleration, change of direction, and acceleration

• T-test, Edgren Side Step Test

• Measuring Speed

• Important for sports with short burst of activity to reach a position or location

• 40 yard dash


• Flexibility

• Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through a full range of motion (ROM)

• Effect of Muscle Size on Flexibility

• Bulk (hypertrophied muscles) can limit movement

• Include stretching program for muscles exercised

• Strengthen agonist and antagonist muscles

• Effect of Ligament and Tendon Composition on Flexibility

• All connective tissue made up of combination of collagen and elastin

• Some people have more elasticity in ligaments and tendons =Hypermobile

• Decreased elasticity=Hypo mobile


• Effects of Age and Sex on Flexibility

• Generally thought females are more flexible than men though this is not absolute

• Activities that encourage flexibility will increase their ability to stretch regardless of sex

• As we age we decrease in flexibility

• Can delay or reverse effects of aging with continued stretching program

• Active people have better flexibility than sedentary people


• Testing Flexibility• Evaluating flexibility important to fitness program.

• Decrease in ROM at a joint may play role in causing injury

• Manual stretching test: compare to normal values

• Sit and Reach Test: General test for hamstring flexibility

• Functional Movement Test

• Can identify shortened (overactive/tight) muscles and/or lengthened (inhibited(weak) muscles


• Height, Weight, and Body Composition

• Anthropometry: measurement of body size

• Body composition: amount of fat in relation to lean tissue in body

• Levels of fat that are to high affect ability to move optimally

• Also associated with heart disease high blood pressure, diabetes, arthritis and some cancers

• Measured by skin caliper test, BMI, test, hydrostatic weighting test and electric impedance

EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION• Needs Analysis- Specificity

• Muscle Groups

• Demands of the sport and the abilities of the individual

• Physiology and mechanics of the sport and sport skills is essential for designing the exercise program

• Energy Systems

• Aerobic vs. anaerobic or both

• Train accordingly

• Muscle Activity

• Concentric, eccentric and isometric

• Injury Patterns

• Understand teams injury history or evaluate baseline testing

• If individual has pre-existing injury must have clearance from physician before beginning exercise program

EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION• Goal Setting

• Critical role within exercise prescription

• Program without objectives and goals will lose interest of athlete

• Short-Term Goals

• Immediate (daily) and short range (monthly

• Contribute to long term goals

• Long-Term Goals

• People take responsibility for establishing own goals motivation is more likely

• Identify specific goals and exact outcomes

• Relate to needs analysis: strength endurance and cardiorespiratory

• Limitations to the Plan

EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION• Exercise Plans

• Training volume

• Amount of work performed during a workout, during a week, and during a season

• Repetitions or total weight lifted

• If increasing muscle mass is the goal volume will increase as program progresses

• Exercise order

• The station approach

• Maximize overload on one muscle group before moving on to another

• More intense load on muscle group, but need to manage rest time between sets

• Circuit training

• Perform one set of exercise and then move on to another

• When circuit is complete start at first station again

• Theory is to work a muscle group to near fatigue or fatigue and then moving on to next exercise keeping heart rate elevated

• Muscle groups get rest period while doing other exercises

DEVELOPING THE STRENGTH TRAINING PROGRAM

• Necessary to incorporate 2 essentials into every program

• Resistance to muscle actions

• Gravity, dumbbells, cables, elastic bands, etc.

• Overload

• Stress or load on the muscle that is greater than what the muscle is accustomed to moving


• Exercise Intensity:

• Intensity refers to % of 1RM

• Hypertrophy method

• Hypertrophy=general increase in bulk of muscle through increase in size of individual muscle fiber

• 5-12 repetitions at 70-85% of 1RM

• High-intensity training method

• Improve recruitment of existing muscle fibers rather than increase size of fibers

• Greater the load on muscle fibers the more fibers are used

• 1-4 repetitions at 85-100% 1RM


• Periodization

• Gradual increase in type, intensity and amount of training

• Achieve peak performance

• Decrease injuries and overtraining

• Program that spans various seasons

• Modify program relative to athlete’s

• General to specific training throughout the cycles of competitive season

PERIODS OR PHASES

• Transition period:

• Follows last competition (early off-season)

• Unstructured (escape rigors of training)

• Preparatory period:

• Off-season

• Hypertrophy/endurance phase (Low intensity with high volume)

• Allows for development of endurance base

• Lasts several weeks to 2 months

• Strength Phase

• Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)

PERIODS OR PHASES

• Preparatory period (continued)

• Strength Phase

• Intensity and volume increase to moderate levels

• Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)

• Volume is decreased to allow adequate recovery

• Competition period:

• May last a < week or several months for seasonal sports

• High intensity, low volume, skill training sessions

• May incorporate weekly training cycles (1-7 days)

• Designed to ensure peak on days of competition


• Progressive Overload

• Gradual increase in stress placed on a muscle as it gains strength or endurance

• Rest periods and Training Frequency

• Rest Periods

• Rest between sets or exercises

• Crucial component to strength training

• Depends on training volume and exercise order

• Higher volume=longer rest period vice versa

• If circuit training 1:1 ratio in rest to exercise can increase strength and aerobic endurance


• Training Frequency

• Weight training on alternate days to allow sufficient recovery periods

• Early in exercise program athlete may experience muscle soreness or Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness.

• May require longer recovery periods

• Sessions of multiple joint exercise require more recovery than single joint exercises

• When using 1Rm or near maximal loads individuals will require more recovery time

• Lower training volume in between heavy training volume days can allow for more frequent lifting sessions

• Persons who have weight lifted on a regular basis for a long time may benefit from more frequent training sessions

TYPES OF STRENGTH TRAINING

• Isometrics

• Contraction where muscle length remains unchanged

• Muscle generates force without joint movement

• Resistance greater than participant is able to move, thus no movement occurs

• Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds and should be performed 5-10 times/daily

• Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab

• Con: only works at one point in ROM, produces spiking of blood pressure due to Valsalva maneuver, not often applicable to sport performance


• Isotonic Training

• Moving a joint through range of motion with a set amount of resistance

• Strength curves: points in the range of every joint where the muscle is at its weakest

• Middle of range usually the strongest


• Variable Resistance

• Started in 1970’s by nautilus company who developed an offset cam to deliver a variation in the resistance to the movement

• Maximize strength at various points in the range of motion

• Sliding lever bar systems and elastic tubing developed later


• Isokinetics

• Muscle action performed at constant velocity

• More often used in rehabilitation


• Concentric and Eccentric Training

• Concentric Muscle Activity

• shortening of muscle with contraction in an effort to overcome more resistance

• Eccentric Muscle Activity

• lengthening of muscle with contraction because load is greater than force being produced


• Plyometrics• Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction followed by a

rapid concentric contraction to create a forceful explosive movement

• Mimics most sport movement

• Rate of stretch vs. magnitude

• Jumps, bounds, medicine ball throws

• Very technical training - skills must be learned with appropriate technique

• Often develop muscle soreness as a result of extensive eccentric loading

INTEGRATING CARDIORESPIRATORY AND FLEXIBILITY PARAMETERS

• Aerobic Endurance Training

• Nearly every sport activity requires some degree of cardiorespiratory , or aerobic, endurance

• Develop rational program with understanding of persons current fitness level

• ACSM recommends intensity of 60-90% of maximal HR 3 days a week for 20-60 minutes

• Be person and sport specific

• Use overload and specificity training principles

• Vary Program to keep participants motivated


• Anaerobic training• Energy production of the body in the absence of O2

• Training requires short, intense burst of activity

• Should be sport specific

• High intensity near maximal exercise is impossible to sustain for long periods of time

• Must use rest periods

• Interval training can be useful

• Not appropriate for those with low level fitness

• Events that take 1-5 minutes require aerobic and anaerobic systems

• Important to train both systems


• Flexibility and Stretching Programs

• Thought that flexibility and stretching will decrease risk of injury

• Not well supported by research

• Though many injuries occur when joint is forced beyond its ROM

• Flexibility important, however proper warm up proven to be more important

• Passive Stretching

• Entails no work by individual

• Someone takes limb through ROM

• Requires training and experience

• Active Stretching

• Individual uses own body to produce a stretch of particular area

• Contract–Relax Stretching

• PNF stretch: Uses passive and active participation from individual


• Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation

• Specialized technique of therapy that incorporates muscle spindle stretch and specific movement patterns

• Uses 3 movements

• Flexion-extension

• Abduction-adduction

• rotation

• Stretching Methods

• Static stretching

• Joint moved to point where stretch is felt and position is held

• 30-60Seconds Holds

INTEGRATING CARDIORESPIRATORY AND FLEXIBILITY PARAMETERS• Stretching Methods

• Ballistic stretching

• Involves bouncing movements

• Difficult to perform safely because bouncing fires Golgi Tendon Organs in muscle

• Causes muscle to reflexively contract

• Can cause damage to muscle

• Dynamic Stretching

• Stretching through specific movements

• Shown to be best method of warm up

• Stretches muscles

• Activates other muscles

• Addresses balance and coordination

• Increases body and intramuscular temperature

• Addresses neuromuscular system