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CulturalDiplomacy:Whatisit?Whatisitnot?AndwhyshouldTaiwancare?

ProfessorGaryRawnsley1

UniversityofNottinghamNingboChina

‘…theideaofsoftpowerdatesbacktoancientChineseandIndianphilosophers

suchasLaoTsuandKavtilya.KungFuandYogacametoAmericalongbefore

MacDonald’swenttoTiananmenSquareanddiscothequescametoDelhi’

(ChidanandRajghatta,‘Sweetarethewaysofmangodiplomacy,’TimesofIndia,

22November,2009).

AsChidanandRajghattaobservesinthequotationabove,culturaldiplomacyhas

longbeenrecognisedasameansofinternationalengagementandhasitsorigins

farbeyondEuropeorAmerica.ThefirstrecordedexampleofChina’s‘panda

diplomacyoccurredinin685whenEmpressWuZetiangaveapairofpandasas

agifttoJapan’sEmperorTenmu.NicholasJ.Cull(2019:63)remindsusthatthe

IndianrulerAshokatheGreatpracticedculturaldiplomacybyexporting

Buddhismtoneighbouringkingdoms,whiletheFrenchEnlightenmentofthe18th

CenturyinspiredthewholeofEurope.Meanwhile,MichaelL.Krenn(2017:

Chapter1)datesthebeginningofAmerica’sculturaldiplomacyto1787when

ThomasJeffersonsentGeorges-LouisLeclerc,ComteDeBuffon,adeadmooseto

challengehisthesisofAmerican‘degeneracy’.

1IwishtothanktheSchoolofInternationalStudiesatUNNCforprovidingaSmallResearchGrantthathelpedfundthisproject.Also,IamindebtedtomyResearchAssistantAbbieKuoPin-Yu,aUNNCstudent,forherinvaluablehelpincollectingup-to-datematerialaboutTaiwan’sculturaldiplomacy.

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Despite–orperhapsbecauseof–thislonghistoryculturaldiplomacy

remainsanelusiveandcontestedconceptandpractice.Usedinterchangeably

with‘culturalrelations’and‘culturalexchange’,culturaldiplomacyisoften

confusedwithpublicdiplomacyandsoftpower.Governmentsaroundtheworld,

includingthoseofTaiwanandthePeople’sRepublicofChina(PRC),privilegethe

attractionofculturalprogrammestogeneratefamiliaritywiththeircountries

andelicitsupportfortheirnationalvalues,politicalagendas,andforeignpolicy

ambitions.However,itisnotclearthatgovernmentsalwaysunderstand

adequatelyhowtomobilisethetalentsoftheculturalindustriestofurther

engagewithaudiencesoverseas.InthispaperIwilloutlinetheconceptof

conceptofculturaldiplomacyanddifferentiateitfromothertypesofstrategic

communications.Inparticular,Iwillconsiderthelimitationsofcultural

diplomacyandsuggestthatgovernmentsworkbestbyfacilitatingcultural

relations,nurturedbytheculturalindustriesthemselveswithlittlepolitical

involvement.Thisinturnconnectswithmyunderstandingofsoftpowerthat

focusesmoreonpoliticalculturethanotherdefinitionsthatconvergeonitsmore

‘soft’andculturalaspects.

Thepaperdrawuponavarietyofcase-studiestointroducethese

concepts,butwillfocusspecificallyonTaiwanwhichisonlyjustbeginningto

appreciatethevalueofbothculturaldiplomacyandculturalrelations.Iwill

proceedtoanswerthreequestions:

1. Whatisculturaldiplomacyandhowdoesitrelatetosoftpower

andculturalrelations?

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2. Whyareculturaldiplomacyandculturalrelationsimportantfor

Taiwaninparticular?

3. HowhasTaiwanpracticedculturaldiplomacyandcultural

relations,andcanweassesstheirvalueandimpact?

Whatisculturaldiplomacy?In2006,AmbassadorCynthiaP.Schneiderpublishedapaperwiththetitle,

‘CulturalDiplomacy:HardtoDefine,ButYou’dKnowItIfYouSawIt’–hardly

helpfulandlackingtheprecisionsobelovedofthesocialsciences.However,the

vaguecharacterofculturaldiplomacyispartproblem,partopportunity.It

challengesthesocialscientistwholikestocategoriseandboxtheconceptsshe

encounters,butitalsoopensupnewlayersofanalysisthatdefyrestrictionand

permitsfluidity.Certainlyweneedtobeawareofthefluidnatureofcultural

diplomacyandculturalrelationsandbewareattemptstoclassifystrictlythe

culturalactivitieswewitness,forculturaldiplomacysurvivesandthrives

throughinteractionsamongmultipleactorsonmultiplelevels.Onewayto

understandthisisbyexploringtheconnectionbetweenculturaldiplomacyand

softpower.AsIwillargueinthispaper,thisisaparticularlyrelevantdiscussion

forTaiwanthatisrichinbothsoftpowerandculturalassets.Understandingthis

relationshipwillhelpusappreciatehowTaiwanmayuseitsculturalcapacityto

communicatebetteritssoftpower.

Culturaldiplomacyisnotsoftpower.Softpowerisaresource,while

culturaldiplomacyisaninstrument.Softpowermaybebasedontheattractive

qualities–theideas,principles,values,andultimatelythebehaviourand

thereforecredibilityandmoralauthority–oftheagentinquestion.Itisa

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politicalconceptandadvocatesmustrecognisethatgeneratingsoftpowerturns

onthepoliticalratherthantheartisticculture.Itssuccessispredicatedonthe

factthatactionsspeaklouderthanwords,andthathowgovernments,states,

politicalinstitutionsandactorsorganise,behave,treatpeopleathomeand

abroad,andthefriendstheychooseallcommunicateafarmorecommanding

narrativethanwordsorartalone.Itisthepowerofexample,ofmoralauthority.

Culturaldiplomacy,aninstrumentforcommunicatingsoftpower

generatedelsewhere,isdefinedasthedeliberateactofculturalengagement

overseasdesignedtoachievepurposesbeyondartforart’ssake.Theterm

describespurposefulprogrammesoractivitiessponsoredororganisedbythe

governmentanditsagenciesthatwishtousecultureasawayofadvancing

political,strategic,ornationalinterests.Itisagovernment-ledpracticedesigned

toreinforcethenationalandinternationalrepresentationundertakenbyenvoys.

Itsnearcousin,culturalrelationsrepresentformsofengagementwithout,

andsometimesdespitegovernmentintervention.Theytendtobeorganisedand

undertakenbytheculturalindustriesthemselvesandaremoreconcernedwith

artsforart’ssake,ratherthanpursuingspecificpoliticalobjectives.NickCull

describesthiskindofactivityashaving‘outcomesthatcanbelooselybeneficial

ratherthanspecificallygoaloriented’(Cull,2019:62).Culturalrelations,

workinginthelong-term,aremosteffectivewhentheymaintainadistancefrom

governmentandpoliticalagendas.

Culturalrelationshipsmayalsobeforgedineverydayarenasof

engagement,forexamplethroughthepresenceofoverseasstudentsinanation’s

highereducationsystem,orthroughinteractionwithdiasporacommunities.By

workingthroughcivilsocietyratherthanthroughgovernmentsponsored

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activitiesandprogrammes,culturalrelationsprovideopportunitiestopromote

mutualunderstandingthatarenotpresentinculturaldiplomacythatmay

proceedwithsignificantpoliticalbaggage.Onenotableandsuccessfulexampleof

howsuchengagementcanpromoteinterculturalinteractionandunderstanding

istheEast-WestDivanOrchestra,foundedbyDanielBarenboimandEdward

SaidtobringtogethermusiciansofArabandJewishbackground.

Ofcourse,thedistinctionbetweenculturaldiplomacyandcultural

relationsisonemajorsiteoffluidity.Politicalforces,bothdomesticandforeign,

dointerferewiththeactivitiesoftheculturalindustries,therebyerodingtheidea

thatculturalrelationsarebynaturealwaysnon-political.

First,somegovernmentsbelievethatthepursuitofforeignpolicy

objectivesthroughculturalmeansrequiresalevelofinterventionifnotcontrol.

IntheUS,tensionsbetweenofficialparticipantsinculturaldiplomacy,especially

theDepartmentofState,andtheprivateculturalsectorhavebeenacutesince

theStateDepartmentdecidedtointerfereintheirorganisationandactivities

after9/11(Krenn:154).

Second,somegovernmentsbelieveitisnecessarytobuildandprotect

localculturalindustries:SouthKorea,Franceandelsewhereusequotasystems

tolimitthenumberofHollywoodmoviesshowninlocalcinemas(Freeman,

2003).

Third,governmentsareenablersforculturalrelations.Theyhelpbuild

andmaintainthesystemsandprocessthatallowthecreativeandcultural

industriestoworkandengageinoutreachactivities.Thismaybeachievedvia

thecreationofmorelenienttaxregimes,orhelpingtosecurevisasfortravelinto

oroutofthecountry,buildingstadiums,subsidiesformuseumsandheritage

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sites,etc.ItisdifficulttoimaginetheregionalsuccessoftheHalyuWaveand

KPopwithoutsubstantialgovernmentinvestmentfollowingthe1997financial

crisis(Hong,2014).

Fourth,culturehasbeenusedasatacticalinstrumentinotherwaysto

achievespecificpoliticalgoalsorobjectives.Themostvisiblearecultural

boycottsthatareorganisedtoprotestthepoliticalbehaviourofgovernments.

Thisgoesagainsttheideathatculturepromotesmutualunderstanding,

preferringinsteadtorestrictnormalculturalrelations(Mitchell,1986:6).

ExamplesincludeartisticandculturalboycottsinApartheid-eraSouthAfrica;

andthetit-for-tatboycottbytheUSandUSSRofthe1980and1984Olympic

Games.

Fifth,thethreatof‘culturalimperialism’givesgovernmentsapowerful

incentivetointerveneintheculturallifeoftheircountryandlimitaccessto

culturalproductsfromoutsidenationalborders.AsLeehasnoted,‘Atargetmay

findasender’spromotionofculturalandpoliticalvalues(suchasdemocracy)to

beanactofcoercion,notpersuasion.Asender’sculturalandpoliticalvalues

themselvesmaybeinterpretedbyatargetstatetobethepotentialsourceof

threattosociety’(Lee,2011,p.22).Thusitisimportanttorecognisethat

audiencescaninterpretculturaldiplomacyinanentirelydifferentwayfromhow

itscreatororsourceintended.Afterall,cultureishighlysubjectiveandwillbe

interpretedbyaudiencesindifferentways,eitherbecauseofartisticdifferences

orpoliticalconviction.Thepurposeofculturaldiplomacyorculturalrelations

maybemutualunderstandingandrespect,butrecipientsmayseethemotivation

inaverydifferentlight.Consumingaculturalproductdoesnotnecessarilyresult

inachangeinopinionorbehaviourtowardsthesource(McConnell,2008).

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Fraser(2003:229)remindsusthataftertheendoftheSecondWorldWar,

‘ManyFrenchintellectualslikedAmericanjazzmusic,butpoliticallythey

embracedtheslogan“YankeeGoHome!”FortheFrench,Americawasatonce

fascinatingandrepugnant.’

Maintainingasmuchdistanceaspossible–betweenbothgovernments

andtheculturalindustries,andbetweenpromotingcultureforspecificpolitical

agendasandengaginginartforart’ssake-iscertainlyworthwhileand

contributestothesuccessofculturaldiplomacy.However,ifweacceptthatthe

successofculturaldiplomacyisinthegiftoftheaudience(infact,audiences

decidewhethertointerpretaparticularprogrammeasculturaldiplomacy,

propaganda,orsomeotherformofinfluence)thenitisclearthatcreatinga

robustfirewallbetweengovernmentsandtheculturalindustriesisnota

panacea.

FortheremainderofthispaperIwillusethetermculturaldiplomacyto

encompassculturalrelations,unlessinlookingatdiscretepracticesIwishtobe

specificabouttheirdistinction.

Inunderstandinghowactors,organisationsandstatesinteractculturallywith

audiencesoverseas,wearealsoobtainingaglimpseintothepoliticalcultures

thatgeneratesoftpower.Thusweshouldnotfocusexclusivelyoncultural

products–films,televisionprogrammes,art,literature,theatre,food,etc.–but

wealsoneedtoappreciatethesocialandpoliticalideasthathelpshapethese

products:freedomofthought,expressionandmovement,equality,socialjustice,

transparencyandaccountability,andastrongandautonomouscivilsociety.For

ademocraticsocietylikeTaiwan,thepoliticalcultureprovidesarobust

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foundationforitsculturalindustriestocreate,experiment,challengeexisting

narratives,andreachoutbeyondnationalborders;andtoconfrontpolitical

interferencefromitsmoreauthoritarianneighbourswhilepresentingastark

contrasttothem.Protectingartisticandculturalendeavoursoftenmeanshaving

toalsoprotectsocialandpoliticalvalues.

Whyisculturaldiplomacyconsideredsuchavaluableactivitythatstatesdevote

toitsuchhugeamountsofresourcesandcreateinstitutionsandgovernment

departmentstaskedwithitspractice?Culturaldiplomacyreflectsanormative,

somemayclaimidealist,approachtointernationalrelations,onethatreflectsthe

significantcontributionofsocialconstructivismtointernationalrelationstheory.

BasedonAlexanderWendt’sSocialTheoryofInternationalPolitics(1999)social

constructivismintroducesculture,ideas,andidentityasimportantbuilding

blocksinhowweunderstandeachotherandourselves.Mostimportantly,it

acknowledgesourcapacityassocialcreaturestointeractbasedonshared,

understood,andrespectednormsandidentities.Suchapproacheshavefound

theirwayintotheliteratureonsoftpower.Forexample,CraigHaydendescribes

howthevalueofsoftpowerliesinits‘recognitionthattraditionalmetricsof

“power”ininternationalaffairsshouldbeinclusiveofideationalfactors:what

peoplebelievecanshapeorconstraintheagencyofapoliticalactorandtheir

abilitytoeffectchange’(Hayden,2011:5).

Thediscourseonculturaldiplomacyrefersrepeatedlytoitscapacityto

facilitate‘mutualunderstanding’.Forexample,MiltonC.Cummingsdefines

culturaldiplomacyas‘theexchangeofideas,information,art,andotheraspects

ofcultureamongnationsandtheirpeoplesinordertofostermutual

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understanding’(Cummings,2003:1).ParvanVarma,theheadoftheIndian

CouncilforCulturalRelations,hasnotedthatculture‘canshape,alter,and

impacttheideasandopinionsofpubliccommunities.Fromawide-raging

perspective,’saysVarma,

culturehasthecapacitytoresolvetensionsandprejudices–ethnic,

religious,communal,nationalandinternational.Itcancreateaclimateof

tolerance,respectandunderstandingamongnations,religionsand

entireregions.Itisthusanessentialmediumforpeacefulandtolerant

contactandcommunication(Varma,2007:128).

JacquesDelorsnotedthatculturaldiplomacypromotesgreatertolerance,mutual

respectandunderstanding,helpingsocietiesinteractin‘anewspiritwhich,

guidedbyrecognitionofourgrowinginterdependenceandacommonanalysisof

therisksandchallengesofthefuture,wouldinducepeopletoimplement

commonprojectsortomanagetheinevitableconflictsinanintelligentand

peacefulway’(Delors,et.al.,1996:23).CynthiaSchneider(2006:1)described

culturaldiplomacyas‘theuseofcreativeexpressionandexchangesofideas,

information,andpeopletoincreasemutualunderstanding’.

Othersobserveinculturaldiplomacyanexplicitstrategicagendathat

goesbeyondserving‘mutualunderstanding’.ThomasJeffersonwrotetoJames

Madisononthesubject:

YouseeIamanenthusiastonthesubjectofthearts.Butitisan

enthusiasmofwhichIamnotashamed,asitsobjectistoimprovethe

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tasteofmycountrymen,toincreasetheirreputation,toreconcilethem

totherespectoftheworld,andprocurethemitspraise(quotedin

Schneider,2006:1).

PresidentTheodoreRooseveltbelievedthat‘anationwithastrongculture(and

acommonone)willbeabletowinmorebattlesbydiplomaticbargainingthanby

forceofarms’(Collin,1985:5).WhenhewastheForeignMinisteroftheFederal

RepublicofGermany,WillyBrandtfamouslycalledculturethe‘thirdpillarof

foreignpolicy’afterpoliticsandtrade.AsMitchell(1986:1)pointsout,cultureis

thefourthpillarfor‘some’Americans‘afterpolitics,tradeanddefence’.Myown

researchrevealsthatculturaldiplomacyisahighpriorityforthegovernmentof

Vietnam,supportingtradeandeconomicpower-thesecondpillar?(Rawnsley

andNgac,2017).

AftertheColdWarculturaldiplomacywasexiledtothewildernessbythe

USgovernment,believingthatwiththecollapseofCommunisminEuropeits

missionwascomplete.NataliaGrincheva’simportant2010surveyofAmerican

culturaldiplomacyrevealsacontinuousfallinfundingforculturalprogrammes

sincetheendoftheColdWar(Grincheva,2010).

However,after9/11thegovernmentrediscoveredculture,butasawayof

combatingextremismand‘winningheartsandminds’(adecidedlyColdWar

phrase).IntheconclusionstohishistoryofAmericanculturaldiplomacy,

MichaelL.KrennquotesHelenaFinn,aseniordiplomat,whoin2003

summarisedthisturninAmericanthinking.Culturaldiplomacy,shesaid,‘isone

ofthemostpotentweaponsintheUnitedStates’sarmory’,andshehopedthe

governmentwouldappreciatethat‘inwagingitsself-proclaimedwaragainst

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extremism,winningforeigners’voluntaryallegiancetotheAmericanprojectwill

bethemostimportantprizeofall’(Krenn,2017:154-5.Emphasisadded).

In2005,theUSDepartmentofStatepronouncedculturaldiplomacythe

‘linchpinofpublicdiplomacy’:

…foritisinculturalactivitiesthatanation’sideaofitselfisbest

represented.Andculturaldiplomacycanenhanceournationalsecurity

insubtle,wide-ranging,andsustainableways.Indeedhistorymay

recordthatAmerica’sculturalrichesplayednolessarolethanmilitary

actorsinshapingourinternationalleadership,includingthewaron

terror.Forthevaluesembeddedinourartisticandintellectualtraditions

formabulwarkagainsttheforcesofdarkness(USDepartmentofState,

2005:1).

FedericaMogherini,HighRepresentativeoftheEuropeanUnionforForeign

AffairsandSecurityPolicy,broughttogetherthestrategicandthenormative

dimensionsinJune2016:

Culturehastobepartandparcelofourforeignpolicy.Cultureisa

powerfultooltobuildbridgesbetweenpeople,notablytheyouth,and

reinforcemutualunderstanding.Itcanalsobeanengineforeconomic

andsocialdevelopment.Andaswefacecommonchallenges,culturecan

helpallofus,inEurope,Africa,MiddleEast,Asia,standtogethertofight

radicalization,andbuildanallianceofcivilizationsagainstthosetrying

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todivideus.Thisiswhyculturaldiplomacymustbemoreandmoreat

thecoreofourrelationshipwithtoday’sworld.2

Asidefromstrengtheningspecificstrategicorforeignpolicy-orientedobjectives,

thenormativedimensionofculturaldiplomacyremainsasignificantassetfora

nation’ssoftpowercapacity.Culturaldiplomacybuildsrelationships,credibility,

andtrustoverthelong-term,andisespeciallyimportantwhentheformal

relationsbetweengovernmentsordiplomaticenvoysarestrainedordamaged.

Whileitcannotcompensateforunpopularpoliciesormisguidedbehaviourby

governments–thinkofthedamagetoUScredibilityandmoralauthorityafter

imagesofGuantanamoBayandAbuGhraibwereposted-itcanforgean

emotionalconnectionbetweenartistandaudienceandbetweensocietiesthat

maybridgeandpossiblyhealpoliticaldivisions.WritingontheAmerican

experienceof‘artsdiplomacy’,JohnBrownsaysthatculturalengagement

‘providesaudienceswithuniqueandmemorableexperiences.…Artcreates

powerfulimpressionsthatareoftenrememberedforever…artsdiplomacycan

makepeopleabroadassociateAmericawiththekindofuniquemomentsthat

maketheirlivesworthliving’(Brown,2009:57).

Andyet…

2‘AnnewstrategytoputcultureattheheartofEUinternationalrelations’,8June2016,https://ec.europa.eu/malta/news/new-strategy-put-culture-heart-eu-international-relations_en

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Culturehaslongbeentheleastfundedaspectofnationalexpenditureinmany

partsoftheworld,includingthoseareaswhereculturaldiplomacyiswell

developed.TheUSCongressionalBudgetJustificationfortheDepartmentofState,

ForeignOperationsandRelatedPrograms,FiscalYear2019,showsayear-on-

yeardecreaseinfundsallocatedtoculturalprogrammes3;whilePresident

Trump’s2018budgetplancut$971millionfromthenationalbudgetby

eliminatingfourindependentculturalagencies(theNationalEndowmentforthe

Arts,theNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities,theInstituteofMuseumand

LibraryServices,andtheCorporationforPublicBroadcasting).IntheUK,

governmentcutstoartsfundinghadreachedover£100millionbyMarch2019,a

fallof13%injustadecadeofausterity.Incomparison,America’smilitarybudget

increasedbyover10%in2018/19,whiletheUK’sdefencespendingincreased

by£1.6billionin17/18andgrewbyafurther1.4%in18/19.Despiterhetoricto

thecontrary,itseemsthathardwillalwaystrumpsoftpower,andgovernments

indemocraticsocieties–facedwithregularelectoralcycles,pluralism,short-

terminterests,andtheneedtoshowimmediatereturnsongovernment

investment-willalwaysstrugglejustifyspendingonculture,anoftenephemeral

areasometimeslackingtangibleoutcomesandoperatinginthelong-term.

Culturaldiplomacy:Taiwan’sstrategicrationale

AsIhavearguedelsewhere(Rawnsley,2012;2014;2017)Taiwanhas

considerablesoftpowercapacitybutoftenstrugglestoknowhowtouseit

3Seehttps://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/FY-2019-Congressional-Budget-Justification-Department-of-State-Foreign-Operations-and-Related-Programs.pdf

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effectively.Theliberal-democraticpoliticalculture,consolidatedaftera

successionofdirectpresidentialelectionsthathaveestablishedtheroutine

turnoverofpowerbetweencompetingpoliticalparties,setsTaiwanapartfrom

itsmoreauthoritarianneighbours.Mostrecently,thedecisiontofurtherLGBT

rightsandlegalisegaymarriageisasignifierofTaiwan’sdemocraticprogress;

whilethevigorousdebatesintheLegislature,inthemedia,andonTaiwan’s

streetsaboutmajorpoliticalandsocialissues–includinggaymarriage–are

likewiseimportantmarkersthataliberal-democracyhastakenroot.The2014

nationwideSunflowerMovementwasperhapsthemostdramaticsignifierof

Taiwan’sdemocraticconsolidationandcommunicatedapowerfulnarrativeto

theinternationalcommunity.InfindingthesourcesofTaiwan’ssoftpower,one

needlooknofurtherthanthepoliticalcultureandespeciallytheactivismofcivil

societyandtheraucousdiscussionsanddisagreementsaboutmajorpolicyissues

thatoccureachdayinmultiplepublicspaces.Whetheroneagreesordisagrees

withthepropositioninquestionislessimportantthanrecognisingthefreedom

toownandvoicedifferentopinions.Thisshouldbethecentralnarrativeof

Taiwan’sinternationalcommunications.

Taiwan’sculturaldiplomacyperformstwovaluableservicesingenerating

andcommunicatingtheisland’ssoftpowercapacity.First,itisaninstrumentof

statecraft,organisedbythegovernmentanditsagencies(includingits

diplomaticmissions)topersuadeglobalaudiencestopaymoreattentionto

Taiwan,sympathisewithitsseclusionfrommainstreamworldpolitics,and

supportitsforeignpolicyagenda.Thus,culturaldiplomacythenhasastrong

strategicdimension;andgivenTaiwan’spredicament–itsrelationswiththePRC,

thedecliningnumberofformaldiplomaticallies,itsexclusionfromtheworld’s

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majormultinationalorganisationsandfora,anditslackofvisibilityinthe

world’smedia(whatIhavecalledthe‘disablingenvironment’.Rawnsley,2017)

–theroleofculturaldiplomacyinbuildingTaiwan’sprofileisimperative.

Aprimaryconcernwithculturaldiplomacyisencouraginginternational

audiencestobecomemorefamiliarwithTaiwan(fordataonglobalfamiliarity

withTaiwanseeRawnsley,2017).Wecanrefertothe‘hierarchyofimpacts’

developedbyLeonard,SteadandSmewingintheirstudyofpublicdiplomacyto

demonstrateTaiwan’spredicament.Thehierarchyenvisagesfourpossible

resultsofpublicdiplomacy:increasingfamiliarity;increasingappreciation

(seeinganissueorchallengefromtheperspectiveofanotheractor);engagement

(whichmayleadtoattractionandthenpossiblyimpactontradeandinvestment,

tourism,educationetc.);andfinallyinfluence(Leonard,SteadandSmewing,

2002:9-10).Ofcourseweshouldnotexpectpublicdiplomacyprogrammesto

followthishierarchyinlinearfashion,butitisimpossibletoinfluenceanother

stateoritspeoplewithoutfirstmakingsuretheyarefamiliarwithwhoyouare.

Taiwan’sculturaldiplomacyisfocusedonincreasingvisibilityandfamiliarity,

buildingtheprofileandrelationshipsthatmayhelpTaiwan’sinternational

engagementclimbthehierarchytowardsinfluence.

CulturecanhelpTaiwanexplainitselftotheworld,increaseprestige,and

encouragerespectfromtheinternationalcommunity.Itwillnotsolveallthe

problemsTaiwanfacesinthehardpowerdomain–consumingTaiwan’sculture

willnotpersuadegovernmentstoswitchtheirdiplomaticrecognitionfromthe

PRC–butitmaycontributetogreaterunderstandingabout,andempathyfor

Taiwanthatmighthavelong-termpositiveeffects.Culturaldiplomacycanhelp

explainWhyTaiwanMatters(Rigger,2011).

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Second,culturaldiplomacyconnectsthepoliticalsystemtocivilsociety.

Asnotedabovethecreativeindustries,thefoundationofculturalrelations,

requirealevelofsocial,politicalandartisticautonomytofunction,buttheyalso

needgoodrelationswiththegovernmentwhenpoliticalassistanceisnecessary.

Itgoeswithoutsayingthatthecreativeindustriesareareflectionofthepolitical

cultureinwhichtheyoperate.Asculturecanhelpusunderstand,engagewith,

cometotermswith,satirise,andchallengepowerwhereveritisencountered,art

canbeapowerfulpoliticalinstrument.Taiwan’sculturaldiplomacyandcultural

relationsrevealsociety’sliberalcharacter.

PresidentMaYing-jeouseemedtounderstandthis.Heclaimedthat‘the

mostimportantasset’ofTaiwan’sforeignpolicy‘isourdemocracy,ourwayof

life,ourwillingnesstomaintaincross-Straitstability,andourdeterminationto

fulfilourobligationstotheinternationalcommunity’–everythingoneexpects

fromasoftpowerrichsociety.TheproblemwasthattheMagovernment

privilegedthecommunicationofculture,andespeciallytraditionalChinese

culture,overallothernarratives.Taiwanthussquanderedtheopportunityto

showcaseitsliberal-democraticpoliticalcultureanditsvibrantcivilsociety,

exceptbyaccidentwhen,throughtheSunflowerMovement,civilsociety

communicateditsownnarrative.

UnderPresidentTsaiIng-wen’sleadershippublicdiplomacyhas

improved.ManyoftheproblemsIidentifiedinmy2017paperpublishedinThe

ChinaQuarterlyhavebeen(albeitpartly)remedied,especiallyintermsof

Taiwan’sgovernmentnowoccupyingalargerspaceinsocialmedia.

RepresentativeOfficestooaretakingfarmoreseriouslyhowtheycommunicate

withtheirhostcountries,withtheofficeinLondonhostingregularlyarangeof

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culturalevents(althoughagainwithroomforimprovementintermsofoutreach

andintendedaudience).WhilemuchofTaiwan’sculturaldiplomacystilloccurs

intraditionalcentresofactivity,namelytheUS,Europe,andJapan,President

Tsai’sSouthboundPolicymeansthatfarmoreprogrammesarenowdeveloped

for,andinco-operationwithTaiwan’sneighboursinSoutheastAsia.Moreover,

theculturaldiplomacyhasturnedawayfromshowcasingTaiwanasthe

‘preserveroftraditionalChineseculture’,thedominantthemeunderPresident

Ma,toculturalandethnicdiversity,withmanyactivitiesandprogrammes

celebratingTaiwan’sencounterwithmultiplelanguages,culturesandtraditions.

Iwillprovidesomeexamplesoftheseactivitiesbelow.

Taiwan’spractice

IhavepreviouslybeencriticaloftheMinistryofCulture(MoC),itsformation,

organisationandwork.WhileImaintainthattheabolitionin2012ofthe

GovernmentInformationOffice(GIO)wasamistake(theGIOprovideda

valuablenexusfortheinter-governmentalcoordinationofexternal

communicationsthusprovidingconsistencyinmessagingandresource

allocation.Rawnsley,2017)–Iacceptthat,withhindsight,myjudgementofthe

MoChasbeenalittleharsh.Thelevelofactivityandinvestmentundertakenby

theMoCsinceitscreationin2012,togetherwithitscommitmenttobuilding

strategicrelationshipswiththeculturalindustriesatbothhomeandoverseas,

indicatesastrongawarenessofhowculturaldiplomacyandculturalrelations

workandhowtheyshouldbeorganised.InthelimitedspaceavailablehereI

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cannotdofulljusticetothewiderangeofactivitiesundertakenbytheMoCand

itspartnersinsideandoutsidegovernment.NorcanIdiscussindetailthe

considerablenumberofprogrammes,activities,tours,etc.thatareorganisedby

theculturalsectoritselfwithoutgovernmentintervention.Anypieceofartthat

travelsoutsideTaiwan–adancegroup,amovie,acraftexhibition–isan

exampleofculturalrelations,justasallvisitstoTaiwanbyculturalproducers

andartistsprovidesanopportunityforinteraction,exchange,andthewider

appreciationofTaiwan.‘Inbound’culturaldiplomacyisjustasimportantas

exportedactivities,especiallygiventhelowfamiliaritywithTaiwanoverseas.

Inthissection,IwillhighlightjustsomeofthewaysTaiwan’sMinistryofCulture

practicesculturaldiplomacybyconnectingtheirpracticestotheoverview

providedinprevioussectionsofthepaper.However,itisworthnotingherethe

sizeoftheMinistryofCulture’sbudget.Whileexactdataisnoteasytoobtain,it

isinstructivethatthereportspreparedbythe2018NationalConferenceon

CulturalGovernancerevealedthatin2019,theMoC’sbudget‘willforthefirst

timeaccountforover1%ofthecentralgovernment’sannualbudget,whilethe

budgetforsupportingtheculturalagenciesoflocalgovernmentsissettogrow

by300%’(emphasisadded).4ThefactthattheMoCchoosestocelebratea

budgetofoverjust1%indicatesfirsthowsmallthebudgethadbeenuntil2019;

andsecond,justhowmuchtheMoChadaccomplishedwithinadequatefinances,

usuallyduetodevelopinglucrativepublic-privatepartnerships.5

4‘NationalconferenceoutlinesvisionforTaiwan’sculturalgovernance’,26September2018,https://english.moc.gov.tw/information_196_89635.html5AccordingtoinformationavailablefromtheNationalStatisticsBureaueducation,scienceandculturehavespentmoreannuallysince1976.In2013,expenditureintheseareasamountedtoNT$599,058million,growingtoNT$690,852millionin2017.However,thefactthatthisdatadoesnot

19

TheMoCasfacilitator

Governmentsandgovernmentagenciesperformafacilitativeroleincultural

relations.Byprovidingfundingandsubsidies,lenienttaxregimesandaccessto

travelvisas,andlegislationdirectedspecificallyatbuildingandprotectingthe

culturalandcreativeindustries,governmentshelpconstructandmaintainan

environmentinwhichtheculturalorganisationscandeveloptheirown

programmesandrelationships.In2015,theArtTaipeifestivalattracted

participantsfromNorthAmerica,Europe,EastandSoutheastAsia(aswellas

China),andwasco-organisedbytheMoCwiththeTaiwanArtGallery

AssociationandtheTaiwanExternalTradeDevelopmentCouncil.

Suchpartnershipsarethebasisofthe2018NationalConferenceon

CulturalGovernance,organisedbytheMoCandinvolvingparticipantsfromlocal

governmentsaswellastheprivateculturalsector.Suchpartnershipalsoinforms

theworkoftheTaiwanCreativeContentAgency(TCCA),establishedbytheMoC

inJanuary2019.Atitslaunch(astheCulturalContentInstituteinDecember

2018),theMoCpledgedtheTCCAwould‘supportthenation’screativeindustries

andhelpintroduceTaiwan’sculturaloutputtotheworld’.With$NT10billion

fromtheMinistrytheAgencywould‘serveasaproxybetweenthegovernment

andprivatesectors…dedicatedtofacilitatingresourceintegration,

interdisciplinarycollaboration,andinvestment’.6

disaggregatescience,educationandartsmeanswehavetotreatsuchdatawithcautionwhenconsideringculture.https://eng.stat.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas03/bs2/yearbook_eng/y091.pdf6‘Taiwan’sCulturalContentInstitutetobeLaunchedin2019’,25December2018,https://english.moc.gov.tw/information_196_96249.html

20

OtherfacilitativedevelopmentsincludetheMoC’ssuccessfulnegotiation

withothergovernmentagenciesonarangeofchangestolegislationthatbenefit

theartsandculture.Forexample,in2017theMinistrysecuredagreementfrom

theCouncilofLaborAffairstosoftentherulesforforeignpassportholderswho

areemployedinTaiwan’sculturalsector.TheMoChasalsooverseen

amendmentstotheCulturalHeritagePreservationAct,aswellasmoving

towardsnewlegislationaroundthemanagementofTaiwan’shistoricalbuildings

andmonuments.

Intermsoffunding,theMoCalsooffersarangeofverygenerousgrants

andscholarshipsdesignedspecificallyforinterculturalengagement.These

includegrantsfortranslationsofliteraturewrittenbyTaiwaneseauthors,to

allowpublisherstoparticipateininternationalbookfairs(mostnotablythe

annualFrankfurtBookFair),andtodevelopcollaborativeculturalprojectswith

partnersinotherpartsoftheworld,includingSoutheastAsia(theEmerald

Initiative)andwithWestandSouthAsia(theLazuriteInitiative).

Thegovernment’sroleasfacilitatoriscapturedinthe2018CultureWhite

Paper:‘Creativefreedomanddiversification’,itsaid,‘arethetwodrivingforces

behindculturaldevelopment.Thegovernmentwill[create]afertileand

supportiveecosystemforcreativeadvancement,artisticgrowth,andeveryday

accesstocultureandthearts’.7

Strategy

7Availablefromhttps://mocfile.moc.gov.tw/files/201812/541fdcce-38ef-435e-8856-0b79e2110ef0.pdf?fbclid=IwAR1xUZkkAP_XA57t5emq2NsQzC5v9bBcLuYmSf-XJoThB9SB6rvb0xcMdw4

21

IncontrasttotheMaYing-jeoupresidencywhenexternalengagementfocused

oncommunicatingTaiwanasthepreserveroftraditionalChineseculture,under

TsaiIng-wenculturaldiplomacyactivitiesreflecttwokeystrategicareas:

(i)promotingindigenousculturestoreflectTaiwan’sdemographicdiversity;and

(ii)strengtheningthroughculturalprogrammesthegovernment’sSouthbound

Policy.

Examplesoftheformerincludeprogrammesorganisedthroughthe

SpotlightTaiwaninitiative.SponsoredbyentrepreneurSamuelYinwiththe

explicitaimofhelping‘promoteTaiwan’ssoftpowertotheworld’,Spotlight

Taiwanco-operatedwiththeNationalMuseumofEthnologyinOsaka(Japan)to

showcaseHakkaculturein2015.InSeptember2018,Taiwan’sMinisterof

Culture,ChengLi-chun,signedanaccordinFrancetodisplayTaiwan’s

indigenousheritageatthenewmuséedequaiBranlyinParis.Hakkaart

decoratedtheTaiwanPavillionatthe2015FrankfurtBookFair(whichhosted

KaoYi-feng,anauthorofHakkaliterature),whileHakkaculturefeatured

alongsideNangyuan,Taiwaneseandaboriginalculturesatthegrandopeningof

theTaiwanCulturalCentreinTokyo.Theseinitiativesarewrappedupina

greaterconcernwithheritagepreservation,includingprofessionaltrainingby

boththeVaticanandtheIronbridgeInstituteattheUniversityofBirmingham

(UK).

CulturalcommitmenttotheSouthboundPolicyisinstitutionalised

throughthecreationin2015oftheSoutheastAsianAdvisoryCommitteetohelp

build‘mutuallybeneficialpartnerships’(notethecustomarynormative

language).ArangeofinitiativeshelpdeepenrelationswithTaiwan’ssouthern

neighbours,includingbothinboundandoutboundculturalprogrammes.

22

ExamplesincludetheMoC’ssponsorshipofauthorsfromSoutheastAsiatovisit

andtourTaiwantomeetreaders,organisationofthemonth-longAsia-Pacific

ArtsFestival,andaseriesofagreementswithmuseumsinThailandtoshowcase

thereTaiwan’sculturalheritageanddiversity.Oneofthekeyprogrammes

designedtostrengthentheSouthboundPolicyistheYouthCulturalGardeners

programmewhich,buildingonthesuccessoftheYouthAmbassadorprogramme,

facilitatesexchangesofyoungpeoplefromTaiwanandSoutheastAsia.Beginning

in2016,theprogrammesent49youngartiststocommunitiesinCambodia,

Thailand,Myanmar,thePhilippines,andMalyasiatointeractwithlocalresidents

throughart,dance,filmandotherformsofculturalexpression.Theprogramme

connectswiththeMekongCulturalHubthat,withseedmoneyfromtheMoCand

Cambodianpartners(CambodianLivingArts),helpscreativepractitionersfrom

TaiwanandacrosstheMekongregion,makeconnectionsinCambodia,Laos,

Myanmar,ThailandandVietnam.8EventsorganisedinApril2019werethemed

around‘Diversity,Inclusivity,Southbound’andbroughttoTaiwanculturalactors

fromacrossSoutheastAsiaand,forthefirsttime,AustraliaandNewZealand.

Politicalinterference

TaiwanistrappedwithinadisablingenvironmentdefinedchieflybythePRC.

ThismeansTaiwanisdeniedmembershipofsuchinternationalorganisationsas

theUnitedNationsandtheWorldHealthOrganisation,whileformaldiplomatic

alliescontinuetodwindle.ThePRC’sinterferenceinTaiwan’sculturalsphere

shatterstheillusionthatartandcultureexistindependently,imperviousto

8The2018report,TheMekongMappingProject,isavailableathttps://mekongculturalhub.org/wp-content/uploads/MekongCulturalHub-MappingProject.pdf

23

politicalinterventionforpoliticalambitions.

InJuly2018,theMinistryofCultureissuedastronglywordedstatement

criticisingthePRC’spoliticalintrusionintwoculturalprogrammesoverseasin

whichartistsfromTaiwanwereparticipating.Thestatementbegan:‘Respectfor

artisticcreationandfreedomofexpressionhavealwaysbeenatthecoreofthe

MinistryofCulture’spolicies.’ItexplainedthattheFangShiangDanceTheatre

hadbeeninvitedtoperforminItalyandhadbeenissuedidentificationcards

depictingtheflagofthePRC;whiletheperformanceoftheJuannChoiratthe

WorldPeaceChoralFestivalinViennawascancelledafterpressurefromChina.

Thestatementconcluded:‘Wecallontheinternationalcommunitytosupport

theuniversalvaluesoffreedomofartisticcreationandfreedomofexpression,

andnottoletthepurityofinternationalculturalexchangeeventsbesulliedby

politicalmanipulationbyChina.’9

TheninApril2019,thePRC’sMinistryofCultureannounceditwas

cancellingseveralscheduledtriptoChinabyCzechculturalorganisations,

includingthePraguePhilharmonicOrchestra.ThiswasinresponsetotheCzech

MinistryofIndustryrefusingtoexcludefromameetingadiplomatfrom

Taiwan.10

Finally,inAugust2019,theTwitterfeedofTaiwan’sPresidentialOffice

SpokespersonreactedtotheChinaFilmAdministration’sdecisiontoprohibit

Chinesefilmsandfilmmakersfromattendingthe56thGoldenHorseAwards:

9MinistryofCulture,‘WhyshouldculturalexchangesbesulliedbyChina’sinterference?’,28July2018,availablefromhttps://english.moc.gov.tw/information_196_8840.html10ItjustsohappenedthattheMayorofPrague,ZdenekHrib,hadbeenaexchangestudentinTaiwanandsaidtheorchestracouldperforminTaipeiinstead.

24

‘Politicalinterventioninart,’saidthestatement,‘isnotacceptable.Taiwanwill

continuetosparenoefforttosafeguardthefreedomofartisticexpression.’

Inadditiontodemonstratingthecloseconnectionbetweenpoliticsand

culture,theseexamplesalsosuggestfurtherthesoftpowergeneratedbyartistic

endeavours.Theculturalproductitselfislessimportantthanthevalues–artistic

autonomy,freedomofcreativeexpression–thatrequireprotection.

Conclusions:DoesitWork?

Assessingtheimpactofculturaldiplomacyisdifficult,sometimesimpossible.

Unlikeotherattributesofastate’spowercultureisdifficulttoquantify.Wecan

countgunsandtanks,measurethesizeoftheeconomy,andevencalculatehow

manyforeigntouristsorinternationalstudentshavecrossedourborders.But

culturalengagementworksonanemotionallevel,oftenacrossmanyyearsifnot

decades,anddependsonbuildingrelationshipsbasedontrust,respectand

understanding.PerhapsFrankNinkovich(1966:58)wascorrecttoconcludethat

attheendofthedayculturaldiplomacyisan‘actoffaith’.

Ofcoursethisassumesthatthepurposeofculturaldiplomacy,cultural

relations,andculturalexchangeisto‘movetheneedle’ofopinionaboutthe

sourceandhelpachieveforeignpolicyambitions.Whilethisdoesguidemuchof

whatwemightcallculturaldiplomacy,itisonlyapartialpartofthestory.Artfor

art’ssake,seekingconnectionswithpeoplethroughculture,canhelprealisethe

morenormativedimensionofculturalrelations:mutualrespectand

understanding,tolerance,familiarity,andempathy.Thesemayinthelongterm

contributetoforeignpolicysuccess,butwhatiftheydon’t?Doesthatmeanall

theactivities,programmes,initiatives,andexchangesorganisedinthenameof

25

culturaldiplomacyareawasteoftime?Isallthatgovernmentsponsorship,all

thoseagreementswithmuseums,galleriesandtheatregroupsoverseas,allthose

partnershipsbetweenthegovernmentandtheprivatesectormerelyfutile

gestures?

ForsocietieslikeTaiwan,trappedinitsown‘disablingenvironment’,

culturaldiplomacyisanessentialwayofmanagingtheexternalchallengesit

faces.Culturecangrowthefamiliaritythatwillhelppeopleacrosstheworld

knowTaiwanbetterandhelpTaiwanadvanceupthe‘hierarchyofimpacts’.

Moreover,culturaldiplomacyreflectsTaiwan’ssoftpowercapacity.By

helpingdevelopmentofautonomousculturalexpressionwithincivilsociety,the

MinistryofCultureissendingapowerfulmessageaboutthegovernment’s

commitmenttoliberal-democraticvalues.Itwouldbewrongtosaysimplyand

clearlythatartsandculturedonothavearoletoplayingeneratingsoftpower,

evenifwedoacceptthatthesourceofsoftpowerliesinthepolitical,ratherthan

theartisticculture.Thelatterisaclearreflectionoftheformer.TheMoC

facilitatesthefreedomofcreativityinTaiwanand,throughinboundand

outboundculturaldiplomacy,throwsaspotlightonthewayaliberal-democracy

worksandprogresses,andhowgovernmentscanworkwith,butwithout

interferingincivilsociety.

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