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EventsandCollusions:aglossaryforthemicroethnographyofvideogameplay[draftversion]
PublishedinGamesandCulture,4(2)April2009SethGiddings,UniversityoftheWestofEngland,Bristol
[email protected] http://www.badnewthings.co.uk
TwoMicrosoftXBoxconsolesarelinkedtogetherinasmallterracedhouseinsouthBristol.
Oneinthefrontroomisconnectedtoalargetelevisionscreen,theotherinthedining
roomtoadataprojectorpointedatawallclearedoffurnitureandpictures.Ittakessome
timetopersuadetheconsolestospeaktooneanother,torecognizethattheyshoulddivide
avideogame,Halo2,betweenthem,fourplayersperconsole,butgenerateavirtualworld
inwhichalleightcaninteract.Eachofthetwoscreens(thetelevisionandthewall
projection)issplitintofoursubscreens,eachsubscreendisplayingthegamesvirtualworld
fromthepointofviewofoneplayer.Throughtheirownwindow,eachplayerseesthegame
worldfromthepositionoftheiravatar,afirstpersonviewpoint,fromwhichtheycanseethe
avatarsof
the
other
players.
The
players
sit
together,
and
their
virtual
representatives
leap
andsprintthroughthegameandacrossthescreens,triggeringafrenzyofvirtualgunfire.
Itquicklybecomesapparentthatmyfellowplayers,despitetheirclaimstoincompetence,
aremuchmoreaccomplishedthanmeatthisgame.Deniedtheleisurelyandtentative
explorationofcontrols,conventionsandgameworldthatasingleplayerversionofthe
gamewouldallow,Iamleftflailingaround.Unabletosimultaneouslymovethroughthe
virtualspace,identifyusefulpowerupsandammunitionandaimmyvirtualweaponatmy
onscreenenemies,myavatarisshotrepeatedly,hittingthefloorwithfrustratingregularity
andfrequency.Ineachofthesedeathsmyscreenpointofviewisspunthrough90degrees
asmyavatarhitsthefloor,capturingbeforemomentaryvirtualoblivionandrespawning
theperpetrator
of
this
temporary
downfall,
skipping
blithely
away
to
engage
with
more
worthyopponents.
Itryinsteadtoexplorethegameworld,totakemyavatarforawalk.Thevirtual
environmentisspectacularlyrendered,abeautifulalienlandscape.Itsoonbecomesclear,
however,thatitsostensiblyopenvistasareillusoryallpathscurvegentlybackintothe
mayhem.Enticingfoothillsareinreality,barrierstotheinaccessiblemountainsbeyond.This
isnotaworldbutapark,agardenlandscapedforvirtualwarfare,anarena.Positioningmy
avatarbehindarockasfarfromtheexplosionsandtinyleapingfiguresinthemiddle
distanceaspossible,Iinsteadheadoffinactualspacethistimetothekitchen.Bothmy
physicalbodyandmyavatartakeabreakfromthisintenseandfrustratingplay.
DrinkingabeerandeatingcrispsIwatchmyactualopponentsnow,ratherthanthescreens.
Incontrasttotheintenseonscreenactivityleapingfighters,explodingvehicles,wildvirtual
cameraswingstheplayersareimmobile.Occasionalunexpecteddeathsorparticularly
spectacularmomentsofactionaremetwithcursesorlaughter,andtheendofamatchis
markedbythestretchingofbacksandarms,butinplaytheplayersarestill,eyeswideand
rarelyblinking,motionevidentonlyinthemicromovementsofthumbsoncontrollerbuttons
andanaloguesticks.AphrasefromDonnaHaraways,AManifestoforCyborgsflitsinto
mymind:ourmachinesaredisturbinglylively,andweourselvesfrighteninglyinert
(Haraway,1990,p.194).Myownsenseofheterogeneousagencyinthegame(paradoxically
highlightedbymyineptitude),ofdrivingmyavatartowildmovement,totriggeringactions,
operatingmachinery,
firing
weapons,
navigating
spaces
and
buildings,
is
palpable
and
intense,yetprofoundlyatoddswiththissceneoftransfixedbodiesandminds.Theyseem
mailto:[email protected]://www.badnewthings.co.uk/http://www.badnewthings.co.uk/http://www.badnewthings.co.uk/mailto:[email protected]8/13/2019 Events and Collusions
2/12
nottobeinitiatingtheonscreenactionormakingchoicesasconventionalcelebrationsof
interactivitymightassumebutratherrespondingtothedemandsofthemachines(both
thehardwareandsoftware).
Thetermcyborgdoesnotseemtoohyperbolichere.Ontheonehand,theplayersare
temporarily,but
intensely,
locked
in
acircuita
cybernetic
feedback
loopin
which
they,
theconsoles,controllers,andthegamesoftwarearenodes.Thelinguisticconfusionevident
inmyaccountofthegameaboveistelling:Ireferringattimestomyphysicalbodyand
senseofself,butattimestomyactionsinthegame.Thereisalinguisticandexperiential
blurringofboundariesbetweenhumanandmachines:inthegameIisatoncemyself,
myavatar,andmyselfandavatar;ahybridhumanandtechnologicalentity.
Another,verydifferent,space,butagainludicallycharged.Weareonafamilyholiday,
campingintheDooneValleyontheedgeofExmoorinDorset.ThesettingforR.D.
Blackmores19thcenturynovelLornaDoone,thesmall,enclosedvalleyisfullofreferencestoitsliteraryincarnation.Thelocalheritageandtouristindustryhaserectedsignsindicating
bothcontemporaryfootpathsandsitesthoughttocorrespondtoplacesandeventsinthe
book.Thisisthenanactualplaceoverlaidordramatizedbythevirtualtimespaceof
literature.
Onourwalkbacktothecampsitealongtheriver,mywifePennyenergizesourflagging
childrenbypointingoutmushroomsgrowingamongstthegrassandmentioningMarioKart.Thistriggersanexplosionofactivityintheboys.Theysprintacrossthefield,slowingdown
thenacceleratingnoisilyastheyreachanotherpatchofmushrooms.MarioKart:DoubleDash!!isavideogamefortheNintendoGameCubeandafirmfavouriteinourhouse.Oneconventionofthisgenreofgameanarcadestyleracinggameistheinclusionofpower
upsoritemsthat bestowtemporarypowersonthecar/avatar.Mushrooms,inthis
particulargame,givethecar/avatarabriefbutoftendecisiveturnofspeed.IntheDoone
Valley,actualfungusbecomesanalogouswiththebrightredandwhitemushroomsinthe
game,virtualpowerupsinanactualgame.
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AnxiousObjectsWhataretheobjectsofstudyingameplayresearch?Whoorwhataretheagentsandwhat
isthenatureofthefieldinwhichethnographicfieldworkmightbeconducted?Thesetwo
shortstories
indicate
that
some
understanding
and
analysis
of
the
forms,
aesthetics
and
conventionsofvideogamesaspopulardigitalmediaisveryuseful,asisthe
acknowledgementanddescriptionofthephysicalandsocialcontextinwhichtheseforms
andconventionsarerealized,vivified.
Buthowtoarticulatethese,howtodescribe,andanalyzeparticularandgeneralmomentsor
modesofgameplay,factoringinbothmediaformandlivedexperience?How,forinstance,
toaccountforthemachinationsofaffect,asvirtualworldsareactualizedinthevery
differenttimespaceofoutdoorplay?And,crucially,whatisthenatureofthegameplayer
intheseintimatecircuitsoftwitchingthumbsandlivelymachines?
Thisarticle
sets
out
aworking
glossary
of
concepts
and
terms
that
have
arisen
from
some
recentanalyticalandethnographicresearch.Someofthesetermsareappropriatedor
repurposedfromexistingtheoreticalandethnographicapproaches;afewarenewtothe
field.Iwillrefertotworecentsmallscaleresearchprojectsthatmakeuseofvideotorecord
andanalyzevideogameplay.Iwilladdressthemethodologicaldemandsofstudyingthe
relationshipsbetweenthevirtualandtheactual,cyberspaceanddomesticspace,in
everydaypopulardigitalculture.Ialsoattempttoidentifyandtheorizebothhumanand
nonhumanagentsinthemomentoreventofgameplay:theobjectofstudyhereisneither
humanplayersnordynamicsoftwarebutwhathappenswhentheycometogetherto
generateaneventofgameplay.
A
methodological
requirement
for
these
studies
was
the
breaking
down
of
an
entrenched
divisionofepistemologicallabourinnewmediaresearch:thatbetweenempiricaland
ethnographicworkontheonehandandtextualoraestheticanalysisontheother.
Videogamesareatoncecomputersoftwarewithproceduralagenciesandautonomous
operations,computerhardware,andmediatextswithscreenimages,sounds,environments,
anddramas.Iproposethenontheonehand(withapologiestoEspenAarseth),a
cybertextualanalysis,andontheother,averysmallscaleethnographyofvideogames,
videogameplayandvideogameplayers.Asynthesisbetweentheseanalyticaland
ethnographicmethodsisneeded,givenmyunwillingnesstoestablishanaprioriasymmetry
betweenvideogame(astext),videogameplay(asconsumptionorpractice)and
videogameplayer(asembodiedmediasubject).Iadoptthetermmicroethnography(and
adapted
it
as
a
methodology)
to
describe
this
synthetic
approach,
subsequently
suggesting
microethologyasamorepreciseterm.
CybertextualAnalysisVideogamesareasignificantpopularformofscreenmedia,oftendrawingonfilmsand
televisionfortheircharacters,images,andscenarios.Theyarealsocomputersoftwareand
assuch,theiralgorithmicandproceduraloperationsandstructureslieoutsidethepurview
ofestablishedmodesoftextualanalysisinliterary,film,andmediastudies.Newmedia
studiesandgamestudieshavebeguntheprojectofcybertextualanalysis(Aarseth,1997;
Bolter&Grusin,1999;Lister,Dovey,Giddings,Kelly,&Grant,2003;Manovich,2001).Espen
Aarsethsbook,Cybertext:PerspectivesonErgodicLiteratureforinstance,bothengageswiththedistinctinternaloperationsofcomputerbasedmedia,andemphasizestheroleofthe
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reader/playerinrealizingthesecyberneticoperationsineachactofreading/playing
(Aarseth,1997;seealsoSalen&Zimmerman,2003;Giddings&Kennedy,2008).
Part(icipant)sAarseths(1997)diagramofatextbasedcomputeradventuregameindicatesthedynamic,
cyberneticcircuits
of
agency
between
software
and
hardware
components,
between
databasesandsoftwareengines,userinputandalgorithmicprocessingofinformationand
responses.Hisalternativetermforthesecomponents,part(icipant)s,isarichoneasit
emphasizestheactiveroleoftheseparts,partsthatcometogethertoconstituteany
particularinstantiationoftheadventuregameinplay.AlthoughAarsethdoesnotpursue
this,thediagramsrefusaltograntanyotherstatustothehumanpart(icipant)issuggestive
forrethinkingtherelationshipsbetween,andstatusof,thehumanandthetechnologicalin
videogameplay.
ageneralizedconceptualization ofthefunctionality ofatypical,butadvanced,adventuregame
(Aarseth1997:103).
Popularcomputermediathenmustbeconceptualizedasbothsymbolicandmaterial.On
theone
hand,
videogames
are
toys,
popular
media,
performative
events,
often
characterizedbysymboliccontentderivedfromestablishedpopularscreenmedia.Onthe
otherhand,theanalysisofvideogamesasacomputerbasedmediumdemandsthe
descriptionofaspecialcategoryofnonhumans,softwareentities(inthelanguageof
computing,agents)thatactmoreorlessautonomously,oreffectemergentbehaviour.
Weshouldresistconceivingofthevideogameasadiscreteandwholeobject.The
videogameisconstitutedbysoftwarecomponentsthateffecttheirownoperationsand
semiautonomousagencywithinthevideogamesystem.Gameworldsandtemporalities,
modesofpresentation,puzzlesandcombat,engagementwithcomputercontrolled
characters,areallconstantlyconfiguringtheplayersexperienceandrespondingtothe
playersresponses.
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MicroethnographyIusethetermmicroethnographytodescribeanonscientific,improvised,opportunistic
approachtorecording,describing,andanalyzingbriefmomentsofeverydaytechnocultural
activity.Ithasprovedausefulterm,referringontheonehandtothesmallscaleandshort
durationnatureoftheeventsIamconcernedwith,andtheirtransitoryandmomentary
nature.On
the
other
hand,
the
term
alludes
to
the
technological
construction
of
this
ethnographicresearch.Themicroethnographyisbroughtintobeingbytheactofvideo
recordinganditsvariousactors(camera,tripod,PC,etc.),allofwhichareintegral
part(icipant)softheeventunderscrutinyandthescrutinyasevent.Thepresenceofthe
researcherandtheresearchtechnologiesareinseparablefromthenetworksunderstudy.
Theytooare(madeof)part(icipant)s.Thepart(icipant)sofcentralconcerntothisstudy
however,arethecomputerhardware,software,andhumanbodies,theirparts,andtheir
comingtogetherintheintenseandintimatecircuitsofgameplay.
Amicroethnographicapproachsuggestsmethodologicalstrategies,bothforanalyzing
gameplayandforidentifyingandconceptualizingrelationshipsbetweentechnologyagency
andaesthetics
in
everyday
technoculture
across
and
between
the
virtual
and
the
actual.
It
drawsonconceptualandempiricalworkfromcyberculturalstudiesandscienceand
technologystudies.Thesefieldsofstudyareconcernedwith,ontheonehand,the
questioningofsecuredistinctionsbetweenpeople,culture,technologies,andthematerial
world;andontheotherwiththetracingofthetransmissionortranslationofagencyamong
humanandnonhumanentities.Assuch,amicroethnographyapproachhastoaddressand
challengetheanthropocentrismofethnographyandanthropologytoattendtononhuman
aswellashumanagenciesinplay.
EventTheobjectofstudyforamicroethnographyofvideogameplaythenisnotamediacultural
practice,
a
human
subject,
or
a
set
of
technologies,
but
rather
the
event
in
which
the
three
cometogether(withthehumanandnonhumanresearchers).Or,moreaccurately,itisthe
eventthatisconstitutedby,andconstitutes,thesepart(icipant)s.Moreover,theevent
foregroundsthetemporaldimensionofvideogameplay,emphasizesthedynamicbetween
theelementsinplay:entitiescomingtogether,materialandaestheticchainsofcauseand
effectorfeedback.DanFlemings(1996)considerationoftheeffectsofdiversecontextsfor
(inthiscase)toysinplayisrelevanthere:
Theeffectswearegoingtobeinterestedinaresimultaneouslyintheformationof
anobjectandinthatobjectsconsequenceswithintheprocessesthatformedit.Ina
way,therefore,itmightbebettertotalkabouteventsratherthanobjects.(pp.
10
11)
Thisresonateswithactornetworktheorysinsistenceon,ontheonehand,theindivisibility
ofhumanandnonhumanagentsandforcesinanytechnosocialnetworkorevent,andon
theother,theimportanceofthenetworkoverindividualobjectsorsubjects.Totakethe
eventastheprimaryobjectofstudy,then,istolookfortherelationshipsconstitutedby,and
constituting,hybridandheterogeneousagents,ratherthanmakingassumptionsaboutthe
primacyofeitherhumanortechnologicalactors.AsBrunoLatour(1992)putsit,
Thedistinctionsbetweenhumansandnonhumans,embodiedordisembodiedskills,
impersonationormachination,arelessinterestingthanthecompletechainalong
whichcompetencesandactionsaredistributed.(p.243)
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Actornetworktheorydemonstratesthattakingtherelationshipsandnetworksthat
constituteobjectsandsubjectsasthefocusofenquiry,ratherthantheobjectsandsubjects
themselves,isapplicabletoalltechnoculturalphenomena,largeandsmall,synchronicand
diachronic.WhereasIwouldarguethatanemphasisontheeventualcouldinformthestudy
ofalltechnoculturalphenomena(notonlythoseinvolvingsophisticatedtechnologies),itis
particularlyuseful
in
the
description
and
analysis
of
videogame
play.
Gameplay
is
avivid
exampleofthegenerationofnewrelationshipsanddistributionsofeffect,affect,and
feedbackineverydaydigitalculture,oftechnicitiesnotreducibletohumanidentityand
competence;aphenomenonthatcanonlybeadequatelyaddressedthrough
acknowledgementofitsbringingtogetherofheterogeneouspart(icipant)s.
Toexplainthismoreclearly,Iwillreferbrieflytoavideomicroethnographicstudyofthe
playingof,andaround,thePCgameLegoRacers2bymytwosons(thenaged3and4years;Giddings,2003,2007).Thecomputergameoffersbotharacetrackanditssurrounding
islandenvironmentforexplorationbyvirtualLegocarsandpeople.Afterenthusiastically
exploringthevirtualenvironmentofthegamesfirstlevel(SandyBay),theboys
transposedits
topography
into
actual
Lego.
Those
features
of
the
game
that
afforded
them
themostpleasure,mountains,cliffs,abeachandthesea,wereeitherconstructedwithLego
orMegaBlocksordrawnonpapertobelainonthefloor.Carsanddriverswereassembled
fromactualLegoandthevirtualracewasnoisilyactualizedinandaroundthenewgame
world.
Childrensplayisoftencharacterizedbythetranslationortranspositionofcharacters,
topographies,andactionfromliteratureandmedia.Inthiseventthough,itbecameclear
thatitwasnotonlythegeographicalfeaturesofSandyBaythatwereactualized(its
mountains
and
coast)
but
also
elements
and
forces
arising
from
its
existence
as
a
ludic
virtualworld.Thisgameworldiscodedtogenerateparticularphysicalforcesand
behaviours,notablyfriction,accelerationandgravity,simulatedforcesdesignedtofacilitate
gameplay,andexplorationratherthancloselyreplicateactualworldphysics.Thereare
resonancesherewiththemushroomstoryrecountedearlier:IntheDooneValley,the
powerupfeatureofvideogames,andits(virtual)dynamicconsequences,weretransposed
fromgameworldtoactualworld.Theemblemmushroomcarrieditsaffectandeffect,
fromthevirtualtotheactual.
Videogameworldsareconstitutedbydifferentpart(icipant)s,differenttypesofvirtual
phenomena,includingobjectsandforces.ThevirtualspaceofLegoRacers2subjectsitsplayerstoarangeofsimulatedphysicalforces.Mostnotably,theboysquickly(and
apparentlyunselfconsciously),acclimatizedthemselvestotheeffectsandpossibilitiesof
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weakenedvirtualgravity.Inbalancingtheforwardmomentumofthecarsinresponsetothe
playersinputwithalunardownwardpull,thisvirtualphysicsbecamealudicelementinits
ownright,asevidencedbytheseboysdelightindrivingtheiravatarcarsupsheercliffsand
plungingthemintothesea.Andagain,theirtranslationofthisvirtualphenomenoninto
actualmovementanddynamicsastheyshifttheirplasticcarsbetweenthebreakneck
velocitiesof
the
living
room
circuit
and
the
slow
motion
bounce
and
plummet
over
the
brick
mountainshighlightsthesevirtualoperations.Aplayfulandvertiginouskinaesthesiais
codedintothegameworld,affordingnewkindsofgames.Itexistsbetweentheoperations
ofalgorithmsandvariablesandtheirengineeringofembodiedsensesofcontroland
resistance.Inthestudyofthisevent,itbecameapparentthatclearconceptualdistinctions
betweenvirtualandactualspaceareunsustainable.Throughplay,theseboysshiftedacross
thesetwospaceswithease,theirplayadaptingtothedifferentenvironments,
environmentalresources,andthecapabilitiesandpossibilitiestheyafforded.Thevirtual
spaceinthiseventofgameplaydoesnottranscendtheeverydayandembodied,itisareal
spacetobeexploredandinwhichtheplayercanact,andbeactedon.Thevirtualandthe
actualarebothreal,andinthiseventwereeachcontainedwithintheother,intertwining,
eachinflected
by
the
other.
Neither
pre
exist
the
play
event
itself
though,
rather
they
are
reciprocallygenerated,producedinandthroughplayevents.1
Videogamesareoftencelebratedasinteractivemedia,asfacilitatinghumanactivityand
agencyinmediacultureandonthescreen.Yetitbecomesclearherethatvideogameplayers
areactedonasmuchastheyact,thattheymustworkoutwhatthemachinewantsthemto
do(orwhatitwillallowthemtodo)aswellasengagewithitimaginatively.Akeytermhere
isagency,orperhapsthelesspoliticallyloadedbehaviour.Neitheragencynorbehaviourcan
berestrictedtothehumanparticipantshere.Moreover,wearenotlookingatclear
distinctionsbetweenhumansubjectsandnonhumanobjects,butthegameeventasone
constitutedbytheplayfultranslationofagency,theeccentriccircuitsofeffectandaffect,
between
human
and
nonhuman
components.
MicroethologyThetermethnographythewritingofpeopleitselfestablishesthehumanasthekey
objectofresearch.Assuch,itisnotadequatetothestudyofeventsconstitutedbyhuman
andnonhumanactors.2InitsplaceIadoptandadaptethology.Thetermethologyoriginates
inthestudyofanimalbehaviour,theaffectsandcapacitiesofanimalsandtheir
environment.GillesDeleuze(1992),withhisrejectionofontologicaldistinctionsbetween
animalandhumanbodies(andpartsofbodies)aswellasbetweentheartificialandthe
natural,extendsethologytostudies,
Which
define
bodies,
animals
or
humans
by
the
affects
they
are
capable
of
.
.
.
Ethologyisfirstofallthestudyoftherelationsofspeedandslowness,ofthe
capacitiesforaffectingandbeingaffectedthatcharacterizeeachthing.Foreach
thingtheserelationsandcapacitieshaveanamplitude,thresholds(maximumand
minimum)andvariationsortransformationsthatarepeculiartothem.Andthey
select,intheworldorinNature,thatwhichcorrespondstothething;thatis,they
selectwhataffectsorisaffectedbythething,whatmovesorismovedbyit...an
animal,athing,isneverseparablefromitsrelationswiththeworld...Thespeedor
slownessofmetabolisms,perceptions,actionsandreactionslinktogetherto
constituteaparticularindividualintheworld.(pp.627628)
ItshouldbenotedthatDeleuzes(1992)useofthetermaffectisnotlimitedtothe
experientialandemotionalaspectsofhumanembodimentandsubjectivity,althoughthese
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latterwouldbeincludedwithinit,or,rather,constitutedasparticularproductsofit.
BodiesforDeleuze(followingSpinoza)arealsoanimals,microscopicparticles,organs,
machines,abodyofliterature,andchemicals.Asthequoteaboveindicates,bodiesare
definedinpartbytheiraffectonthebodiesaroundandwithinthemandbytheaffectthese
otherbodieshaveonthem.Ethologysconcerntheniswithbehaviour.
Animalsaredefinedlessbytheabstractnotionsofgenusandspeciesthanbya
capacityforbeingaffected,bytheaffectionsofwhichtheyarecapablebythe
excitationstowhichtheyreactwithinthelimitsoftheircapability.(Deleuze,1988,p.
27)
Ifthehumanistetymologicalrootsofthetermethnographyareshedalongwithits
anthropocentricpractices,thenwhatthestudyofgameplayneedsisamicroethology,a
studyanddescriptionofthebehaviours,affects,andmutualbecomingsofamicroworldor
themicronatureofpart(icipant)s,offingersandthumbs,mushroomsanddataprojectors,
algorithmsandaptitude,playingbodiesbothhumanandnonhuman,ratherthantheapriori
establishmentof
human,
machinic,
or
textual
bodies
as
the
objects
of
study.
BeyondIdentificationConventionally,infilmandmediastudies,anyeventofscreenmediaengagementis
primarilyreadintermsofpsychicidentificationbyahumansubjectwithrepresentationsof
humansubjectsonthescreen(e.g.,Metz,1985).Inthesmallstudiesunderconsideration
here,suchassumptionsareundermined.Invideogames,ononelevel,theshiftingofplayers
identificationwithscreenimagesisdrivenmorebythedemandsofthevariousgamesin
playthananysenseofideologicalinvestmentbyasubjectpositionedinrelationtoafictional
protagonist.
Otheragenciesareimaginativelydisplacedontoothernonhumanpart(icipant)sintheshift
fromplayinvirtualtoactualworlds.InSuperMonkeyBallforexample,althoughtheplayerchoosesamonkeycharacteraccordingtopersonaltaste(allareextremelycute),to
undertaketheadventureforthem,themonkeysarenotavatars.Thegamedynamicrequires
theplayertocontrolthemonkeysenvironment:itisthevirtuallandscape/architectureor
platformthatistippedandtilted,themonkey(initsball)thatrollsforwardthroughthe
level.Thegamemechanicisbasedinconflictbetweentheplayerandtheveryelementof
thegameimmediatelyengagedwithbytheplayer.Theplatform,whethernarrowbridgeor
trickyjump,
would
seem
to
be
at
once
the
avatar
(the
game
element
under
the
players
control)andtheenemy.Theoriesofidentificationwouldlooktotheplayerssubjective
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investmentintheanthropomorphicmonkeyinhisorherbattleswithhisorher
environment.Yetinthegameworld,theplayersagencyisexercisedthroughthe
environment:theplayerandplatformarelockedtogetherinafeedbacklooptopropelthe
monkey(motivatedonlybyvirtualgravity)toitsgoal.
Anothermicroethnographic
study
illustrates
how
identification
with
(or,
at
least,
pleasure
in
playingwith)screenmediacharactersbecomes,invideogameplay,onlyoneaffectional
relationshipamongmany(Giddings&Kennedy,2008).Inthisstudy,twoplayers(the
researchersthemselves)cooperativelylearntoplaythevideogameLegoStarWars.Theresearchaimwastoidentify,describe,andtheorizethevariousagentsatplay,particularly
thegameworldanditsnonplayercharacterdenizensandtheireffectsandaffectsonthe
humanplayers.Onemomentinthisplayeventillustratessomethingoftheapplication,and
limitation,ofthenotionofidentificationinvideogameplay.Italsoindicatessomethingof
thefrustrationsandexcitementofconstitutinganewgameworld:
H:ImChewie!
H:Youre
Yoda!
You
get
to
be
...Mr.
Wise.
H:ShallIseeifyoucangetkilled?[ratherthanshootingatSeth/YodaasHelen
intends,Helen/Chewiejumpsupanddownonthespot]
S(laughing):Deathbyleapfrog!
H(laughing):Youmayhavethewisewords,butIhavethefancymoves!
[untilthispointSeth/YodahadbeenwalkingslowlyaroundS.findsthatusingthe
jumpbutton(X)andtheleftanaloguesticktriggersamoreenergeticmovement]
S:Imjustmovingthestickalittlebit...Andhesflippingout...
H:Woohoo!Hesfantastic!
H:Yoda!Calmdown!(Giddings&Kennedy,2008,p.23)
Here
then,
the
initial
pleasure
of
the
players
in
recognizing
their
avatars
from
their
knowledgeofthecinematicworldofStarWarsquicklyshiftstoanexplorationofthematerialaffordancesthattheseavatarspossesswithinthegameworldaselementsofthat
softwareworld.Aestheticpleasuresfamiliarfromcinemaandtelevisiondonotdisappear;
rathertheybecomeonepleasureinaset,someofwhichareuniquetodigitalmedia.Or
rather,theyenterintocircuitsofeffectandaffectwiththesenewerpleasures.Hence,the
playershilarityattheYodaavatarsflippingoutisdrivenbytheincongruityofthe
meditative,sagelikefilmcharacterexplodingintospectacularcyberneticactionatthe
slightestnudgeofananaloguestick.
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Ananalyticalfocusonavatarsandnonplayercharacterdenizensrunstheriskofreinforcing
anthropocentrismhowever.Itshouldbenotedthatmuchoftheprogresstowardthe
successfulinstantiationoftheLegoStarWarsgameeventwasachievedbyonesetofactualcomponents(eyes,brains,thumbs,controllers,buttons,etc.)respondingtothesuggestions
ordemands
of
virtual
components.
Grates,
levers,
vents,
and
doors
glow
as
avatars
approachthem,willingtheuseoftheForce(thecirclebuttononthePlayStation2
controller)torevealsecretsortreasure,ordirectingthumbstonudgesticksthatinturn
propelavatarsinthedirectionsofactionsthatthegameasludicsoftwaresystemasa
wholeprefersordemands.Thathumanpart(icipant)sarealsocomposedofpartsthatcome
intoplaywiththepartsofthegamesystemisevidentinthenumerousoccasionsinwhich
theplayersbrainattemptstofireasoftweapon,buthisorherthumbinsistsonmakingthe
avatarjump,whereashisorhereyesmaywellbetrackingacharacteronscreenthatisnot
actuallytheiravatar.
Ashasalreadybeenobserved,toconductamicroethologyimpliesaconcernwiththe
materialoperations
of
affect
as
well
as
(or
before)
any
concern
with
psychic
engagement
withavatarsorotherdiscretegameelements.Asthetermidentificationindicates,notions
of(human)identityandsubjectivityproveveryresilient.Studiesofvideogameplayand
playerstodatenearlyalwaysreproduceaprioriassumptionsoftheprimacyofhuman
agencyandidentity.Theseassumptionsshouldbequestionedon(atleast)twocounts.
First,theplayfulandaestheticrelationshipsbetweenthehumanandthenonhumanthat
constitutethevideogameplayeventarenotonlypsychic,imaginary,significatory,ortextual.
Theyarealsomaterial:mechanicalandcyberneticcircuitsofembodiedfeedbackacrossthe
virtualandtheactual.Second,despitepostmodernistandpoststructuralistclaimstoits
multiplicityoritsdecentring,thecoherenthumansubjectremainsafoundationalobjectof
knowledge
in
cultural
theory.
Although
the
part(icipant)s
in
and
of
Aarseths
(1997)
game/systemarebyandlargenonhuman,theirrefusaltobeamalgamatedintoacoherent
objectorwhole(thegameoracomputer)resonateswithrecentworkinsciencestudies
andmediastudiesthateffectsanalogousoperationsonthefigureofthecoherenthuman
subject.DonnaHaraways(2004)workinthisfieldiskey.Shedescribesobject/bodiesthat
donotpreexistbutwhoseboundariesmaterializeinsocialinteractionamonghumansand
nonhumans,materialsemioticactorsthatincludethemachinesandotherinstrumentsthat
mediateexchangesatcrucialinterfacesandthatfunctionasdelegatesforotheractors
functionsandpurposes(p.68).MatthewFuller(2005),inhisstudyofthetechnocultural
ecologyofpirateradio,paraphrasesNietzschethus,
The
subject
is
merely
a
regent
at
the
head
of
a
communality
of
processes
all
of
whichareinacontinualstateofagitation,inandoutsideofanynamedbody,with
relationsbetweenthemfluctuating.Thesubjectthusemergesfromthesustained
interactionsofthesesubordinateforms...Thesubjectisacaseofperspectival
positionratherthanacategoricalaprioriconditionofknowledge(p.63).
IntheLegoRacersevent,theboyswouldseemtoslipbetweenanumberofidentifications:beingthevirtualLegomenandbeingthevirtualLegocardriverdyadorthe
caritself;beingtheconstructorsofthesemen,cars,andcarmen;beingatoncethechild
playingwiththeactualLegocarmenandcoextensivewiththecarorcarmentheyare
propellingaroundtheroom;beingtheplayerofavideogameandbeingametaplayer
perhapsthecomputer(orgamesystem)itselfinanactualgame.Thenamingofthese
hybridentitiesisnotarhetoricalormetaphoricalmovehowever:amicroethological
8/13/2019 Events and Collusions
11/12
approachwouldlookfortheaffectedandaffectingbodies(orpart(icipant)s)inthisevent.
Thustheplayersherearegeneratedbythegameevent,compiledfrompartsthatare
humanandnonhuman,virtualandactual.
Conclusion:CollusionMicroethnography/microethology
bring
to
cybertextual
analysis
an
attention
to
the
operationsofvirtualcircuitsandcomponentswith,andas,theirrelationshipstohuman
players,hardware,andactualenvironments.Akeychallengeforamicroethologyof
gameplayistodescribeandanalyzethesematerialeventsasgeneratedandconstitutedby
variousbodiesandagentspart(icipant)sbothhumanandnonhuman,hardandsoft
withoutreinscribinghumanistaprioridistinctionsbetweensubjectandobject.Assumptions
orassertionsofsubject/objectdistinctionsingameplay,atbestallowattentiontoonly
someofthegameplayeventscomponents:thescreenimagesbutnotthehumanplayers
behaviours;physicalmovementsbutnotrulesets,andsoon.Butatworse,suchdistinctions
denythecoconstitutionalnatureofgameplayasintense,intimate,andcyberneticas
relationsandtransformationsofspeed,slowness,andaffectbetweenallpart(icipant)s:they
breakthe
circuit.
Whatmightthestartingpoint,thefocus,beofamicroethologyofgameplay?Inplaceof
identificationastheprivilegedtermfortherelationshipofhumanandnonhumanin
videogameplay,Isuggestcollusion.Thewordhasaludicetymology(colusion),soto
colludeisnotonlytoworkwithanotheroractinconcertwith,butalsotoactinplay,
tocometogetherin,andas,play.Theworddoesnotinitselfassumeanythingaboutthe
natureofthecolludingentities,butindicatesthevideogamesmaterialdistributionof
agenciesandthepositioningofagents,bodies,orpart(icipant)s.Theeventisconstitutedby
thecomingtogetherinplay,thecollusionofmaterialandimaginaryelements:the
operationsofgames(theirconventions,rules,andprescriptions),embodiedknowledgeand
technicities
(and
pleasures,
anxieties,
frustrations,
imagination),
play
practices
(role
play,
toyplay),screenmediaimagesandcharacters,virtualgameworlds(andtheirphysics,
automata,andaffordances),andallsortsofbodies.
Questioningtheconceptualcentralityofthehumansubjectdoesnotmeanthathuman
desires,anxieties,identifications,andinvestmentsarenotinplayinmediatechnoculture.In
theeventsbrieflydescribedabove,thedifferentgamesarespunintobeing,throughthe
tastes,personalities,andabilitiesthetechnicitiesofthehumanpart(icipant)saswellas
thematerialaffordancesofcomputerhardwareandsoftwaresimulacra,andbeyondinto
whateverresourcesareathandforplay,includingactualtoadstoolsandfields.Ifcodeand
informationmustbeunderstoodasreal,material,oftheworld,thensotoocanthe
intangible
yet
real,
embodied
yet
distributed,
monstrous,
operations
of
human
partsperception,imagination,creativity,anxiety,playwithoutalwaysalreadyreducingtheseto
thereassuringsynechdochesofidentityandsubjectivity.
8/13/2019 Events and Collusions
12/12
Notes1.SeeGiddings(2007)forafulleraccountofthisstudy
2.Indeed,followingLatour(1992),thereisnoinstanceofcultureorsociallifeconstituted
onlybyhumanactors:Theculturalisalwaystechnocultural.
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