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discovering neutrinos:
from the earth...the sun... our sister galaxy...
...next a galactic center?
L. R. Sulak
CPPM Marseille and Boston University
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from Dumand & IMB... thru Super K
...and onto Antares today, the first of two talks
…an experimenter’s tribute to Maury Shapiro...
L. R. Sulak
CPPM Marseille and Boston University
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...homage to Maury, godfather to Dumand, IMB, & the legacy of detectors that followed
...even those still on their way
for precocious support of neutrino astrophysics... water Cherenkov and acoustic detection techniques, proton decay & neutrino oscillation searches
MS born the year of Einstein’s General Relativity...destined for physics off to Los Alamos in ’44, with all the greats, + Val Fitch
Cosmic Ray Lab at Naval Research Lab...Navy funds my PhDstimulating water Č detection since ’76 study of Dumand
inspiring young scientists for > 28 years when I met him
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...a retrospective on detection by Cherenkov light in water,
and a perspective for the next 4 years
invention of technology: massive, pixellated, time and amplitudeDumand IMB
evolution Kamioka to Super-K
astro discoveries! terrestrial neutrinos confirmed IMB
extra-terrestrial neutrinos...solar Kextra-galactic neutrinos...Magellanic Cloud IMB & K
particle physics! neutrino oscillation and massyet to come?
AGN & BZS neutrinos (Amanda) & Antares (IceCube & Km3)
proton decay, CP violation (Megaton)
...a personal commentary...evolution of neutrino astrophysics...
Retrospective of 4 ring-imaging Cherenkov Detectors:
muon telescope, prematurely terminated (with SSC), then reborn
Dumand ’76-’93 0.1 km2 1 km3 7 countries, off Hawaii
Antares ’05 8 countries, off France
world’s largest calorimeters IMB ’81 10 kilotons 2k pms salt mine, Ohio Kamiokande ’83 3 kilotons 1k pms heavy metal mine, Japan
Super-K ’96 50 kilotons 13k pms 2nd Kamioka site
detectors color-coded throughout talks
see other talks for details and other experiments: e.g. Goodman, Kuzmin, Mikheyev, Migneco, Postnov, Silvestri, Stanev...
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IMB 1981
2000 - 5” EMI pms, time & pe
25 Mev threshold
reverse osmosis water, world’s purist water, > 50m
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Kamiokande 1983:
1000 - inch pms40% photocathode coverageouter veto
7 MeV threshold, for sun
1 km underground...for sun = 2.7 km of water,
Antares depth, 2x Amanda
initially no timing, minimal water filtering
remedied in Kamioka III, 1986
Super-K 1996
half way up first filling
inner detector:
11,000 20 inch pms
outer detector (not visible):
reconfigured IMB III
2,000 8 inch pms with
wavelength-shifting
light collectors
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Dumand (1987) : 7 - 15” photomultipliers in 17” Benthos spheres
short prototype string deployment
1 week operation
to 4.5 km depth
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Antares (2004-6): 900 pms, 12 lines, 25 stories/line, 3 pms/story
~70 m
350 m
100 m
14.5 m
Submarine links
JunctionBox
40 km toshore
Line anchor
“Proc. Dumand Summer Workshop,” 1976, LRS
with Markov & Zheleznykh’s inspiration,
ultra high energy neutrino signatures
for Dumand (and successors)
1) long penetrating muon tracks,
mostly with minimal light
2) short bright hadronic showers
if vertex “nearby”
signature, & light attenuation length,
set spacing & size of light sensors
the challenge...
reconstructing energy and direction of particle tracks using
light intensity
arrival time
Proc. Dumand Summer Workshop, 1976, LRS
Dumand array concept:
~ the same in Antares
similar in IMB, Amanda...
“Proc. Dumand Summer Workshop,” 1976
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the Dumand site:
same distance to shore
as Antares
4.8 km deep: atm shielding
2x Antares, 4x Amanda
...we were conservative in ’76 “Proc. Dumand Summer Workshop,” 1976
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an optical module:
photomultipler housing,
precursor for Amanda, Antares
without Benthos spheres,
similar for IMB, then
Kamioka and Super-K
Dumand concept:
line deployment
...conclusion of Dumand ’76 Workshop:
...stage was set...for a massive “land-based” prototype...IMB
...when PDK impetus came,
10 kiloton prototype design study
immersed hemispherical pms single photoelectrons (1/4 pe lsb)
2-scale “waveform digitization” 1 ns for directionality
0.1 s, muon decaydeadtimeless
calibration
LED ball, N2 laser, muon decay
Cortez, Foster, Levi, LoSecco
LRS: “Madison Meeting on Proton Stability,” D. Cline, ed., December 1978
LRS: Erice 1980, “Neutrino ’79,” Bergen & “FWOGU,” 1980
...a 0.5 MeV muon track...
what does it look like?
LRS: Erice 1980, “Neutrino ’79,” Bergen & “FWOGU”, 1980
...why is timing so important?
Cherenkov light is directiona
~ 1 ns resolution few degrees
IMB Status at Erice 1980:
Proton decay detector details
and
First proposal of neutrino oscillation search over baseline of earth via up/down /e asymmetry
critical in securing DOE funding
LRS: also “FWOGU” 1980
IMB I:
after 1 year operation,
5% of pms crack
...reverse osmosis
too clean
IMB II:
replace 5” EMI pms
with 8” Hamamatsu pms...
designed using IMB
photoelectron tracing code
IMB III:
add wavelength shifting
light collector plates
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IMB III (1983) 2000 - 8 inch pms and light collectorsdry suit diver/physicist
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IMB: best proton decay candidate...pm code = timing in color, 1 pe/slash
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26
Nucleon Lifetime Limits
IMB: 45 decay modes
mass is everything,
MEGATON is needed
McGrew 2003
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atm s: up-going , as well as contained events...red entry, yellow exit...
IMB: Do the neutrino-induced up-going muons point back to a source?
…sun, moon, galactic center? with 496 IMB events, no...with Super-K? no, see Shantanu Desai’s recent PhD
too small! need Amanda, Antares, IceCube, Km3
Galactic
Latitude
Galactic Longitude
“Supersymmetry... has generated so many thousands of papers it must be correct” Shelly Glashow
…at 07:35:35 UT…bam…b-bam bam bam…8 times in IMB …11 in Kamioka
…an entire sun implodes, explodes...in 13 seconds
Super Nova…all heavy elements are born....iodine, silver, gold...
the night before 23 Feb > 4 hours after neutrino burst
…all detectors hit at the same time…time encoded in color
…each with a beautiful Cherenkov ring
…with your eye at the vertex of the 3rd event...
...100 billion neutrinos per cm2
SuperNova!
Cover Story
...but Kamioka found no muon anomaly (e.g.Kajita PhD ’86)...until ‘88
IMB “anomaly:” see only 75% of expected muon-neutrinos...
conclusion...
Technology driven by the science:pixelated, ring-imaging Cherenkov calorimetry...proven
submersible, depth-tolerant pms and electronicssingle photoelectron operationpattern recognition and directionality
Astro-neutrino physics discoveries:first physics beyond standard model
neutrino mass and oscillation...most cited paper of all timefirst extra-terrestrial neutrinos, imaging sun with themfirst extra-galactic neutrinos – SN 1987A
grand unification still the ultimate goal,
...and annihilations, high energy point sources etc. await discovery!
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Maury, on behalf of your experimental friends, and me,
from Dumand, IMB, Super-K and Antares,
we thank you for your seminal cosmic ray work and for your intellectural support of our experiments
…pursuing cosmic ray and neutrino astrophysics...
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...dedicated to you, the new generation of astrophysicists...
discovering neutrinos:
from the earth...the sun... our sister galaxy...
...next a galactic center?
L. R. Sulak
CPPM Marseille and Boston University
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from Dumand & IMB... thru Super K
...and onto Antares today, the second of two talks
…an experimenter’s view of technical details
L. R. Sulak
CPPM Marseille and Boston University
...a retrospective on detection by Cherenkov light in water,
and a perspective for the next 4 years
invention of technology: massive, pixellated, time, amplitude IMB
Dumand to Antares evolution
Kamioka and Super-K astro discoveries! terrestrial neutrinos confirmed IMB extra-galactic neutrinos...Magellanic Cloud IMB & K
extra-terrestrial neutrinos...solar K particle physics! neutrino oscillation and mass yet to come?
AGN & BZS neutrinos Amanda, IceCube Silvestri Km3 Migneco acoustic detection
proton decay, CP violation Megaton
Kamioka II 1987: with timing by U. Penn & Cortez, & Rn purification
...low energy electron-neutrino events point back to the sun!
...with hi statistics, Super-K sees only 47% of expected solar model flux
22,400 solar neutrino events
15 events/day
Direction cosine to the sun
pointing neutrinos from the peak back to find their origin...
…Kamioka and Super-K “see” the sun…a neutrino heliographfrom Svoboda
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...but tubes from Kamioka not tested at Super-K depth!!!
Super-K II (2003): a typical muon-neutrino event
...in time with beam pulse from KEK accelerator 300 km away
...sharp ring edges characteristic of a muon track
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typical electron track...fuzzy at edges
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but 30% of muon neutrinos missing...those coming up through the earth
...six other different samples of neutrino data behave similarly
neutrinos are missing with high statistical significance...
...consistent with original IMB anomaly and later Kamiokande results ...but not with much smaller iron detectors
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Dumand 1987:
Optical Module Fabrication ...magnetic shielding and
Boston electronics visible
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Dumand Short Prototype String Assembly:
0.5 km optical and electrical cables
kevlar support cables
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String controller distribution box...power (black) and optic fibers (red)
Dumand ’87
deployment of string controller
view of middle of string with
power converters
1 GHz digitizer
optical multiplexer/demultiplexer
1 of the 7 optical modules seen in front
Dumand ‘87:
laying of cable
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Dumand: winch laying cable and junction box
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Junction box deployment,
with cable to shore
Dumand ’87:
junction box resting
on the bottom
at 4.8 km
now
...fast forward to Antares
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...why 2 detectors? viewing the heavens below each detector...
AMANDA (South Pole)ANTARES (43° North)
Never seenPSR B1706-44
RXJ 1713.7-39
Mkn 421
Mkn 501
PKS 2155-30
SN1006
VELA
CRAB
CasA
1ES2344+514
galactic center only seen by Antares, but good overlap...sun, and any SUSY anihilations from it, always at Amanda’s horizon
...complementary telescopes necessary in both hemispheres
~Never seen
PSR B1706-44
RXJ 1713.7-39
Mkn 421
Mkn 501
PKS 2155-30
SN1006
VELA
CRAB
CasA
1ES2344+514
master local control module
buoy
LED beacon local control module
string control module andstring power module
interlink cable withwet-mateable connector
acoustic beacon
acoustic receiver
3 optical modules
acoustic receiver
12m
100m
acousticreleases
anchor
Antares preproduction prototype (2002-3)...1 of ~ 20 sea campaigns
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deployment of Antares preproduction prototype 2002
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underwater connection to prototype:
manned sub 1 of 4 from Ifremer based at Toulon, FR
Antares
prototype:
spool out cable
from string
bottom to
junction box
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plugging the pre-production string at 2.4 km depth
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plugging line from prototype string into the junction box
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junction box at depth, with prototype string connected
Neutrino 2004 - L. Sulak 69
Nestor prototype...off of Greece“Star” Deployment March 2003
6 blue optical modules
2 pm’s each
6 yellow floats
above pix:
white lines to bouy
red line to LED beacon
below, unseen:
lines to junction box
17 June 2004 70
Run: 63_37 Event: 396
Track Candidate
Number of Hits
Number of Used
Hits
Number of Degrees
of Freedom
Zenith Angle
(Degrees)
Azimuth Angle
(Degrees)
Impact Parameter
(m)
Pseudovertexχ2 -lnLch
Vx (m) Vy (m) Vz (m)
1 7 7 2 30 (± 35)
82 ±3) 11 11(± 21)
30 (± 23)
42(± 9)
3 36.5
2 7 7 2 101(± 10)
33(± 29)
9 43(± 15)
32(± 16)
-4(± 8)
2.7 30.3
Nestor: 800 events from 106 4-fold triggers
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Zenith Angle (degrees)
(1/N
)dN
/dco
s(θ)
M.C. Prediction
Data Points
Angular Fits to Nestor Raw DataAngular Fits to Nestor Raw Data
Nestor measurement of atmospheric muon flux
...another existence proof for deep underwater technology
conclusions for the water Cherenkov detectors...
Technology driven by the science:pixelated, ring-imaging Cherenkov calorimetry...proven
submersible, depth-tolerant pms and electronicssingle photoelectron operation to maximize sensitivitydirectionality from timingpattern recognition for electron/muon discrimination
Astro-neutrino physics discoveries:first physics beyond standard model
neutrino mass and oscillation...most cited paper of all timefirst extra-terrestrial neutrinos, imaging sun with themfirst extra-galactic neutrinos – SN 1987A
grand unification still an ultimate goal,
...and annihilations, high energy point sources etc await discovery too!
a new era since 1998, the discovery of neutrino mass and oscillations
now a panoply of key, very difficult, neutrino physics experiments
precision neutrino oscillation parameters
...search for CP violation in a new sector of nature
neutrinoless double beta decay: is the neutrino its own antiparticle? absolute mass scale of neutrinos...the problem of mass
neutrino astronomy
all point to a high energy scale, possibly Grand Unification scale
each goal has very different needs
neutrino sources...flux, energy, baseline
detectors...shielding, depth, volume
neutrino physics: as important as searching for electroweak scale at LHC!
... neutrinos merit the many required new facilities
...
...in your future...
Evolution of Neutrino Research Worldwide
Facility Detectors Neutrino Source
SNOLab SNO→SNO+ →SNO++ Bruce Reactor
, Dark Matter + ...
Soudan Lab Minos → NOA NuMI → p driver
Kamioka Lab SK → Hyper-K K2K → T2K KEK → JPARC
Kamland → new reactor
Gran Sasso Lab Opera, Icarus CNGS → SPL
Modane Lab → Megaton CERN → SPL
South Pole Amanda → IceCube astro-neutrinos
Mediterranean Antares/Nemo/Nestor → Km3 astro-neutrinos
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...time limits talk to selected future operations
SNOLab... “new” international lab, in transition
$50 M expansion program to accommodate many experiments
SNO detector evolution
Km3 astrophysical observatory... 3 sites and 2 technologies Migneco
first data from Nestor prototype “star”
construction of 12 “string” Antares underway
Km3 engineering, site study (10 M Euro) in approval process
Frejus Lab...a home for Megaton...an Italian/French initiative
potentially with ideal beams from CERN
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beside “my back yard,” why so many facilities?
for Megaton... the bigger the cavity better, deeper not necessarily better
for solar & sensitive exp’ts the deeper, the better e.g. spallation from muons impossible for IMB to do solar neutrinos
...consider SNO at Sudbury
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...Letters of Intent, presentations from May…
Prospective Experiments at New SNOLab International Facility
6 kmwe, deepest int’l facility: 70 muons/day vs. 26,000/day at Kamioka
2 new halls, 30m x 15m, approved (~1/2 size vs. Gran Sasso), $50 M upgrades
potentially in new halls, starting ‘07: Dark Matter Searches
CDMS vs Soudan, SNO depth minimizes muon-induced fast neutrons
ZEPLIN dark matter with liquid scintillator, if Boulby is not deep enough
CLEAN 1 T (10 T for solar ) self-shielded, scintillating liquid Ne/Xe*
XENON drifting charge dark matter search - R & D
DRIFT dark matter with pointing using low pressure TPC:
PICASSO acoustic detection of nuclear recoil with superheated bubbles in gel
Neutrino Experiments
HALO SNO 3He detectors with Pb, supernova neutrinos
Noble Liquid Tracking Detectors for solar neutrinos with He or Xe
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Double Beta Decay searches
Majorana 500 kg of Ge detectors for : scale up of known technology
GERDA (~GENIUS) 1 T Ge crystals in clean Liq N2, no housings, self-shielded
EXO Xe TPC, with laser fluorescence tag of Ba upon decay
COBRA CdZnTe...semiconductor, all 3 candidates
with the SNO Detector or Cavity
after 3He neutral current work is done, SNO Phase III over, D2O comes out in ’07
SNO+ geo and reactor neutrinos: fill with scintillator
with n tag, get 700 kT fiducial
SNO++ Decay: scintillator + 1 Ton of Te or Nb nanocrystals
or + 2 Ton Xe dissolved gas
SNO best facility in world for almost all experiments?
...except cavity size too small for Megaton
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...potential future of SNO+ Detector, for geo and reactor neutrinos...
A Closer Look at SNO+
infrastructure for low background work
e.g. low Rn cover gas (N2), 1 neutron capture/day from U&Th
1 kT of low background liquid scintillator, as in KamLAND w/ 10-17
Geo electron anti-neutrinos
energy = 3.4 MeV - 1.8 MeV Q = 1.6 MeV positron + 1 MeV e+e- annihilation = 2.6 MeV deposited
KamLAND at 180 km from reactors looks for geo at <2.6 MeV
but overwhelmed by 2nd oscillation minimum at 3 MeV
...hard to extract geo since reactor spectrum distorted just there
and only ~40 geoneutrinos per year
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...geo-neutrinos and reactor neutrinos difficult to separate
...the geoneutrino signal to noise in KamLAND:
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... SNO+ vs. KamLAND: how important is distance from reactor?
SNO+ is 240 km from 14 GW Bruce vs KamLAND at 180 km from 80 GW
2nd reactor oscillation minimum moves up x 1.5 to 5 MeVreactor flux is max
no geo signal >3.4 MeV ...clean for reactor neutrinosnarrower dip sharper spectral distortion
a notch at 5 MeV 80 events / year, if no reactor oscillations
note subtle difference in pattern with Casper’s Oscillator
for geo-neutrinos, look < 2.6 MeV, at SNO+ many fewer reactor neutrinos (1 reactor, further away)
oscillation pattern smeared out64 geo-neutrino events / year vs. 29 at KamLAND & 10 at Borexino
U/Th neutrino source thick continental crust, vs. the thin coastal crust in Japan
SNO+... ideal to separate geo from reactor neutrinos
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KamLAND
D. Casper’s Oscillator
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D. Casper’s Oscillator
SNO+
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...again using the great depth...
SNO+ as low energy solar neutrino detector
7Be 0.86 MeV line
10% calculational, 40% experimental uncertainty...difficult
pep 1.44 MeV line...a precision measurement
1% predicted uncertainty...3000/year oscillated
muon-induced 11C → e+ gives 1 MeV within 20 minutes
untenable background in KamLAND and Borexino due to lack of depth
SNO+ : with only 70 muons/day
track muon and veto 1 m radius around it
17 June 2004
...the other lab with a rebirth...
Modane Megaton detector: two possible cavities, both ~130 km to CERN
Fréjus I required second tunnel, near the present lab, ’05-’08
deep covering, 4800 mwe
dry rock, good quality, well known
Fréjus II 15 km experimental tunnel for new Lyon-Torino TGV train
(actual train tunnel to be longest and deepest in Europe)
endorsed by Chirac and Berlusconi last month
covering of 7000 mwe
rock expected to be hard, but not yet studied
potentially water, since glaciers above
13 km (12 870 m)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2122 232425262728293031323334
70m x 70m x 250m
France Italy
Future Lab.
Present road Tunnel at Fréjus (grey)andfuture Tunnel (black) for safety with 34 bypasses (shelters)connecting the two Tunnels
EU: build Megaton for proton decay and supernova while tunneling;
super and beta beams later
JPARC/T2K: Hyper-K and 2 MW proton source upgrade tentative,
wait for proton decay hint at Super-K, or
favorable θ13 measurement in T2K
...Hyper-K could be much later than EU detector
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Advantages of Frejus Sites
independent, horizontal access
neutrino super-beams and beta beams likely upgrades to CERN
at “magic distance” and right L/E (130 km / 0.3 GeV) for those beams
if LEP RF cavities recycled, 2.2 GeV protons give 0.3 GeV higher energy, muon/pion discrimination a problem
lower energy, muons don’t make enough Cherenkov light in water
(further away, higher E, as in US, e/o/ separation a problem for Č
Italian / French joint initiative
“extension” of Gran Sasso Lab... water prevents a Megaton cavity there
preliminary study of large cavity (106 m3) at both Fréjus sites
maximum possible size of cavity for each of 3 shapes?
cost and time of excavation?
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...under study Modane “Megaton,” 2 detector technologies, 3 geometries
1 MT water Cherenkov à la Hyper-K
100 kT liquid argon
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...conclusions...
new recognition of importance of neutrino physics relative to electroweak symmetry breaking
necessity of coupled source / detector facilities
synergism with proton drivers at CERN, FNAL, JPARC increased luminosity and intensity for other experimentsradioactive ion beams...nuclear, biology, medicinenaturally lead to hot neutrino beams
in next two years: results expected fromAntares, Minos...as well as many other experiments
longer term: significant promise for IceCube, Km3, Megaton, Hyper-K
...bright future for neutrino facilities, near, medium and long term
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Acknowledgements
It is a pleasure to express my appreciation to my following collaborators for contributing material for this review
John Learned Dumand photographs
John LoSecco IMB historical documentation
Clark McGrew Proton Decay Limits, 2003
Masayuki Nakahata Kamiokande historical data and archives
Robert Svoboda Super-K neutrino heliograph
‘76 Dumand conceptually designed‘78 10 kTon design study ’79 IMB proposes PDK and e/ ratio‘81 IMB turns on‘83 IMB: no proton decay! no SU5 Grand Unification! Foster,Cortez PhD
Kamioka turns on ‘86 IMB anomaly: 25% of atmospheric muon-neutrinos missing‘87 Dumand string of 7 optical modules down to 4.5 km depth for week
IMB + Kamioka: neutrinos from Supernova 1987a ‘88 Kamioka image sun in neutrino light Nobel Prize ‘02 Kamioka confirms missing muon-neutrinos’89 Dumand funding approved for 0.1 km2 array‘93 Dumand funding lapses along with SSC
Antares R&D starts‘96 Super-K turn-on, outer detector = IMB ‘98 Super-K: establishes muon-neutrinos oscillate, have mass‘01 Super-K: solar electron-neutrinos oscillate too’04 Antares deployment starts
Cronological Milestones for the 5 Detectors