MINI-REVIEW
Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus and otheredible mushrooms
Carmen Sánchez
Received: 1 September 2009 /Revised: 1 November 2009 /Accepted: 1 November 2009 /Published online: 3 December 2009# Springer-Verlag 2009
Abstract Pleurotus ostreatus is the second most cultivatededible mushroom worldwide after Agaricus bisporus. It haseconomic and ecological values and medicinal properties.Mushroom culture has moved toward diversification withthe production of other mushrooms. Edible mushroomsare able to colonize and degrade a large variety oflignocellulosic substrates and other wastes which areproduced primarily through the activities of the agricultural,forest, and food-processing industries. Particularly,P. ostreatus requires a shorter growth time in comparisonto other edible mushrooms. The substrate used for theircultivation does not require sterilization, only pasteurization,which is less expensive. Growing oyster mushrooms convert ahigh percentage of the substrate to fruiting bodies, increasingprofitability. P. ostreatus demands few environmentalcontrols, and their fruiting bodies are not often attacked bydiseases and pests, and they can be cultivated in a simple andcheap way. All this makes P. ostreatus cultivation anexcellent alternative for production of mushrooms whencompared to other mushrooms.
Keywords Pleurotus ostreatus . Mushroom cultivation .
Edible mushrooms
Introduction
Cultivation of edible mushrooms is a biotechnologicalprocess for lignocellulosic organic waste recycling. It might
be the only current process that combines the production ofprotein-rich food with the reduction of environmentalpollution (Beetz and Kustudia 2004). The production ofmushrooms is regarded as the second most importantcommercial microbial technology next to yeast (Pathak et al.2009). Mushrooms have been eaten and appreciated for theirflavor, economical and ecological values, and medicinalproperties for many years. In general, mushrooms contain90% water and 10% dry matter (Morais et al. 2000; Sánchez2004). They have chemical composition which are attractivefrom the nutritional point of view (Gbolagade et al. 2006;Dundar et al. 2008; Table 1). Their nutritional value can becompared to those of eggs, milk, and meat (Oei 2003).Mushrooms also contain vitamins and an abundance ofessential amino acids (Sánchez 2004). The total energeticvalue of mushroom caps is between 250 and 350 cal/kg offresh mushrooms (Oliver and Delmas 1987; Laborde 1995).Some mushroom can be cultivated easily and have significantworldwide markets. Over 200 species have been collectedfrom the wild and used for various traditional medicalpurposes, mainly in the Far East (Sánchez 2004). Roughly300 mushrooms species are edible, but only 30 have beendomesticated and ten grown commercially (Barny 2009).The principal cultivated mushroom worldwide is Agaricusbisporus followed by Pleurotus sp. (Rühl et al. 2008),Lentinula edodes, and other mushrooms that have already animportant place in the market.
Mushrooms have the ability to degrade several lignocellu-losic substrates (Fig. 1; Sánchez 2009) and can be producedon natural materials from agriculture, woodland, animalhusbandry, and manufacturing industries (Table 2). As it isshown in Fig. 1, laccases or ligninolytic peroxidases (LiPand MnP) produced by white-rot fungi oxidize the ligninpolymer, thereby generating aromatic radicals (a). Theseevolve in different non-enzymatic reactions, including
C. Sánchez (*)Laboratory of Biotechnology, Research Centre for Biological Sciences,Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala,Apartado postal 129,Tlaxcala, Tlax CP 90000, Mexicoe-mail: [email protected]
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337DOI 10.1007/s00253-009-2343-7
C-4-ether breakdown (b), aromatic ring cleavage (c), Cα-Cβ breakdown (d), and demethoxylation (e). The aromaticaldehydes releases from Cα-Cβ breakdown of lignin orsynthesized de novo by fungi (f, g) are the substrate forH2O2 generation by aryl-alcohol oxidase in cyclic redoxreactions involving also aryl-alcohol dehydrogenases.Phenoxy radicals from C4-ether breakdown (b) canrepolymerize on the lignin polymer (h) if they are not firstreduced by oxidases to phenolic compounds (i). Thephenolic compounds formed can be again reoxidized bylaccases or peroxidases (j). Phenoxy radicals can also besubjected to Cα-Cβ breakdown (k), yielding ρ-quinones.Quinones from g and/or k contribute to oxygen activation inredox cycling reactions involving quinone reductases,laccases, and peroxidases (l, m). This results in reductionof the ferric iron present in wood (n), either by superoxidecation radical or directly by the semiquinone radicals, and itsreoxidation with concomitant reduction of H2O2 to hydroxylfree radical (OH.) (o). The latter is a very strong oxidizerthat can initiate the attack on lignin (p) in the initial stages ofwood decay, when the small size of pores in the still-intactcell wall prevents the penetration of ligninolytic enzymes.Then lignin degradation proceeds by oxidative attack of theenzymes described above.
Poppe (2000) reported that there are about 200 kinds ofwaste in which edible mushrooms can be produced.However, mushroom production generates an enormousamount of used “spent” substrate which might also be asource of environmental contamination. Several uses forspent mushrooms substrate (SMS) are being evaluated, andsome of them have already been established (Sánchez2004). The production of mushrooms in 2005 was (in metrictons) 1,411 in China, 382 in USA, 245 in Netherlands, 139 inFrance, 138 in Spain, 135 in Poland, 88 in Italy, 80 in Canada,77 in Ireland, and 74 in the UK (FAOSTAT 2005; USDA2005; WBWDI 2007; Fig. 2).
Mushroom cultivation
Mushroom culture involves several different operations, eachof which must be carefully performed. Substrate preparation,inoculation, incubation, and production conditions depend onthe mushroom species to be cultivated (Fig. 3). The first stageinvolves obtaining pure mycelium of the specific mushroomstrain. The mycelium can be obtained from spores (Fig. 3a),from a piece of the specific mushroom (Fig. 3b), or fromseveral germplasm providers such as American TypeCulture Collection and National Center for AgriculturalUtilization Research (Fig. 3c). To obtain inoculum, themycelium is developed on cereal grain, e.g., wheat, rye, ormillet (Fig. 3d), which is usually called the “spawn”(Fig. 3e; Chang and Hayes 1978; Chang and Miles 1989).T
able
1Nutrimentalvalueof
severaledible
mushroo
ms(m
g/10
0gdrymatter)
Ediblemushroo
mLipids
Sugars
Protein
Fiber
Ash
Ca
Mg
KNa
PMn
Fe
Cu
Zn
Auricularia
polytricha
5.05
5.35
8.90
3.45
4.95
0.75
1.45
37.40
0.35
19.85
0.29
0.67
0.12
0.06
Lentin
ussubn
udus
4.05
10.15
5.80
5.40
6.50
1.75
2.45
22.15
2.15
2.50
0.07
0.52
0.12
1.97
Lycoperdon
pusilum
7.55
14.70
24.0
4.30
6.55
5.20
3.90
28.80
2.00
14.50
0.90
0.72
0.16
1.30
Lycoperdon
giga
nteum
10.25
17.20
24.30
5.03
10.90
4.30
3.10
44.20
3.50
20.90
0.50
0.25
0.07
0.80
Pleurotus
tuber-regium
1.70
7.70
16.30
15.60
9.20
1.90
0.80
9.51
1.50
4.10
0.15
0.32
0.02
1.91
Pleurotus
florida
1.05
8.95
15.10
4.40
10.60
0.40
1.50
14.75
0.25
13.35
0.80
0.08
0.05
0.05
Psathyrella
atroum
bona
ta5.75
7.85
17.40
11.65
9.65
1.57
4.55
43.35
6.50
15.0
0.45
0.20
0.07
0.77
Schizophyllum
commune
5.50
8.75
10.30
8.30
11.60
3.90
0.55
16.80
0.65
8.10
0.30
0.10
0.08
1.20
Term
itomyces
microcarpus
8.75
14.15
27.70
12.80
12.90
3.50
3.65
58.75
2.00
24.20
0.72
0.70
0.07
2.82
Term
itomyces
globalus
6.70
14.65
32.80
10.35
15.80
5.30
6.00
48.40
1.70
31.10
0.85
0.85
0.09
3.10
Tricho
lomaloba
yensis
4.20
7.75
13.50
8.50
9.40
1.50
0.55
18.60
2.20
9.95
0.29
0.32
0.13
0.85
Volvariella
esculenta
10.95
9.85
26.05
7.0
12.65
0.80
2.45
51.45
5.90
18.75
0.44
0.42
0.11
2.50
Pleurotus
sajor-caju
1.15
–16
.75
–5.84
0.10
0.46
4.32
–1.97
0.021
0.163
0.14
0.192
Gbo
lagade
2006
;Dun
daret
al.20
08
1322 Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337
The purpose of the mycelium-coated grain is to rapidlycolonize the specific bulk growing substrate (Fig. 3f). Thesuccess of mushroom production depends in great part on thequality of the “spawn”, which must be prepared under sterileconditions to diminish contamination of the substrate(Fig. 3g). Several studies have been done to improve thequality and develop new techniques for its production. Forexample, the spawn for cultivation of P. ostreatus has beenprepared in different ways: on grain, such as wheat,sorghum, and paddy (Beetz and Kustudia 2004; Nwanzeet al. 2005; Elhami and Ansari 2008) and on grain mixed
with grain straw (Muthukrishnan et al. 2000; Sainos et al.2006; Pathmashini et al. 2008).
Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus
P. ostreatus is also known as “oyster mushroom”, “hiratake”,“shimeji”, or “houbitake” (Mizuno and Zhuang 1995;Bononi et al. 1995; Rühl et al. 2008). For many reasons,the fungal Pleurotus genus has been intensely studied andcultivated in many different parts of the world. It is producedon a variety of lignocellulosic substrates (Table 2).
OCH 3 HC
HC
HOOH2
O
O
H2COH
C=O
H2OC
CH
OOH
OCH 3
HCOH
HOCH2 O
OCH3
HCOH
HC
HOCH2
LIGNIN
LIGNIN
LIGNIN
LACCASE
PEROXIDASE
O
R
LIGNIN
O*
LIGNIN
OH
OCH 3
H2COH
LIGNIN
-R O -R
AAD
AAO
H2O2
LACCASE PEROXIDASE
h
o
n g
m
a
j
b
c
d
k
i AAO?
f
g
HC
e
HC
LIGNIN
+*
OH*
O2-*
Fe3+
OCH 3 OCH 3
QR OH
OH C
OH
OO
H2COH
OCH3
OCH 3 OCH 3 OCH3
OCH3
HC
HC HC=O HCOH CH2OH
HC
O
HCOH
HC
H2COH
H2COH
MeOH
HC
HC
O
l l
l l
l l
l
LACCASE PEROXIDASE
Source: Martínez et al. 2005
Fig. 1 Lignin biodegradationprocess by white rot fungi
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337 1323
Tab
le2
Lignino
cellu
losicresidu
esused
fordifferentmushroo
mscultivatio
n
Scientific
name
Englishname
Japonese
name
Substrate
Reference
Aga
ricusbisporus
Button,
white,table,
portob
ello,
crim
ini,Swissbrow
n,grem
ini,
Italianbrow
nandItalianroman
brow
nmushroo
m,Champign
on
Him
ematsutake
orAgarikusutake
a
(nam
eforAga
ricusblazei)
Ricestraw,wheat
straw,ho
rsemanure
(fresh
orcompo
sted)
Beetz
andKustudia20
04;To
keret
al.20
07
Wheat
straw
andwaste
tea
Leaves
Pleurotussp
(P.ostreatus,
P.sajor-caju,P.
eryngii,
P.pulmonarius,
P.eous,P.
florida)
Oyster,king
oyster
mushroo
mHiratake
Coffeepu
lp,sawdu
st,cocoa,
peanut
and
coconutshells,cotto
nseed
hulls,Jamaica,
cassavapeels,cotto
n,sorghu
m,banana,
corn
stalks,grass,clover,woo
d
Beetz
andKustudia20
04;Raniet
al.20
08;
Shahet
al.20
04;Dabaet
al.20
08;Fan
etal.20
03;Cayetano-Catarinoand
Bernabé-G
onzález20
08;Philip
poussis
etal.20
01;Onu
ohaet
al.20
09;Sivrikaya
andPeker
1999;Abrar
etal.20
09Wastesof
rice,wheat,sawdust,cotto
nfrom
textile
indu
stry,corncobs,crushedbagasse
andmolassesfrom
sugarindustry,water
hyacinth,water
lily,
bean,wheat
straw,
leaves,oil-palm
fiber,paperandpaddy
Lentin
ulasp.(L.conn
otus,
L.edod
es)
Japanese
forestmushroo
m,Shiitake
mushroo
mblackforest,Black
oak
Shiitake
Sorgh
umstalk,
banana,coffeepu
lp,saw
dust,
cotto
nseed
hulls
bran,leaves,corncobs,
bractsof
pineapple,
cotto
nseed
meal,
peanut
meal,wheat
bran,rice
bran
and
soyb
eanmea
Raniet
al.20
08;Beetz
andKustudia20
04;
Kapoo
ret
al.20
09
Wastesfrom
padd
y,sugarcane
bagasse,
sugarcane,coffee
pulp,wheat
Volvariella
volvacea
Straw
mushroo
mor
paddystraw
mushroo
mFukurotake
Bananaleaves,cocoyam
peelings
and
oil-palm
pericarp,palm
fibers,rice
husk,
andsawdu
st
Beetz
andKustudia20
04;Belew
uand
Belew
u20
05;Obo
daiet
al.20
06;Uko
ima
etal.20
09Wastesfrom
rice,wheat,cotto
n,textile
indu
stry,water
hyacinth,andwater
lily
Tubersp.,T.
melanospo
rum
Vitt.,
T.mag
natum
Picoex
Vitt.)
Black
truffleblackperigo
rd,
piedmon
tese
Seyo
ufuyu
shuo
roro
(nam
efor
violet
truffle)
bMungb
eanhu
sks,po
tting
soil
Carluccio
2003
White
truffle
Stropharia
sp.(S.rugosoannulata
Farlow
,S.rugosoannulataFarlow
f.luteahongo)
Round
heads
Saketsubatake,kisaketsub
atake
Wastesfrom
wheat,sawdust
Beetz
andKustudia20
04
Hericium
sp.
Lion'shead
orPom
pom
Yam
abushitake
Saw
dust,corncobs,distillersgrainwaste
Beetz
andKustudia20
04
Auricularia
auricula
Jelly
ear
Kikurage
Saw
dust,sawdust-ricebran
Beetz
andKustudia20
04
Grifola
fron
dosa
Maitake,hen
ofthewoo
ds,ram
shead,
sheep'shead,clou
dmushroo
m,
dancingmushroo
m
Mai
Take,Maitake
Saw
dust,spentsawdustmatrix,
corn,barley,
sorghu
m,andrice
Beetz
andKustudia20
04;Hidenoet
al.
2007;Montoya
andVarón
2008
Flammulinasp.
Winter,velvet
stem
,go
lden,snow
puff
Eno
kitake
Saw
dust
Beetz
andKustudia20
04
Pholio
tanameko
Fat
pholiota
Num
erisugtake
Log
ssawdust-ricebran
Beetz
andKustudia20
04
Trem
ella
White
jelly
Shirokiku
rage
Log
sBeetz
andKustudia20
04
aMAYA
ethn
obotanicals(200
9)bhttp://zipcod
ezoo
.com
,20
09
1324 Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337
Substrate preparation The substrate is milled to a length ofabout 2 to 6 cm. In other substrates, the chopping is notrequired. One of the most common substrates used formodern mushrooms is a mixture. This mixture of cotton-seed hulls and wheat straw has a higher water holdingcapacity than cottonseed hulls used alone. Pasteurization,used on some commercial mushroom farms, is carried outby filling the ingredients into revolving mixers, water isadded to the desired level, and live steam is injected intothe mixer while it is in operation (Royse 2007).
Inoculation After completion of pasteurization (60 °C for 1to 2 h), the substrate is cooled and spawned with the desiredstrain.
At time of spawning, a delayed release supplement (ratesof 3% to 10% of dry substrate weight) may be added toincrease yield and size of the mushroom (Royse et al. 1991;Royse and Zaki 1991). Use of supplements, however, maycause overheating of the substrate if growers are not able toanticipate and control air temperatures to maintain a steadysubstrate temperature.
Spawning and spawn rate Growers have sought, in thepast, to optimize the amount of spawn used to inoculatetheir substrate. Increasing the amount of spawn used (up to5% of the wet weight of the substrate) has resulted inincreased yields (Royse 2002). Increasing spawn rates from1.25% to 5% may result in increases of nearly 50%. Yieldincreases may be due to several factors. First, the increasedlevel of nutrient available in higher levels of spawn usedwould provide more energy for mycelial growth anddevelopment. Second, more inoculum points, availablefrom increased spawn levels, would provide faster substratecolonization and, thus, more rapid completion of the
production cycle. Finally, a more rapid spawn run wouldreduce the time non-colonized substrate is exposed tocompetitors such as weed molds and bacteria (Table 3).
Filling plastic bags with substrate The pasteurized sub-strate is spawned and filled (from 25 to 30 lbs) into clear orblack perforated polyethylene bags.
Incubation The bags are incubated for 12 to 14 days at25 °C and then transferred to the production room (Royse2007).
Mushroom production The mushroom begins to formaround the edges of bag perforations. The bags aremaintained under optimal temperature, moisture and otherconditions for mycelium growth, and the conditions thatfavor fruiting. Mushroom shelves and suspended systemsare the main systems used for Pleurotus cultivation(Fig. 3h). Studies on the mushroom cultivation on the useof different strains, different lignocellulosic substrates,different types of spawn, moisture, physicochemical con-ditions, etc. are important for the cultivation productivity ofeach particular mushroom (Mandeel et al. 2005; Saavedraet al. 2006; Kirbag and Akyuz 2008; Onuoha et al. 2009).
Harvest The mushrooms are harvested from the substrateapproximately 3 to 4 weeks after spawning depending onstrain, amount of supplement used, and temperature ofspawn run.
Cultivation of A. bisporus
Agaricus sp. is also known as “himematsutake”. It is theprincipal cultivated mushroom worldwide, and its substrateis the most complex culture medium used for ediblemushroom production (Fig. 3i). Several studies on thedevelopment of this mushroom have improved its cultiva-tion (Stoop and Mooibroek 1999; Kothe 2001; Bechara etal. 2004, 2008; Nogueira de Andrade et al. 2008; Kapoor etal. 2009). The substrate for the cultivation of thismushroom is horse manure compost, which consists of amixture of horse manure, some broiler chicken manure, andwater to which gypsum is added for structural stability andfor stabilizing pH. Alternatively, a synthetic compost can bemade which is based on wheat straw and broiler chickenmanure. When carried out in the open air, phase I ofcomposting is done in long narrow stacks between 1.5 and2.0 m in width and height (wind-rows). The stacks areturned twice a week in order to obtain uniform degradationof the mixture. At the end of the process, usually 7–8 daysafter setting up the stacks of 1 t of horse manure, a yield ofjust over 1 t of compost will have been obtained. This fresh
Fig. 2 Top mushrooms cultivation countries
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337 1325
compost (phase I), which still smells strongly of ammonia,is subjected to phase II treatment before actual cultivationcan start. Phase II consists of a pasteurization processfollowed by further high-temperature fermentation. This is
done by raising the air temperature to 56 °C and keeping itthere for approximately 5 to 6 h. Compost temperature thenincreases to slightly higher values, and this is maintainedfor at least five more hours. Thereafter, the compost is kept
Source: Modified from Stamets (1995)
Fig. 3 Cultivation and harvest-ing of mushroom
1326 Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337
Tab
le3
Troub
leshoo
tingin
themushroo
mscultivatio
n
Problem
Cause
Solutions
Mycelium
fails
toform
Improper
initiationstrategy
Consultparameter
ofgrow
th.Altermoisture,
temperature,lig
ht,carbon
dioxide,
etc.
Note:
Ifthesubstrateistoomoist,decrease
moisture
Chlorinated
orcontam
inated
water
Use
activ
ated
charcoal
water
filtersto
elim
inatechem
ical
contam
inantsor
anyotherways
ofsimpleor
appropriatetechnology
Bad
substrate
Check
substrate.
Spreadthesubstrateandremix
thesubstrate,
packageagain,
makesure
allraw
materialsarego
odandfresh
Note:
Itisnecessaryto
pasteurize
immediately
afterbaggingotherw
iseferm
entatio
ngas
will
slow
downtherate
ofgrow
thof
mycelium
orstop
mycelium
grow
th
Bad
pasteurizatio
nCheck
methodof
pasteurizatio
n.Release
allairandmakesure
thereiscontinuous
steam
before
startin
gpasteurizatio
nforaperiod
of3
h
Substrate
inthebagistoohotwheninoculation
Makesure
that
thesubstratebagisnottoohotbefore
inoculation
Bad
strain
orspaw
nObtainyoungerstrain
ofknow
nvitalityandhistory
Spawncontam
inated
Pasteurizeandinoculateagainwith
good
spaw
n
Forgo
tto
inoculatethebag
Makesure
toinoculate
Poo
rspread
ofmycelium,badsm
ell,spots,
andmites
Goodpasteurizatio
nbutmustdecrease
thetemperature
inthe
pasteurizatio
ncham
ber
Slowly
decrease
thetemperature
inthecham
ber.Donoto
penthecoverof
thecham
bertoo
quickly.
Check
that
thecotto
nplug
istig
htly
closed
Pasteurizationwas
tooquickand/or
thecham
berdoor
was
opened
tooqu
ickly
Inoculationprocess
Inoculatein
hygienecond
itions;cleanandwith
noairmov
ement
Toohigh
density
intheincubatio
narea,notenough
ventilatio
nto
decrease
accumulated
temperature
Spreadthesubstratebagandmakemoreairventilatio
nin
theincubatio
narea.Check
temperature
andcontrolsurroundings
tomaintainof
25to
35°C
Toohigh
carbon
dioxide
Not
morethan
5%carbon
dioxide.
Check
ventilatio
n
Hyg
iene
oftheincubatio
nho
use
Improv
ehy
gienein
theincubatio
nho
use
Mycelium
develops
inpatches.Sub
strate
isno
tevenly
prepared,
andsomepartshave
morenu
trientsthan
others
Mix
wellthesubstrate
Bacteria,
otherfungicontam
ination
Check
theprocesscausingcontam
ination.
Separatecontam
inated
bags
assoon
aspossible.
Rem
ixsubstrateseparately.Rem
akesubstratebags
andpasteurize
foralonger
time.
Follow
process
Mite
contam
ination
Immediately
separate
contam
inated
bags
andpasteurize
again.
Contin
uethenorm
alprocess
Note:
Keephygienemanagem
ent;makesure
tocleaneverything(person,
area,tools,
equipm
ent,andsurrou
ndings
during
everystep.Stopusingthearea
tocutthelifecycle
ofallcontaminantsforaperiod
ofatleast1
to2weeks.F
orseriouscontam
inationcases,
sprayarea
with
chem
icals.Use
black-lig
htwith
water
orsticky-trapto
decrease
insects
Mycelium
grow
sbutfails
toproduce
mushrooms
Sub
strate
form
ulaisno
tsuitable
Adjusttheform
ula;
checkpH
,sawdust,additiv
es,etc
Mites,mold,
virus,bacteria
andinsects
Check
pasteurizatio
nprocess,inoculation,
otherprocessesandmushroo
mho
use
managem
entforhy
giene
Inhibitedby
environm
entaltoxins
Rem
ovesource
oftoxins
Bad
strain
orShawn
Acquire
new
strains
Mushroomsform
,bu
tabortor
delay
mushrooming
Primodia
andgrow
thcondition
offruitin
gbody
arenotgood
enough
Check
temperature
andhumidity.Openor
closedoorsandwindow
toadjustaccordingly
There
iscontam
inationsuch
asmold,
bacteria,insects,worms,and
Check
hygiene,
adjustenvironm
entof
light,temperature,humidity,andventilatio
n.In
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337 1327
Tab
le3
(con
tinued)
Problem
Cause
Solutions
mites
moresevere
cases,usehalfateaspo
onof
sulfur
in3.5lof
water.Mistthebags
andthe
surfaceof
mushrooms.Rem
ovecontam
inated
bags
from
mushroom
houseandrecycle
Chemical
contam
inationfrom
solvents,gas,chlorine,etc
Rem
ovetoxins
Bad
strain
Acquire
anew
strain
orfind
anew
supp
lier
Mushroo
msform
,bu
tstem
sarelong
;caps
underdevelop
edInadequate
light
Increase
oradjustlig
htto
correctwavelength
Excessive
carbon
dioxide
Increase
airexchange,open
doorsor
windowsandcloseat
correcttim
e
Massive
numbers
ofmushroo
msform
;few
develop
Toolong
timeincubatio
nShorten
theperiod
fortheform
ationof
prim
odia
Lackof
oxygen,inadequate
light
Increase
airventilatio
nandopen
morewindowsor
doorsto
receivemorelig
ht
Inadequate
substratenu
trition
orlow
quality
Reformulateor
checkraw
materials
Low
rate
mycelium
grow
thUse
thehigh
rate
spaw
nor
adjustgo
odcond
itionsforrate
ofgrow
th
Poorstrain
Obtainbetterstrain
Mushroo
msaredeform
ed,decayanddie
Disturbed
bygerm
sor
competin
gmicroorganism
sAdjustmushroom
houseto
favo
rmushroomsandno
tgerm
sandcompetitors
Dirty
surfaceof
substratebags
Clean
thesurfaceof
substrate
Not
enough
airventilatio
n,toohigh
humidity
Increase
aircirculation.
Reducehumidity
totheprescribed
levels.Surface
water
must
evaporatefrom
mushroomsseveraltim
esperday.
Check
watering;
ifthereiswater
inbags,pierce
bags
anddrainwater
Bad
strain
Acquire
betterstrain
Use
ofchem
icalsdu
ring
thisperiod
Never
usechem
icalsdu
ring
thefruitin
gstage
Mushroomsproduced
only
inthefirstflush,
failto
prod
ucesubsequent
flushes
Inadequate
substratenu
trition
Reformulate
Com
petitors
Check
hygiene;
adjustlig
ht,temperature,humidity,air,andventilatio
n
Poorgrow
ingho
usemanagem
ent
Improv
emanagem
ent
Bad
strain
Acquire
new
strain
Mushroo
mssm
allsized
Toomanymushroo
mscomingou
tat
thesametim
eReducethesize
ofop
ening(s)
Lackof
nutrientsin
substrate
Review
quality
ofsubstrate
Changeof
weather
Bew
areof
widerangechangesin
temperature
Spawnun
healthy
Check
origin
ofspaw
n
Pestsandinsects
Natural
occurrence,hu
mid
clim
ate
Placelemongrassplantsaround
mushroom
house.Sp
read
limeon
shelves,on
poles,and
ground
inthemushroom
house.Clean
(and
maintainclean)
themushroom
houseproperly
Mushroo
mwaste
lyingarou
ndmushroo
mho
use
Try
tousethewaste
asfertilizeror
recycle
Ants
Mix
detergentwith
water
andplaceon
theirpaths.Dono
tpu
ton
mushroo
m
Mushroo
msarelig
htin
weight
Shortageof
water
Check
humidity
ofmushroo
m
Mushroo
mqu
icklyspoil
Mushroo
mstoomaturewhenharvested
Harvestwhenyo
unger
Mushroomstoowarm
before
packaging
Chillmushroomsbefore
placingin
marketin
gcontainers
Mushroo
mstoowet
whenharvested
Reducehu
midity
severalho
ursbefore
harvestin
g
Mushroo
msstored
beyo
ndshelflife
Sellmushroo
msfaster
Rottin
gspot
onthemushroo
mfruitin
gbo
dybecauseof
bacteria
during
flush
Bacteria(Pseudom
onas
tolaasii,
Pseud
omonas
fluorescens)
onOystermushroom
Con
trol
humidity
inthemushroom
houseandmaintain80–85%
.Giveenou
ghtim
efor
water
toevaporatefrom
mushroom
surfaces
before
furtherwatering.
For
severe
cases,
use113
gchlorine
mixed
in45
lof
water
or4
ozof
chlorine
pergallo
nof
water
Sou
rce:
FAO
2001
1328 Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337
at a temperature of approximately 45 °C for 4–5 days untilall the ammonia has evaporated. One of the most importantdevelopments in mushroom growing of recent years has beenthe introduction of bulk processes in composting technology.Both phase I and phase II of the composting process can takeplace in bulk in special fermentation rooms called tunnels.When that process has been completed, the compost can bespawned, and mycelium can develop in either the same oranother tunnel. Phase III then yields fully grown compostready for production (Van Griensven and Van Roestel 2004).
Cultivation of L. edodes
L. edodes is the third most cultivated edible mushroom; itwas traditionally grown on wood logs (Stamets 1995;Chang and Hayes 1978; Chang and Miles 1989; Table 2,Fig. 3j). This method has been replaced by artificial logcultivation that utilizes heat-treated substrates based onsawdust enclosed in plastic bags (“bag-log cultivation”).The main advantages of this method are the short time tocomplete a crop cycle and the higher yields (Sánchez2004). The strain, substrate composition, and length ofincubation are important parameters for shiitake productionon synthetic substrates in bag-log cultivation (Zadrazil1993; Kalberer 1995; Sánchez 2004). Recently, mushroomculture has moved toward diversification, and the culture ofother mushrooms has been reported.
Cultivation of Auricularia sp.
Auricularia auricula and Auricularia polytricha commonlyare produced on a medium consisting of sawdust, cotton-seed hulls, bran, and other cereal grains or on natural logsof broad-leaf trees (Table 2). For synthetic mediumproduction, the substrate may be composted for up to5 days or used directly after mixing. The mixed substrate issterilized for 60 min at 121 °C. Composted substrate isprepared by mixing and watering of ingredients. Theinoculation and fructification are carried out as previouslyreported (Royse 2007).
Cultivation of Flammulina velutipes
Japan is the main producer of F. velutipes (Furukawa 1987).Production of F. velutipes in Japan is based on a substratecontained in polypropylene bottles. Substrates (primarilysawdust and rice bran) are mechanically mixed and filledinto heat-resistant bottles, sterilized (4 h at 95 °C and 1 h at121 °C), mechanically inoculated, and incubated for 25 daysat 20 °C. To further improve quality during fruiting,temperatures are lowered to 3 °C to 8 °C until harvest. Asthe mushrooms begin to elongate above the lip of the bottle,a plastic collar is placed around the neck and secured with a
Velcro® strip. This collar serves to hold the mushrooms inplace so that they are long and straight. When themushrooms are 13 to 14 cm long, the collars are removed,and the mushrooms are pulled as a bunch from the substrate(Royse 2007).
Cultivation of Grifola frondosa
Production of G. frondosa is usually on a substratecontained in polypropylene bottles or bags. A commonsubstrate used for production is composed of sawdustsupplemented with rice bran or wheat bran. It has also beenproduced on a substrate consisting of oak sawdust, wheatbran, millet, and rye. This formula gave the highest yields,best quality, and shortest crop cycle time (12 weeks). Forbottle production, the containers are filled with moistenedsubstrate and sterilized or pasteurized prior to inoculation.For production in bags, the moistened substrate is filled intomicrofiltered polypropylene bags and sterilized. Aftercooling (16 to 20 h), the substrate is inoculated, and thebags are heat-sealed and shaken to uniformly distribute thespawn throughout the substrate. Spawn runs last about 30to 60 days depending on strain and substrate formulation.After primordia formation, two holes usually are cut in thebags exposing the developing primordia that tend todevelop around the outside perimeter of the substratesurface. The top of the bag is then folded over, exposingonly the developing primordia to the fruiting environment(Royse 2007).
Cultivation of Hypsizygus marmoreus
The Japanese are the main producers and consumers of H.marmoreus. It is usually produced in polypropylene bottlescontained in plastic trays. After the completion of vegetativemycelial growth, bottle lids are removed, and the colonizedsubstrate is subjected to environmental conditions known tostimulate fruiting. When the mushrooms are mature, the entirecluster of fruiting bodies is removed from the bottles. Themushrooms are packaged by placing an entire cluster (ormultiple clusters) into each over-wrapped package. Only oneflush of mushrooms is harvested prior to mechanical removalof the “spent” substrate from the bottles. The bottles then arerefilled with fresh substrate, and the process is repeated(Royse 2007).
Cultivation of Pholiota nameko
Preparation of the medium for P. nameko cultivation is similarto that for F. velutipes except that a higher moisture contentof the substrate is desirable. A substrate of broad-leaf treesawdust is preferred, but research has shown that sawdustfrom conifers such Pinus spp. and Cryptomeria japonica are
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337 1329
suitable for growth. Rice bran usually is added as asupplement for conifer sawdust and 10% for broad-leafsawdust (Royse 2007).
Cultivation of Tremella fuciformis
This mushroom can be cultivated on natural logs or on amedium (Quimio et al. 1990). Cultivation techniques usedto produce the mushroom on natural logs is similar to thatused for shiitake production. In recent years, mostproduction of T. fuciformis has been on a substrate usinga mixed culture inoculum technique first developed inFujian, China (Huang 1982). The mixed culture techniqueinvolves the use of “helper” mycelium of Hypoxylonarcheri, an ascomycete commonly associated in naturewith decaying wood. H. archeri increases the ability ofT. fuciformis to digest the substrate thereby increasingmushroom yields. Exploitation of this mycelial associationis accomplished through use of dual cultures to makemother spawn (Quimio 1997).
Cultivation of Volvariella sp.
This mushroom is well suited for cultivation in the tropicsbecause of its requirement for higher production temperatures.It can be grown on non-pasteurized substrate which is moredesirable for low input agricultural practices. In recent years,cotton wastes (discarded after sorting in textile mills) havebecome popular as substrates for straw mushroom production(Chang 1982). Cotton wastes give higher and more stablebiological efficiencies (30% to 45%) and earlier fructification(4 days after spawning) and harvesting (first 9 days afterspawning) than that obtained using straw as a substrate. Theculture of other mushrooms has also been reported (Table 2).
Improvement of strains
The strain used in the culture is crucial for success ofmushroom production and marketing. A strain with a highability to invade the substrate and to fruit diminishes timeof incubation and enhances productivity. The consistencyand texture of the mushroom are crucial to diminish lossesduring packing. The first A. bisporus hybrid was obtainedby breeding about 25 years ago. However, most of thestrains currently used are similar to the first hybrid obtained(Sonnenberg 2000; Kerrigan 2000; Sánchez 2004). Theincrease in mushroom production has been the result ofmore specialized studies carried out by several internationalinstitutions in different areas of mushroom cultivation(Tables 3 and 4). The use of DNA-based technology hasaccelerated breeding activities and will help mushroom-breeding programs (Stoop and Mooibroek 1999). An
important advance in the development of techniques forbreeding is based on the development and detection ofgenetic markers (Sonnenberg 2000). Research on themolecular basis of mating-type genes has been veryimportant for the development of strains with high yields,resistance to bacterial diseases (Oliver and Delmas 1987;Moquet et al. 1999), viral diseases (Sonnenberg et al. 1995;Harmsen et al. 1991), and fungal diseases (Dragt et al.1995; Kerrigan 2000).
The strain used for Pleurotus sp. cultivation is ofparticular importance, since some workers develop anallergy that is identical to “mushrooms workers lung” andis associated with exposure of people to Pleurotus spp.spores (Laborde 1995; Mori et al. 1998; Saikai et al. 2002;Senti et al. 2000). However, similar symptoms have alsobeen observed with L. edodes spores (Laborde 1995; Sentiet al. 2000). This problem has increased interest indeveloping sporeless mutants for breeding of sporelessstrains (Laborde 1995; Obatake et al. 2003; Tewari 2007).
Development of technology to increase productivity
To increase productivity in the mushroom culture,it is necessary to develop and improve control andcomputerized monitoring of growing rooms, automatedmushroom harvesting machines, hydroblending and pre-wetequipment (heap turners), or to develop methods to producemushrooms on a non-composted substrate, and new techni-ques of sterilization (Hawton et al. 2000). A computerizedenvironmental control system is an invaluable tool formushroom culture. The computer monitors environmentalparameters such as temperature, humidity, airflow, pressure,and carbon dioxide and oxygen content. However, automaticcontrol of ammonia levels and moisture in the casing soil isstill not widely applied. More than two decades ago, the firstclimate computers were introduced to Dutch mushroomgrowing and now are widely used in the industry (Lamber2000). Climate control in production plants allowsmonitoringand control of several mushroom production rooms with aminimum human input. Computerized environmental controlsystem allows the grower to look and adjust the environmentalconditions of the plant by using remote access (modem)capabilities (Walker 1996). There are several companieswhich provide different environmental control systems, e.g.,DuraFlex, Jaybird Manufacturing, Agricultural Engineering,etc. Picking and packing (Fig. 3k) constitute the mostexpensive part of the overall production process. In the last20 years, several studies have been carried out to developautomated mushroom harvesting machines. Some companiesoffer different automated harvesting systems, which includesmall, modular semiautomatic picking aids and the fullyautomated, robotic systems designed for line picking (Kensal
1330 Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337
Automation; Astell 1996). The harvesting operation includesmushroom location, sizing, selection, and picking. Themechanical properties used for the analysis of automatedharvesting were obtained from compression experiments
with cylindrical mushroom sample pieces (Hiller 1994).Reed et al. (1995) evaluated at the laboratory level theautomated harvesting of A. bisporus by machine, and theresulting pilot harvester was successfully tested on a
Table 4 International institutions that study different areas of mushrooms cultivation and their expected output
Area of study in mushrooms production Expected output Internationalinstitutions
Germplasm and genetic improvement
Survey, collection, and identification of wild relativesand new species
Assessment of biodiversity and conservation of germ plasm RBG, MI, CMI
Culture maintenance Conservation of germ plasm CMI, ATCC
Genetic improvement Increased productivity, improved quality, disease and pestresistance
HRI, PSU, MES
Improved production systems
State-of-the art composting technology Increased productivity and reduced environmental pollution HRI, INRA, PSU
Reduction in composting period for rural growers -do-
Newer and improved casing layer Increased productivity at lower costs INRA, PSU
Environment control in growing houses Increased productivity HRI, PSU
Development of farm designs Indigenous technology
Mechanization and automation Indigenous technology HRI, MES
Utilization of spent straw Utilization of waste and additional returns to the growers CINADCO
Improved cultivation technology Diversification of the mushroom portfolio of the country PSU, MI, CAL, CU,Malaysia
Seed (spawn)
Development of liquid spawn technology Ease of handling and low transportation cost PSU, HRI
Improved spawn preparation and packaging technology Improved spawn quality resulting in higher yields and returns PSU, HRI
Integrated pest and disease management
Survey and preparation of area specific disease map Evolving suitable strategies against mushroom diseases
Integrated pest and disease management Increased yields and reduced residual chemicals INRA
Investigations on mushroom viruses Increase productivity INRA
Integrated pest management in mushrooms Increase productivity
Postharvest technology of mushrooms
Improvements in packaging and practices for storageand transport of fresh mushroom
Reduced postharvest losses HRI, PSU
Development of improved processing technologies formushrooms
Reduced postharvest losses and avoidance of distress sale PSU
Development of production technologies for value-added products from mushrooms
Development of value-added products
Basic and strategic studies in mushrooms
Molecular genetics—mapping, cloning and sequencingof genes, allele mining, creation of gene libraries
Understanding will help manipulation for improvement in yieldand quality libraries of mushrooms
HRI, MES, PSU
Genomics—genome sequencing, ESTs, and microarrays Basic information on the genome structure HRI, MES
Cloning and expression of useful genes of mushroom Industrial applications HRI, PSU, MES
Molecular basis of host-pathogen interaction Better disease management INRA
Role of microflora in composting Microbes for rapid composting HRI, PSU, INRA
Morphogenesis in mushrooms Domestication of newer types and increasing the yield ofcommercial types
HRI
Molecular mechanisms of biodegradation oflignocelluloses
Utilization of wastes for food, feed, and fuel USFPL, FSU
Studies on environmental physiology of mushrooms To develop appropriate environment for higher yields HRI, PSU
RBG Royal Botanical Gardens, UK; MI, Mori Institute, Japan; CMI Commonwealth Mycological Institute, UK; ATCC American Type CultureCollection, USA; HRI Horticulture Research International, UK; PSU Pennsylvania State University, USA; MES Mushroom Experimental Station,Horst, The Netherlands; INRA National Institute of Agronomy Research, France; CINADCO Centre for International Agricultural DevelopmentCooperation, Israel; CAL College of Agriculture Laguna, Philippines. CU Chinese University, Shatin, Hong Kong; USFPL US Forest ProductsLaboratory, USA; FSU Fredrick Schiller University, Germany
Source: Tewari 2007; http://www.nrcmushroom.com
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337 1331
commercial mushrooms farm. The apparatus combinesseveral handling systems and mechatronic technologies.Mushrooms are located and sized using image analysis and amonochromatic vision system. An expert selection algorithmthen decides the order in which they should be picked andwhat picking action (bend, twist, or both) should be used(Tillett and Batchelor 1991; Reed et al. 1997). One of a pairof suction cup mechanisms attached to the single head of aCartesian robot is then deployed; it can delicately detachindividual mushrooms and place them gently into a speciallydesigned compliant finger conveyer. After high speedtrimming, a gripper mechanism is finally used to removemushrooms from the conveyor into packs at the side of themachine (Reed et al. 1995, 2001).
The pre-wet heap machine was designed to achieve a quickhomogeneous mix of water and the raw materials used inphase 1 of the culture of A. bisporus to improve efficiency ofthe composting process by reducing the amount of timerequired to achieve the same or better quality compost. Somebenefits of using pre-wet compost turners include improvingcompost quality, homogenous blending of up to 200 t perhour, better odor control, less water run-off, raw materialsavings, reducing phase 1 time by over 50%, reducingoperating and capital costs, increasing production yields,crop uniformity, and profit potential. Design of newequipment to improve productivity is continuously indevelopment. Recently, a new tunnel/bunker filling systemhas been developed, which consists of filling the bunkers ortunnels using overhead layering techniques, but only fromone end of the bunker/tunnel and not through holes in thetunnel roof, with the use of overhead and out of sightconveyors/elevators (Traymater machinery).
New methods to produce and increase the productivity of awide variety of exotic mushrooms have been developed. Themycocell system (Mycocell Technologies, UK) is a methodbased on microwave sterilization of pre-packaged substrate towhich the “spawn” and other nutrients (e.g., Ca2SO4) can beadded. In this case, radiation used in the treatment of thesubstrates modifies the cellulose and increases ease ofbreakdown by the mycelium. In addition, several nutrientscan be added and mixed thoroughly, there are no risks ofsubstrate contamination, and the colonization of the substrateby the mycelium considerably increases. The commercialbenefits of this production system include lower cost, lowenergy requirements, automation, low labor demand, lack ofdowntime, light and cheap transport, low contamination risk,and long shelf life. The mycocell system has allowed also thesuccessful culture of exotic mushrooms such as L. edodes,P. ostreatus, Pleurotus pulmonarius, Pleurotus eryngii,Pleurotus djamor, Pleurotus cystidiosus, Pholiota sp.,Hypsizygus sp., F. velutipes, Agrocybe aegerita, Ganodermalucidum, Psilocybe sp., G. frondosa, Hericium sp., andAuricularia (Hawton et al. 2000; Table 5).
A technology called variable frequency speed control foralternating current motors (Keljik 1995) may be useful formushroom farms and benefit the industry by improvedcontrol of air velocity in the growing environment, resultingin lower electricity consumption (Lomax 1989, 1992;Sánchez 2004). Currently, there are several specializedinstitutes that study different frontier areas to improvemushroom cultivation (Tables 3 and 4).
Additional benefits of mushrooms culture
Several studies have shown that spent SMS can be used formushroom re-cultivation, e.g., the use of SMS enrichedwith cotton seed meal and with soya meal for Agaricuscultivation, the use of spent Pleurotus substrate for the KingStropharia cultivation (Poppe 1995), the use of spentAgaricus compost added with cotton waste for Volvariellaproduction (Oei 1991), and the use of spent Pleurotus eousstraw for the cultivation of several species of this fungus(Siddhant and Singh 2009). Chang and Miles (1989)studied the use of spent Volvariella substrate for theproduction of Pleurotus sajor-caju. Utilization of spentstraw generated after the cultivation of G. lucidum andF. velutipes has been recommended for the production ofother mushrooms, such as A. bisporus or Coprinus comatus(Xiao 1998). A. bisporus spent substrate has also been usedfor the cultivation of Volvariella (Poppe 2000). SMS canalso be used as casing material for the production ofAgaricus (Nair and Brandley 1981; Shandilya 1989; Singhet al. 1992, 2000). It has also been used as animal feed,since its degradation by the mushroom can improve itsnutritional quality (Jalc et al. 1996a, b; Adamovic et al.1998; Díaz-Godínez and Sánchez 2002) and digestibility bythe ruminant (Capelari and Zadrazil 1997; Díaz-Godínezand Sánchez 2002). Díaz-Godínez and Sánchez (2002)found that addition of maize straw generated after mushroomcultivation to the diets of sheep increased the weight gain ofthe sheep and the efficiency of feed conversion of thestraw. SMS is also a beneficial product for enrichment ofsoils, restoring areas that have been destroyed throughdevelopment, deforestation, or environmental contamination.Some studies have been done on the use of SMS in vegetableand flower greenhouses (Lohr et al. 1984; Verdonck 1984;Steffen et al. 1994, 1995; Szmidt 1994; Söchting and Grabbe1995; Celikel and Tuncay 1999), in field vegetable and fruitscrop (Male 1981; Pill et al. 1993; Ranganathan andSelvaseelan 1997; Stewart et al. 1998; Batista et al. 2000;Delver and Wertheim 1988; AntSaoir et al. 2000), in nurseryand landscape gardening (Chong and Wickware 1989;Chong and Rinker 1994; Chong 1999), in soil amendmentas organic manure or vermi-compost (Stewart et al. 1998;Tajbakhsh et al. 2008), and biogas production (Balan et al.
1332 Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337
2008; Pathak et al. 2009). Currently, there are someindustries that manufacture and sell different kind ofcompost based on SMS (http://www.nutrasoils.com; Meijer2009; American Mushroom Institute 2006; http://www.laurelvalleysoils.com).
The potential of SMS to degrade organopollutantsand its importance in environmental bioremediation hasbeen reported (Kuo and Regan 1998; Eggen 1999;Xawek et al. 2003; Webb et al. 2001; Lau et al. 2003;Law et al. 2003).
Table 5 Specialized institutes that study mushroom cultivation in different frontier areas
Frontier areas Institute
Genetic improvement and transgenic technologies MES, HRI, PSU
Identification of mushrooms CMI
DNA technologies HRI, Centre for Plant Biotechnology, Ontario, Canada
Compost technology MES, PSU, Queen's University of Belfast, Ireland
Pest and disease management INRA, PSU
Cultivation of specialty mushrooms INRA, PSU
Quality and packaging technologies and many others frontier areas PSU
Computer application in mushrooms University of Rhodes Island, Kingston, USA
Source: Tewari (2007); http://www.nrcmushroom.com
Table 6 Some diseases that attack Pleurotus ostreatus and Agaricus bisporus cultivation
Affectedmushroom
Infestation(organism)
Type oforganism
Diseases Symptoms Reference
Agaricusbisporus
Cladobotryumdendroides
Fungi Cobweb, mildew White to pink cobweb-like fluffy mold Western Committee on Plant Disease(2004)
Agaricusbisporus
Mycogone sp. Fungi Wet bubble/whitemold
Dense white growth on gills Western Committee on Plant Disease(2004); Tanović et al. 2009
Agaricusbisporus
MycogoneperniciosaMagn.
Fungi Wet bubble of fungi Boiko et al. 2009; Tanović et al. 2009
Agaricusbisporus
Trichoderma sp. Fungi Green mold Dark green mold patches on casingspreading to lesions on stems
Western Committee on Plant Disease(2004)
Pleurotusostreatus
Velázquez-Cedeño et al. 2004
Agaricusbisporus
Verticillium sp.fungicola
Fungi Dry bubble/brownspot
Brown irregular pitted areas on stems andcaps. Distortion and splitting. Severerotting, blotch, and necroses of caps andstems
Western Committee on Plant Disease(2004); Boiko et al. 2009
Agaricusbisporus
Lycoriella sp.,L. ingenua
Insect Sciarid flies Destroy pins of developing mushrooms, andburrow or tunnel into the stems and caps ofmaturing mushrooms
http://www.mushroomcompany.com/resources/pests/index.shtml, 2009;Jess and Schweizer 2009
Agaricusbisporus
Megaselliahalterata
Insect Phorid flies Cause less mushroom damage than sciaridflies
http://www.mushroomcompany.com/resources/pests/index.shtml, 2009;Smith et al. 2006
Agaricusbisporus
Aphelenchoidescomposticola
Nematode Eelworms,Cephalotheciumdisease
Degeneration of the mushroom mycelium inthe compost
http://www.mushroomcompany.com/resources/pests/index.shtml, 2009;Gitanjali 2005
Agaricusbisporus,
PseudomonasTolaasii
Brown blotch Sunken, dark brown lesions http://www.mushroomcompany.com/resources/pests/index.shtml , 2009
Pleurotusostreatus,
Pseudomonasreactants
Blotch disease Mild dark purple to light brown discolorationand a slight surface depression thatbecomes darker with age
Godfrey et al. 2001
and othermushrooms
Pseudomonasgingeri
Ginger blotch Pale yellowish red discoloration thatdevelops into a reddish ginger-colored palediscoloration
Agaricusbisporus
Putative virus X Virus Virus X Slightly imperfectly formed cap structure Gaze 2001
Agaricusbisporus
Bacilliformviruses
Virus Severe rotting, blotch and necroses of capsand stems
Boiko et al. 2009; Revill et al. 1998
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2010) 85:1321–1337 1333
Diseases presented during the mushrooms cultivation
In mushrooms production, a composted substrate increasesmushroom yield and reduce infestation by insects, fungi,bacteria, and viruses. However, under vulnerable mush-room growth conditions, several pests can attack themushrooms cultivation (Table 6).
Troubleshooting in mushroom cultivation
During cultivation of mushrooms, several problems occur(Table 3); however, following of mushroom cultivationcarefully can prevent them. Prevention is better thansolving such problems (Table 6; FAO 2001).
Conclusions
Edible mushrooms have been eaten and appreciated for theirflavor, economical and ecological values, and medicinalproperties. They are able to grow under different climaticconditions on cheap, readily available waste materials. Thesemushrooms are a clear example of how low-value waste,which is produced primarily through the activities of theagricultural, forest, and food-processing industries, can beconverted to a higher value material useful to mankind.Recently, mushroom culture has moved toward diversification,and the culture of additional mushrooms has been reported. Formany reasons, the fungal Pleurotus genus has been intenselystudied and cultivated in many different parts of the world.Particularly, P. ostreatus, also known as “oyster mushroom”,“hiratake”, “shimeji”, or “houbitake”, requires shorter growthtime when compared to other edible mushrooms. Also, thesubstrates used for its cultivation do not require sterilization,only pasteurization which is less expensive. This mushroomdemands few environmental controls for cultivation, and itsfruiting bodies are not often attacked by diseases and pests,and it can be cultivated in a simple and cheap way. Anotheradvantage of growing oyster mushrooms is that a highpercentage of the substrate is converted to fruiting bodies,increasing profitability as compared to other mushrooms,making P. ostreatus an excellent choice for mushroomcultivation.
Acknowledgement I am grateful to Dr. A. L. Demain for criticalreading of the manuscript.
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