_ CHAPTER-6

Colonial regime and its Impact on Madrasa System in India

II Enamoured of the ideas of cultural synthesis in the history of

Indian civilization, Jawaharalal Nehru looked upon India's contact

with the western world during the 19th and 20th centuries as a

unique phenomenon. This in his view, was a contact between an

industrial society committed to scientific world view and progress,

and an agrarian society, wedded to religious world views and the

ideas of status quo. There is hardly any doubt that the modern

European contact with India brought about an unprecedented change

not only in the spheres of politics and economy but also in social

structure. A concomitant of this change was a large degree of

socio-cultural regeneration and resurgence. II 1

With the industrial revolution in England, a mad competition

took place among the European countries for accumulation of

wealth. All corners of the world, especially Asian and African

countries were ransacked by emerging colonial powers of the

west. The Britishers, the French, the Dutch and the Portuguese

entered the race to establish their hegemony in India. The Britishers,

the late comers to the Indian soil came out victorious as they

outwitted their other European competitors. Thus, second largest

population of the world remained prostrate under the western

domination for nearly two centuries. The natural resources of this

vast country and the lives and labour of its people were exploited

mercilessly in the interests of the new colonial master. A nation

1. Cultural reorientation in India under colonial rule, P I 3

252

that had a glorious past pushed to the wall.

The Indian feudals were weak and divided for their petty

interests. They couldn't bid good bye to their insignificant interests.

The colonial master was enough shrewd to make out their rivalries

and exploit the situation for the building up its dream empire.

The exploitation of Indian wealth by the colonial master was

done in three stages. In the first stage, Indian goods were bought

at low prices and sold in western markets at highest rates. In this

work, the Britishers were assisted by Sethias, mostly Hindus, who

worked as middlemen. The English, with the help of Sethias and

local Gomashtas, arbitrarily decided the prices. In the second stage,

the English started to use India as a potential market. The indigenous

crafts were broken and village economy was destroyed

systematically. This stage produced village Banias who were the

reckless users and peddlers of British goods. During this period the

English took the plantation of certain items in their hands. These

items included indigo, tea, jute and cotton which were to be

produced as per requirement of their master. The third stage

commenced when the English started building up subsidiary

industries in India in collaboration with Indian capitalists.

In the beginning, according to Vikasha, Muslim feudalism was

the chief obstacle for the British rule. They removed this by creating

& patronising a new class of traders & feudal lords. They were

predominantly Hindus. And when the new Class came of age and

253

began to outsmart their masters they exploited the old

contradictions of the Indian society to their benifit and resurrected

the Muslim feudalism in the shape of the Muslim league .1

Indigenous education in India in the 19th century was in a

deplorable condition. From the historicat records it appears that

the indigenous system of education was fast decaying due to the

rampant anarchy and ever-increasing impoverishment under the

British rule. Despite the feeble condition of indigenous system of

education, it was enough capable of being developed into a national

system of education by introducing some appropriate changes and

the modern system of education should have been built upon the

very foundation of the time-tested .indigenous system. unfortunately,

no efforts were made in this direction. Had it been the case, the

Indian masses would not have faced the bi-track system of

education and the present government. would have been bound to

realise to give a second thought to the traditional system of

education. And the whole debate on modernisation of traditional

institutions would have been futile. In spite of some time-to-time

encouragement by the government for the or~ental learning, the

indigenous system of education was either killed by ill-planned

attempts at reforms, or destroyed by deliberate competition, or

allowed to die of sheer neglect.

According to Dr. Naik," The results have been disastrous. It is

1. The Glimpses of Indian Culutre, P. 125.

254

true that attempts were made by the officers of the East India

Company and later by the education department, to create a new

system of education in India. For several reasons, the process was

slow, and it could hardly compensate for the loss of indigenous

schools, with the result that the educational position of India in

1921 was hardly better than that in 1821. In the meanwhile, other

nations of the East and West, whose educational advance was

equal or even inferior to that of India in 1821, made such rapid

advances that India soon lost her position of vantage in the coming

of nations and became one of the most educationally bakward

countries of the world." 1

The 19th century India is marked by creativity and innovation

of ideas in the intellectual history of the world. The century can be

described as the "era of renaissance." During the century, the

world in general and India in particular witnessed a considerable

awareness and awakening 1n the human mind, as India took its

rebirth from its own ashes like phoenix. With the help of awareness,

that India achieved from a new window during the period, a silver

line was drawn. Walking along the silver line India had to reach

the zenith of its lost glory.

The century also witnessed a remarkable intellectual acticivism.

Going by varied intellectual currents, some of which, of course,

flow through the revolutionary channels, India put itself on the

1. Student History of education in India P 28

255

move. Moreover, the century in question brought an unexpected

transformation on the socio cultural plain.

With the firm hold of British trading company, by the turn of

19th century, the wheels of India's political destiny had taken a

new turn. Every morning sun appeared on the sky with new hopes

and pleasant message for the nascent British imperialist power

and dismay and despair for the dying and eroding Indian authority.

The encounter of traditional superstitious India with the emerging

rational and progressive west compelled Indian wisdom and

conscience to research its valuable cultural heritage that had gone

into oblivion, leaving a bleak imprint on the minds of intelligentsia.

It was also realised that the traditional education in vogue in India

for centuries, should be reshaped with the synthesis of modern

westrn education.

Similarly there was an urge to renovate the termite affected

superstitious society, setting aside the evils and backward looking

elements that had become part and parcel of the society since

long, especially during 18th century, the high time of socio-cultural

degeneration of Indian society.

The nascent imperialist authority of India, i.e, 'the British East

India company' for quite a longer period, maintained a policy of

'Laissez fair' (Policy of non-intervention) in regard to educational

matters. Though some company officials in their individual capacity,

advocated the cause for social reforms and changes in educational

256

pattern, but their efforts, whatsoever honest and sincere, could

not be crowned with success due to the indifference of the

company's highest authority.

Despite rampant degeneration 1n socio cultural milieu of India

and repeated pleas made by some of the company's administrators,

the company's authority turned a deaf ear to the cause, keeping

in view the sensitivity of the issue. This is also but the fact that

they were well familiar with the genuineness of the cause, but

they were simply helpless under the given circumstances which

were not enough conducive for resorting to such activities. Instead

of addressing the cause of education and society which was quite

genuine in their minds and inviting their attention too, the authorities

evinced their keen interests in doing something worthwhile in

some other domain without touching the delicate chord of socio­

cultural fabric. Commenting on the deliberate apathy of the

company's authorities Dr. Kaye (J. W) observes, "Till 1813 and

more correctly till 1833, the East India Co .. was primarily interested

in its trading activities and the profits derived from the revenue

administration of the territory under its control, it ruled but hardly

governed. Secondly the strong religious base of the Indian society

and culture dispirited many a reformer, administrator and liberal

policy maker of the company, who thought that because of their

alien origin, culture, religion and status any attempt on their part

to rejuvenate the society might be misunderstood by the people of

India, and create antagonism and opposition, bitter and powerful

257

enough, to shake even the foundation of the British rule in India.

It was mainly because of these reasons that in the beginning, the

East India company's government viewed any attempt at

proselytising by the Christian missionaries in India with alarm." 1

This also must be taken into consideration that the East India

Company till 1833 A .D had not been able to build an efficient

government conducive to the rule of law of order. The new

government of the company, as Warren Hastings himself observed

in 1772 A.D, " consisted of a confused heap of indigestion materials

as wild as the chaos itself. 2 " While supporting Fox's India bill Mr.

Burke observed that the company's government was "One of the

most corrupt and obstructive tyrannies, that probably ever existed

m the world. " 3

He further remarked in his speech in the impeachment of Warren

Hastings in 1788, "My lords, by means of this bad system of

things it has so happened, and does happen, that the very laws

we have made, the covenants the company has got its servants

to enter into, and the orders that have been given, have proved

most noxious and mischievous to the country instead of beneficial, "4

An Indian writer justly observed in 1986 that the "government of

the East India company had nearly until the close of the 18th

1. Christianity in india P. 513

2. Dawn of renascent India P. 5

3. !hid

4. !hid

258

century been a despotism with scarcely any mitigating features to

compensate for the loss of the manifold advantages of a native

rule. " 1

Under the elaborated picture, the Govt of East India company

was, indeed, helpless, and it could do nothing except to follow the

policy of Non-intervention in regard to socio-religious matters in

India, as any positive move in this direction was bound to invite

bitter and sharp reactions from the indigenous people who were

keeping an eye on the gradual activities of the colonialists and

constantly trying to take on them with the wink of an eye. In

short, non-interference was the contextual historic compulsion,

without which the survival of colonial authority was in lurch.

With the commencement of 19th century, a debate on the

promotion of socio-cultural welfare of the people in India started in

and outside the British parliament. The nature of the issue was so

complex that might not possibly be addressed without much

hindrance. The Britishers, both in and outside the parliament were

just a divided lot, for some it was a pressing need, while for

others it was none of the business of the company. For the

formers, the company must take the responsibility to educate the

people, while for the latter, the company was a trading

establishment not the welfare association.

1. Ibid

2. N B. K.K. Dutta has taken all the above referencesfrom PN Bose. A history (if Hindu civilization during British rule, Vol. III P -15

259

The conservatives like Warren Hastings and the noted orientalist

H.H wilson wanted to maintain the status quo. To them, the

company should function in the general tradition, looking after

peace and security of the people, without touching the rituals,

customs and traditions. The company must confine itself to the

patronage of existing socio-cultural order without playing with the

established norms. The stand taken by the orientalists was

welcomed by the right-wing Tories in the British parliament, but

was opposed by the Anglicists with equal force.

Despite much commonalities between the orientalists and the

Anglicists on various issues, they were diagonally opposite to

each other on the issue of educational reforms in India. The

Anglicists were terrified with irrational and inhuman cultural

practices in India. On humanitarian grounds they vehemently

opposed the 'policy of status quo' adopted by the then ruling

right-wing Tories on the internecine pressure exerted by the

Orientalists. They were of the view that through preaching of

gospel they should enlighten the people. Once the people will be

able to differentiate between right and wrong, they will follow the

right track and get rid of superstition. The idea floated by the

Anglicists was championed by Willberforce, a protagonist of anti

slavery agitation and Charles Grant, a director, and, later on the

chairman of East India company.

The Anglicists were backed m their struggle against the

260

Orientalists by Utilitarians who had much influence in the decision

making process in Britain. The famous Utilitarian James Mill, who

shot to prominence for his monumental work "History of India" a

guideline for the Britishers to govern India, contributed a lot to the

just cause advocated by the Anglicists. Utilitarians were highly

influenced with Bentham's theory of legislation that societies could

be reformed by enforcing just laws.

Yet further the Anglicists were supported by some of the

administrators of East India company, who sacrificed a lot to the

consolidation of British power in India. They were well experienced

and matured people. They were enough familiar with the inner and

outer currents of the country. This small but powerful group of the

administrators proposed gradual reforms, as any move taken in haste

may backfire. To be on the safer side they wanted to bring reforms

in the form of sugar coated pills, so that Indians could digest smoothly,

without showing any resistance or disdain. The group was led by

Mountstuart Elphinstone, who introduced westrn education at the

prime presidency, Mumbai, Charls Metcalfe, John Malcolm and Thomas

Munro. It was Sir Thomas Munro who paid serious attention towards

the spread of English education after taking charge of governorship in

Madras (Now Chennai).

The intellectual discourses continued between the Anglicists

and the Orientalists for quite a long time, and finally the ruling

right wring Tories had to recede to the long-pending pressing

261

demand of the oppositions. As a token of confession, they

introduced series of reform bills, whereby the ice started melting

and flowing to different channels in India.

The reform initiative undertaken by the East India Company

authority on the instance of British parliament pacified the burning

zeal of pro-reform groups, struggling for this noble cause incessantly.

They welcomed the move with great pleasure and happiness, while

for anti-reform lobby it was a big jolt. Charles, an Anglicist

philanthropist, who after spending some year ( 1792-97) in India,

submitted a treatise on the improvement of Indians to the 'Court of

Directors,' observed, "It is perfectly in the power of this country by

degrees to impart to the Hindus our language; afterwards through

that medium to make them acquainted with our literary compositions

upon a variety of subjects and let not the idea hastily excite derision,

progressively with the simple elements of our arts, our philosophy

and religion. These acquisitions would silently undermine, and at

length subvert the fabric of error." 1

He further observed, "By planting our language, knowledge, our

opinions and our religion in our Asiatic territories, we shall put a

great work beyond the reach of contingencies. " 2

Another notable Anglicist Willberforce, who despite his untiring

efforts could not succeed during 1793 A. D in his mission just

because one of the Directors objected his move saying. "We have

1. Dutta (K.K.), opcit. P. 26

2. /hid

262

just lost America for our folly in having allowed the establishment

of schools and colleges, and that it would not do for us to repeat

the same act of folly in regard to lndia." 1

The resolution moved by Willberforce was rejected by parliament

1n 1793 A.D simply declaring most blatantly that 'Philanthropy

was not a part of Government."

The utilitarians also got an opportunity when James Mill occupid

a key position in the Indian house in 1819 A.D By the year 1928

A. D the situation changed to a great extent and Tory president of

the board of control wrote to lord william Bentinck, Governor General

( 1828-1835). "we have a great moral duty to perform in India."

Now, the situation became completely favourable. The history

of origin and development of modern system of education in India

may be traced out not only from socio-cultural and political condition

of India but also from socio-cultural and political developments in

contemporary England. Several Indian institutions were planned in

tune with the contemporary institutions in England. The change in

educational policy in England also cast its direct impact upon

Indian educational system.

The whole controversy on the introduction of modern system

of education in India revolved around the old and the new, between

the efforts of colonial power to impose a blind imitation of British

education system and the desire of the indigenous people to evolve

1. Social History of Modem India P. 12

263

a system that could cater to their needs and aspirations. Till the

beginning of 19th century, the indigenous Indian system of

education was in the saddle. Soon afterwards of the christian

missionaries who were wei-armed with the gospel of Evangelisation.

These missionaries were joined by some of the forward-looking

administrators associated with East India company, and some

enlightened Indians who were either well grounded in modern

system of education or enough far-sighted to look into the destiny

of India in the days to come. Due to the earnest efforts of the

above three groups, modern system of education knocked at the

door of Indian brain in the remotest zone of this vast land.

The modern system of education engulfed the country for several

reasons. According to the prominent educationists Syed Nurullah

and J.P Naik," The British people of the Victorian era complacently

believed that their language, Literature and Educational methods

were the best in the world and that India could do no better than

adopt them in totality, Secondly, the Indians of this period, on

their part were dazzled by their first contact with the western

civilization and believed that their country could do no better than

imitate the British model, and thirdly, the system attained an

artificial popularity and importance because the young men and

women educated under it were freely employed in government * services" As a result the indigenous system of education, by the

* The quotation has been takken from the introduction of the book "'Students History of education in India", joint(y written by Syed Nuru/lah and Naik (JP) and published by Macmillan & Co. Ltd., Mumhai in 1945.

264

end of the 19th century, completely replaced by a new system of

education aimed at the spread of western knowledge through the

medium of English. With the advent of 20th century the political

scinario changed the world over. During 1904-05 A.D the defeat

of a rising power of Europe like Russia by a tiny state of Asia like

Japan exhorted the dwindling morale of Asian nations. The victory

of Japan was a message for the Asian nations not to imitate the

west blindly and irrationally. The idea was further strengthened by

the outbreak of the world war first (1914-18 A.D). The world war

revealed to the world in general and India in particular that

something was wrong with the western civilization. Hence, it was

inviting the people to the western values before their adoption in

totality. The logical corollary of these two incidents was that India

put a check to the blind imitation of the west, and started searching

for a system of education, not alien to its people. In its sincere

and honest pursuit India succeeded, as the institutions like Vishwa

Bharti, Jamia Millia lslamia, Banaras Hindu University and Aligarh

Muslim University came to exist.

As pointed out at the very outset, modern education in India

was mainly introduced by three agencies : the missionaries, the

British officials with education department, and the Indian

intelligentsia. Setting aside, the motive of missionaries for

Evangelisation, one has to admit their precious contribution to the

promotion of English in India. If one compares the quantum of

their success, it would be difficult for him/her to assess whose

265

efforts should be given the first priority: the company's efforts or

the missionaries. The decision should be left on the academic

analysts.

Nevertheless, due to the policy of non intervention, it was a

hard task before the missionaries to operate freely without much

hindrance and seek their desired goal, as the prime motive of East

India Company was to make money not to propagate religion and

disseminate knowledge. To maintain its commercial and political

stability, the company was empowered by the British parliament

in 1783 to restrict the entry of the missionaries, "As a result the

entire number of missionaries sent out up to the end of 18th

century was only 50, and at no time were there more than ten in

the field. " 1 These missionaries wanted to spread the western

education in India for evangelical preparations, for the recruitment

of Indians for the propagation of gospel among their countrymen.

The missionaries people continued their struggle to overcome

the restrictions, imposed on their entry into India, by the British

parliaments. After a long struggle, they succeeded in their motive in

1813 A.D, whereby the restrictions, were removed. With the

removed of barrier, many institutions sprang up within a short span

of time. Moreover, their contributions to the mental upliftment of

the general masses in general and the depressed section, in particular

are worth appreciation. Their efforts to eradicate socio-cultural evils

1. History of Protestant missions in India P -19

266

widespread in the Indian society at that time apparently may not

have succeeded but they helped a lot in the popularisation of an

ideology.

Their functioning style among the people inspired many for

rendering selfless social services. And finally their efforts proved

to be a milestone in shaping the prominent personalities who

proved their latent & calibre during the freedom struggle of the

nation. The emergence of such personalities testifies the utility

and vitality of missionary activities on the Indian soil.

The British officials of the education department came to the

force only after the historic wood despatch ( 1854 A.D) but

dominated the educational domain for the period more than others.

The admisnistrators like Mountstuart Elphinstone who introduced

western education in Mumbai presidency, Charles Metcalfe who

practiced liberal policies when ruling Delhi territory and John

Malcolm who is known for his just policies in central India did a lot

for the promotion of English language in India.

The Indian intelligentsia stepped in the beginning of 19th century,

and by the end of the century started their demand for lndiansation

of education, they partially succeeded in their mission in 1921

A.D, and more correctly in 1937. By the time of independence,

the system of education, in India, assumed an indigenous colour.

The whole journey of modern education system in India can be

described in six stages, as done by Syed Nurullah and Naik (J .P)

267

but since, I am least concerned with the last two stages, I will * confine myself to four stages only.

The first stage starts from the beginning of 18th century and

ends with the remarkable charter act ( 1813). Despite the fact that

East India company was established in 1600 AD, but it maintained

its complete indifference towards educational cause. The conflict

at this stage, mainly centred around two basic issues: first there

was a dispute between the Directors of the company who had no

willingness to accept the responsibility to educate the people and

the company officials who were pressing their demands to educate

the people. Secondly, there was a dispute between the court of

Directors who were not ready to allow the missionaries to operate,

and the missionaries were adamant to spread gospel of Jesus

among the Indians. Both the disputes were diluted after the

enactment of charter Act of 1813. And this was the beginning of

the state system of education in India under the British rule.

The second stage starts with the Charter Act ( 1813 A.D) and

ends with declaration of remarkable wood's education despatch

( 1 854). The second stage is replete with controversies between

the groups and sub-groups.

The conflict of this stage revolves around the controversial

views of two schools of thought. The earlier school was led by

*All these four points have been taken from the introduction of book"students History(~! education in India "jointly written by syed Nurrllah and Naik (J.P)

268

Macaucay, believed in the replacement of traditional Indian

education with modern western one, and decided to create a class

of loyal Indians; Indians in blood and colour, but English in tastes,

in opinions, in morals and in intellect. This school was, mainly

comprised of missionary people whose prime task was

proselytisation, while the latter school believed in a synthesis of

the Eastern and Western cultures. This school of thought mainly

consisted of the senior officials of the company who were the

brain child of Hastings and Lord Minto.

Unfortunately, the latter school of thought succumbed to the

difference of opinions between the Calcutta group and Mumbai

group. Calcutta officials believed that such a synthesis could be

brought about by spreading western science and knowledge through

the medium of Indian classical languages. On the other lard Mumbai

officials believed that this synthesis is possible by spreading western

knowledge and science through the spoken language of the Indian

people.

The controversy between the missionary people and the people

of pro-synthesis, likewise the difference of opinions between two

pro-synthesis groups confounded the issue further, and it reached

a point where it became difficult to distinguish English as a medium

of instruction from English as a subject. Hence the whole issue

centred around following major points:

( 1) What should be the object of the educational policy to

269

spread western knowledge or to preserve Eastern learning?

(2) What should be the medium of instruction- English Sanskrit,

or Arabic, or the modern Indian languages?

(3) What should be the agency for the spread of education-the

mission schools, the institutions directly controlled by the company

or the indigenous school conducted by Indians themselves?

(4) what should be the method of spreading education- should

government try to educate the masses directly, or should it only

educate a few Indians and leave it to them to educate others?

The woods educational despatch ( 1854) set aside the above

conflicting issues by its historic proclamation:

( 1) The main object of the educational policy was to spread

western knowledge and science. The oriental learning would be

given some encouragement at collegiate stage only.

(2) Both English and spoken languages of the people should be

used as medium of instruction at the secondary stage.

(3) The government can't cater to the educational needs of the

country. The bulk of the educational institutions would have to be

organised by private bodies- whether missionary or Indian.

(4) From now onwards, the education of the masses should be

regarded as a duty of the state.

The third stage ( 1854-1900 A.D) is marked by rapid westernization

270

of the educational system in India. The period in question witnessed

a major conflict between the fading indigenous system of education

and the new system of education created by wood's despatch.

The oriental learning, despite getting assurance from the despatch

for some official encouragement, got sidelined out of utter

contempt. Under such condition of helplessness, it had to fight a

battle for its survival.

The oriental learning was further cornored by the undue

importance attached to new system of education by the

gover.nment, as there was a free employment in government

services for the persons educated and trained, in new system.

This discriminatery policy of the government led to the almost

complete extinction of the indigenous system of education in India.

The fourth stage that starts with the conference of directors of

Public instruction convened by lord Curzon at Shimla in 1901 A.D,

and closes with the transfer of education to the control of Indian

ministries in 1921 A.D, was a period of ever-increasing political

unrest in the country.

The period under discussion passed through various political ups

and downs across the world. India itself was heading towards its

independence with more rapidity than ever before. The day-to-day

development in the country led to the awakening. The people started

waking up from their deep long slumber. Amidst these developments,

the educational conflict of the period saw the light of the day.

271

On the efficacy of the educational system in India, the opinions

of Indian educationists as well as Europeans were divided. Some

thinkers believed that the quality of education in India had

deteriorated since the recommendations of Indian education

commission in 1880. The schools and colleges operating under

private management could not maintain the desired standard of

discipline. The alien western culture could not be digested by the

educated Indians. The new education system could not equip its

learners with ideal character. These thinkers, for all the above

defects, blame the government that followed the policy of expansion

without paying much attention to the schools and colleges run by

private managements. To these thinkers, the government should

concentrate on the improvement of quality rather than increasing

their number.

Contrary to the above thinkers, some other educationists believed

that the recommendations of Indian education system was an

appropriate action at appropriate time. To these educationists,

quality was not everything spread of western knowledge and

sciences was the need of the hour to create renaissance in the

Indian national life. They suggested an expansion of higher studies

on the voluntary basis and the introduction of compulsory

elementary education for the entire masses. And the private

enterprise must be given a free hand. Any policy to control private

enterprise means depriving a large section of the Indians of their

basic needs.

272

The conflict between the above two groups of thinkers at the

level of perception, continued at various stages. The earlier

dominated the latter, as it mainly consisted of company officials,

while the latter comprised of enlightened Indians. Despite their

defeat at various levels, the enlightened Indian put their demand

persistently "to control the educational policy of the country. Keeping

in view their persistent demand the department of education was

transferred to Indian ministers.

"The enthusiasm for English education, however, was practically

confirmed to Hindus. The Muslim community was opposed to it.

In 1835, the new educational policy was announced and its

objectives came to be known that the government is encouraging

English, ar:td discouraging Hindu and Islamic religious studies, was

the conversion of the people to Cristianity. There was scarcely

any relaxation from this attitude of suspicion and hostility for half

a century. The Muslim remained attached to their traditional culture

and desired to study only the Law, Literature and theology of

Islam, even though the government announced in 1844 A.D, that

in making appointments in public service it would give preference

to those who had received education in English. English education

was accordingly almost the exclusive possession of the Hindus,

and only of the upper classes among them, for it did not as yet

penetrate to the lower strata of the society. 1

I. Evolution of Indian Culture PP 14-15.

273

Replacement of Persian with English as an official language in

1937 A.D, was another setback for the Muslims in India. With the

adoption of English as an official language, the Muslims lost their

hopes and aspirations, as it was the only means for their survival.

The policy was considered by the community as a direct attempt

to deprive them from their last means of bread and butter. But

even this harsh step could not make them to follow the foot-steps

of the British and hug the changes brought about by them. Still

they resisted the western influences with the maximum possible

might at thier disposal.

Mr. 0. Malley rightly pointed out saying, "While Hindu thought

was swinging away a reaction against western influences, a

movement in the opposite direction set in among the Muslims.

English education was hitherto been regarded with mistrust and

dislike as being divorced from relation and alien to Islamic culture,

which made the Indian born Muslim conscious that he was one of

an international fraternity. The idea of purely secular education

was opposed to the tradition of Islam, and it was feared that its

rationalising tendencies would undermine the foundations· of faith.

But experience had shown that English education was a valuable

qualification for admission to, and promotion in, government service,

as well as for success in other walks of life, and that by abstention

from it, the Muslims have fallen into a position of inferiority vis­

a-vis Hindus. There was a growing realization among an influential

section that in their own interests they must fall in line with their

274

Hindu competitors and march with the times. This change of front was,

very largely due to the enlightened guidance of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan,

a man of outstanding personality, who was convinced that the adoption

of western learning was essential for the welfare of his co-religionists.

Islamic culture, however, was to be preserved and harmonized with

western learning. Education was not to be divorced from religion, and

moral training was to go hand in hand with scholastic instruction. " 1

1. Modern India and the West

275

II

British policy in the socio-cultural and political sphere produced

certain far-reaching effects. The introduction of English education

proved to be a chief solvent to superstitious ideas in India, and

chief source from which new ideas were supplied to the dried

veins of the society. It irrigated the barren minds of the Indians

through instilling creative and imaginative capacities. In short, it

was the main source for the proliferation of dormant ideas. English

influenced not only one or two spheres, but opened a new window

to peep into the new horizon altogether. It left indelible marks on

sociocultural plain.

According to stephen Neil (F.B.A), "In the first quarter of the 19th

century conditions changed with great rapidly. Indians became aware

of the importance of English language, not only as a means to

securing remunerative employment under government, but as a key

of liberty; liberty to enter a vast world of thought and knowledge to

which previously they had no access. Minds which had began to be

trained in the thought of Newton, lock and Burke, could no longer •

remain contended in the world of Puranas and the ancient mythologies.

But the possibilities of acquiring English, or gravely limited, or

elementary in some cases hindered by gross incompetence. " 1

The spread of western knowledge and science changed the

whole intellectual climate of the country. In the light of new ideas

1. History of Christianity in India P 327

276

from the west, the process of self instruction began, and this

proved to be a catalyst to initiate socio cultural reform through

various organisations.

During the early decades of 19th century translations of English

classics into the Indian languages enriched the intellectual domain

of India. The scientific study of Indian classical languages was

also encouraged by an influential section of British officials. British

scholars, helped by Indians contributed a lot to the promotion of

classical Indian heritage. Apart from books on grammars, they

compiled a number of dictionaries. And last but not the least,

contacts with English literature led to development of prose literature

in the Indian languages, which had been dominated by poetry for

centuries.

"The influence of English literature on the literature in the main

Indian languages was continuous and more intensive in the period

after 1857 A.D, than before. The forms of prose literature, that

were adopted in this period were mainly the novel, the essay and

drama. The short story came in a little later and was developed

particularly during the period between the two world wars. In

poetry lyrics were adopted from English and such other poetic

forms as the sonnet was also adopted." 1

The intimate contact with the west effected through the advent

of the British brought a radical change in the political, social and

1. Modern India and the West P. 93

277

religious outlook of the Indians. The 19th century India witnessed

a christian missionary movement from Europe and elsewhere,

unparalleled in the history of christianity. The missionaries took

their faith to the remotest part of India and touched the cultural

chord of the country. In the name of service to the 'children' of

God, they did not confine their activities to the establishment of

schools, hospitals and other charitable organisations but exceeded

their limit, under the garb of missionaries, they attacked the Indian

society and religion of both-Hindus and Muslims. Through their

activities, they tried to shake up the whole existing religious set-up.

They presented christianity as the only true religion of the world.

As a result, many Indians embraced christianity for economic &

other benefits and gave up the religion of their forefathers.

Nevertheless, aggressive nature of proselytization aroused the

religious feelings of Muslims and Hindus and provided an opportunity

for self introspection. Hence, various socio-cultural and religious

movements appeared among the Hindus.

Muslims, on the other hand, were also a target of missionary's

criticism. Muslim theologians (Uiemas) responded the challenges

of missionaries. They had given them a befitting reply. Their

vehement attack on certain historical events of Islam compelled

the Ulemas on debates with them in the public arena. It can be

said that missionary activities helped increasing the number of

Madrasas in India, some way or the other.

278

The missionaries, however, can not be discredited wholly for

their attack on Indian religions and society. Apart from this and

many other, their contributions are countless, especially when it

comes to the Indian renaissance.

Indian renaissance which has been a matter of spirit producing

brought about hanges in the realms of religion, society and culture

along with a demand for nation regeneration. The Indian renaissance

stirred the Indian soul to its very depths and produced far-reaching

changes in several spheres of Indian life. According to Dr. R.C

Majumdar, II A critical outlook on the past and new aspiration for

the future marked the new awakening. Reason and judgement

took the place for faith and belief, superstition yielded to science,

immobility was replaced by progress and zeal for reform of proven

abuses, overpowered age long apathy and inertia and a complacent

acquiscence in whatever was current in society. The traditional

meaning of the 'Sastras' was subjected to critical examination and

new conceptions of morality and religion remodelled the orthodox

beliefs and habits. 111

The above remark suffices to testify the precious contributions

of renaissance, which is a product of western science and

knowledge, and the missionaries share in the spread of western

knowledge and science is known to all.

According to Dr. B.N. Lunia, II In the closing years of the 18th

1. Studies in the cultural history of India P. 357

279

century channels of Indian culture were getting dry. The culture of

the country had become moribund, decadent and effete. The

creative spirit had disappeared in fine arts, Literature, Science,

Philosophy and religion. The intellectual life had become dull and

sluggish, knowledge was pertified. Society with all its evil customs

was like a pool of stagnant water. The traditional charms of Indian

society collapsed. India needed a violent shock and a rude challenge

to remedy this state of affairs. This was provided by the people of

western countries and their culture. It is a mistake to think that

this shock, challenge, and effect of the West on India were due to

the advent of the British. Sometimes, the British endeavoured to

hinder the healthy influence of the West by reactionary elements.

In fact, the Western influence in India was the outcome of the

forces of times and history as it happened in China and Japan. In

courses of time, the western influence would have entered India

even without the advent of the British." 1

The old values of India were threatened by the rising Western

Civilization and culture by the end of the 18th century. Indian

Socio-religious institutions could not withstand the cultural storm

of the west, and ultimately there was no option but to yield the

western pressure. The edifice of the Indian culture was flown

away in the flood of western superiority. The western current

revolutionised the ideas of all those who came close to it. As a

1. Evolution of Indian culture P 522

280

consequence, the Indian intelligentsia were sharply divided in three

blocks. The first block consisting of those who immediately bade

good bye to their long traditions and culture and advocated to

follow the western life-style without any cross examination. The

second block consisted of those who along with their positive

resistance to the blind imitation of the West, resorted to reform

within their existing fold. And the third block consists of those

who outrightly rejected the exotic alien culture without going into

rational discourses and pragmatic implications altogether.

The contact of India with the outside world was not a new

phenomenon. Its historical records show that it had been frequently

in touch with foreign powers, during the course of history. And

every contact with the outside world resulted in some exchanges

in different spheres of life.

Its contact with Islam also brought about some major implications.

Nevertheless, the impact of Islam was largely confined to the urban

life, but the impact of the west on Indian socio-cultural life is

durable and engulfed far-flung areas in the remote. With the passage

of time, these influences in the Indian life are becoming more

pronounced.

One of the striking impacts of western culture on India was the

growth of Indian vernacular literatures. Contact with the European

minds benefited Indians. Through the English language a flood of

western ideas threw itself before the Indians. Penetration of western

281

ideas brought a mental revolution. Dr. B.N. Lunia observes,

"Numerous works in the English language provided new trends of

thought and action in India. The western literature offered several

brilliant specimens in the different branches of literature and Indian

writers copied them. The best of the writers of the Indian vernacular

literatures have been western in spirit, in outlook, in literary devices,

in the choice and treatment of the subjects. Though they retained

a close connection with the west in literature and life of ancient

India they represented the spirit of the west clad in a half oriental

garb." 1

Before the advent of the British, the Indian vernacular literatures

dealt with religious subjects. Prose which was developed and

improved during the British rule in India, started its journey from

the translated works of English Prose. Before, poems were the

only means of expression, replete with mythological stories. The

stories, novels, and the history of literature popular in Europe for

centuries before 1850 A.D, were quite unknown in India. As a

result of contact with the west, Indian vernacular literatures not

only improved the strength of vocabulary but also variety, neutrality

and flexibility of the language.

The influence of English prose 1s very much reflected in the

writings of Indians prose writers in terms of both form and content.

In terms of form, Indian writers adopted the English method and

1. Evolution of Indian Culture P 522

282

in technique of expression, and interms of content, they switched

over from religious and mythological stories to the issues faced by

the commoners. The Indian plays changed their colour. The growth

of one Act play in the Indian dramas and the analytical expression

speak of the influence of the west. In the Indian stories, novels

and essays western models were adopted. The art of literary

criticism in the Indian vernacular literatures was also taken from

the west. Western scholars and missionaries played a pivotal role

in the compilation of Dictionaries and composing of grammars in

Indian vernaculars. The publication of Bible in the Indian spoken

languages, the establishments of printing press, circulation of Indian

newspapers and study of western literature further facilitated the

way for the promotion of Indian vernaculars.

Like prose, poetry also was influenced by the West. English

Sonnet, Ode and Blank Verse were adopted by the Indian vernacular

writers. English lyrics freely followed. In poems of love and

mysticism, British ideas were initiated. And the feelings of

nationalism and patriotism, in the Indian vernaculars were also

expressed in line with the west by the great poets of the time.

Freedom and individuality also echoed in the poetry poems of

those days.

Impact on Indian society: Due to Indian proximity with the

west, age-old moral values changed beyond recognition. The very

concept of morality was transformed, manners, etiquetes, dress

283

and diet, thinking patterns and living style of the Indians took a

new shape altogether. Collectivism and social consciousness were

replaced with individualisation. The whole set-up of traditional

joint family was shattered and nuclear family took its place.

Impact on religion and philosophy: Superstition was replaced by

reason and rationality. Conservatism gave gave way to freethinking

and freedom of expression. The traditional beliefs and faiths were

questioned and cross-questioned. The whole religious thoughts

and social questions were reoriented in a Western paradigm. In the

realm of philosophy, materialism, realism and idealism came into

being on the western pattern. Impact on scientific research: with

the contact of the West enlightened Indians realised that scientific

inventions and research are the key to success for any nation.

Progress of Western World on this line was a living example to it.

Indians learnt from the west rational thinking, scientific approach

to the problems and application of science in various walks of life.

In the contact, Indians gained not only the curiosity and spirit for

scientific research but also got some courage and capabilities to

peep into the mysteries of human life and universe which were

lost during the medieval age.

284

Ill

The aforementioned account leaves an impression on the minds

of the readers that it was only Indian that was influenced with the

ideas and thoughts of the west in almost all walks of life, and the

west remained intact without being influenced by the Indian views

and thinking. This impression makes a person feels that India has

always been on the receiving end. This can not be a real picture

of the story. The fact is that it was altogether a matter of mutual

exchanges between the two different 'Cultures and civilizations -

East and West. The way west influenced India, India also

reciprocated the west with something or the other. India, too left

its deep imprint on the western intelligentsia through the ages,

right from the ancient times.

Without touching the detailed account of the influence of India's

culture and civilisation on the west, during the ancient time and

medieval ages, we must concentrate on the modern era, as we

have done in the case of western influence on India's culture and

civilisation.

By the closing years of 18th and the beginning of 19th century,

European, American and British scholars endeavoured both individually

and collectively for the systematic study of Indian cultures and

ethos. Many great scholars sought solace and relief in the Indian

wisdom from the mechanised, materialistic and soul-corroding

civilization of the west. This particular class of the western may be

285

termed as the dissatisfied children of the west. The Indian influence

reflects itself abundantly in their writing and speeches. Germany

was the first country in Europe that took a lead in the discovery

of precious Indian treasures of socio-cultural life. German scholars

made untiring efforts to bring the shining aspects of Indian culture

to the European Public. To Schopenhauer, a noted German scholar

Upnishads came as a new revelation. For him, the study of

Upnishads had been the solace of his life and it would be solace

of his death. Kant, another reputed German thinker was highly

influenced by the doctrine of Upnishads. And yet another well

known German thinker Count Hermann Keyserling was so much

influenced by Indian mysticism and spiritual ideology that he

recognised the absolute superiority of India over the west in

philosophy.

In the domain of poetry the Indian poets exerted their profound

influence on their German counterparts. Goethe, an established

German poet, was highly influenced by the writings of Kalidasa,

the author of a famous poem 'Meghdoot' (The messenger of

clouds). Max Muller, a notable German scholar derived such an

inspiration from India that he convinced the Westerners of

magnificence of Indian culture.

Influence of Indian thought and culture entered America from

the early years of 19th century through the study of Indian classical

works in English translation, commercial relations and writings of

286

Rajaram Mohan Roy. The famous American writer and thinker

Ralph Waldo Emersion ( 1803-1882), poet Wall whitman and Alcott

were profoundly influenced by Indian Philosophy. Emersion had an

attitude of admiration for the Indian teachings. The Indian teachings

he observed, "through its cloud of legends, has yet a simple and

grand religion, like a queenly countenance seen throughout a rich

evil. It teaches to speak truth, love others as yourself, and to

despise trifles ... identity, identity! friend and foe are of one stuff.

Cheerful and noble is the genius of this cosmology. 1 Poet Walt

Whitman's poems "Passage to India" and "leaves of grass" reflect

distinctly the spiritual life of India.

Yet another celebrated American Philosopher poet and a

contemporary of Emersion, Henry Davi Thoreau, author of the

famous book "Waldem" (Life on the woods) was fascinated by

Indian thought and wisdom. Heedless towards glamour of mundane

existence, he spent his life as an Indian ascetic. He observed,

"The new testament is remarkable for its pure morality; the best

of Hindu scripture, for its pure intellectuality. The reader is nowhere

raised into and ·sustained into a higher, purer or rare origin of

thought than in the Bhagwat Gita. " 2

Dr. Datta maintained, "Roman Rolland, a French scholar with a

1. Quoted in Aronson, "Europe looks at India" P. Jl8

I have taken here from Dutta (K.K.), Modem India and World fellowship, Macmillan, Madras, 1970. PP 40-41

2. Ihid pp 42-43

287

marvellous appreciation of Indian thought and culture, preached

the gospel of a perfect synthesis between East and West as a

panacea for the evils from which humanity was suffering due to

the ravages of war and pernicious effects of western materialisation.

Referring to Europe and Asia he remarked in Jan. 1922 A.D, This

hand stretched by Asia we take it into ours. Our cause is one: To

save humanity and its harmony, Europe, Asia their forces are

different: Let us unite them to accomplish the common work; the

greatest civilization, the total human genesis. Teach us to

understand all, Asia, teach us your life wisdom. And learn from us

how to act. 1 The renowned French mystic Paul Richard was

considerably influenced by the doctrines of Aurobindo.

Gigantic Russian personality like Tolstoy was also influenced

with the ideas of some outstanding Indians. Swami Vivekanand

and M.K. Gandhi's ideas left a deep imprint on him. Tolstoy made

his observations about Indian in his letter to Hindu, written in

1908 A.D, in reply to a letter from the editor of "Free Hindustan",

which was one of the organs of the Indian revolutionaries and had

as its motto, "Resistance to aggression is not simply justifiable

but imperative; non resistance hurts both, Altruism and Egoism. 2

The British poets writers, thinkers philosophers and scholars

have also, like others, been influenced by Indian religion and

i. ibid P. 47

2. See for detail ibid P. -1-1

288

philosophy. The Indian influence is very much evident in the writings

of great British poets like Shelley, Wordsworth, Carlyle and Robert

Browning. Lord Tennyson, the famous laureate poet of England

referred to Indian topics in some of his poems. The Tantrik Indian

system was introduced in the west by Sir John Woodroff. Similarly

Indian thoughts and wisdom are reflected in the philosophical

writings of thinkers like Gerald Heard and Aldous Huxley. Somerset

Maugham, a famous novelist favoured visit to India to acquire

knowledge of higher values of life. 1

During the 19th century the impact of Indian culture and tradition

can be seen in day-to-day's life of the Britishers living in India in

variant capacities. The old-age Indian tradition of 'Huqqa', the

medieval heritage of Polao were adopted by the Britishers and

many Indian manners and dishes became popular among them. On

the intellectual plain, the British officials were left with no option

but to be fascinated. Historians like Elphinstone, Tod, Malcome,

John Smith and Dull introduced India to the west. The Indian

culture found an expression in the writings of poets like Edwin

Arnold and Kipling and novelist like Thackeray. To be concise on

the subject we are dealing with, let me quote B.N. Luniao who

observes, "The impact of the west felt by us in the domains of

religion, society, politics, literature - may, in every walk of life -

and after a violent shock we were awakened to our own inborn

1. See for detail Evolution of Indian Culture PP 52-1-525

289

potentialities. But the west could not escape the effect of India's

close contact. It not only realised the glory that was India, but

was raised into a higher and spiritual life of divine knowledge,

bliss and harmony. '11

After giving a bird's eye v1ew to the impact of the west on

Indian society and culture, especially education and vice versa, we

must cast a glance at the impact of colonialism on some other

countries in Asia as well, so that the picture of Indian society and

culture under the colonial regime becomes more clear in a paradigm

of comparision and contrast.

"Looking at the British impact on India as a whole and contrasting

it with the impact of the west generally on other countries in Asia

like Japan and China certain differences stand out. India observed

most of the theoritical knowledge and the philosophical ideas of

the west, but did not to that extent imbibing the techniques and

the know-how of the west. Japan in contrast took on most of the

latter and left the former very much outside her shores. The

Chinese tried to absorb the techniques of the west, especially in

regard to warfare, and did not make much effort to take over the

ideational foundations of the same. " 2

The book further says, "Education under the British, was always

1. Ibid PP 527-528

2. Studies in the Cultural history of India P 3()4

290

characterised as being an excessively literary system which

produced quiet drivers rather than technicians. II 1

Analysing the reasons for more pronouncement of western

education in India than that in China or Japan, the book says, II As

a consequence of the British conquest of India, the old leadership

was almost completely wiped out. The new leadership that arose

in the country came mainly from the English educated classes and

the intellectualists, mainly Brahamans. This did not happen in

Japan and China, where the old leadership continued to hold

sway. The new leadership in India was more theoretical than

practical. This was no accident. The intellectual tradition in India,

which is mainly the Brahamins tradition, has that characteristics.

It is singularly free from restrictions or inhibitions regarding

intellectual speculation. In India, there has rarely been a persecution

for holding certain opinions. This was partly because, though

intellectual speculation was free, the translation of new ideas into

practice was hidebound by the prevailing ethics and modes of

behaviour. The Brahamins themselves had laid down the rule that

many things might be rationally obvious and good, they should not

be brought into practice if they were not in tune with the prevailing

traditional behaviour patterns and were contrary to popular folk­

ways. Such a tradition would naturally be much more ready to

absorb ideas on the philosophical plane than in actual life. Today,

1. Ibid P 364

291

therefore, the intellectual climate in India appears to be much

more pronounced by western than that in Japan or China. " 1

The above three explanations raise many questions in the minds

of the readers, as why the traditional system of education in India

took a back seat with the introduction of western system of

education. The answer is easily available. The traditional system

of education mainly confined to literary and grammatical taste

could not withstand before the severe storm of the western one,

which was well-equipped with modern science and technology.

Again it is yet to be answered, if that was the reason then why

India did not follow the foot-steps of Japan or China. Probably,

India off late moved towards the knowledge of science and

technology, for quite a longer period it remained reluctant. And

more importantly, spread of science and technology had never

been on the agenda of British education policy.

Even after independence, it was a big question before the first

education minister of India, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. Indian

intellectuals even the parliamentarians were divided on the issue.

Consequently, India has to pay a heavy price for its late step in.

Due to delayed action India could not reach to the extent Japan or

China could in the field of science and technology. Hence, India,

not as a winner, but as runner playing its role.

As I stated above, the old leadership in Japan or China did not

1. Ibid PP 364-365

292

loose their grip over the state affair's with the introduction of new

system of education, the obvious result was that they tried to

synthesize and make a balance between the two systems. India,

contrary to them, had seen a new class of leadership, which has

nothing to do with the old system of education. The institutions

under the new system of education happened to be their nursery,

so their reluctance to the old model can't be a surprise. Had it not

been the case, the scene of system of education in India would

have been altogether different, and it would have been more

similar to that of China or Japan. Instead of dual stream of education

India would have had one synthesised form of the two. And that

was the only answer to bridge the gap between the two and cater

to the ever-growing needs of the exploding population. India neither

can go to the west way, setting aside its age-old spiritual values

nor it can sit across hands, shutting eyes to the developments,

taking place in and around.

293

IV

After discussing at length the impact of western culture on

Indian culture & other related walks of life and vice versa we must

take an analytical stock of correct position. As a matter of fact

the colonial masters, despite their best efforts to westernise

education could not influence India to the extent they got influenced

with Indian culture. The only aspect of western civilization that

invited appreciation from Indians was the technological progress

of the west.

For various reasons both internal and external the British

government could not succeed in its mission. On the internal

front, the Indians were satisfied with their own culture and tradition,

and that they did not realise that their cultural inferiority and

degeneration brought this political downfall, hence, it was out of

question to replace their own with a new imported alien culture.

And on the external front, western culture was introduced in India

primarily by men of mediocre ability - the businessmen and the

unskilled administrators. In the words of Prof. S. A bid Husain,

"obviously the unfavourable climate and uncongenial social

atmosphere could not be expected to attract great scholars and

artists from England and other western countries to help build a

genuine western culture. The result was that this work had to be

done by the amateurs, that is, by British officials and businessmen

who could not achieve more than an imitation of outdated English

294

fashions, in dress and furniture, art and architecture and in the

general way of living and thinking. The culture which emerged in

this way should not really be called English or western but an

Indian variety of the colonial culture which was springing up in the

colonies and dependencies of the western powers in Asia and

Africa. " 1

Secondly, due to their superiority feelings, the colonial masters,

were not prepared mentally to have social interaction with Indians,

as it was against their dignity and sublimity. With that much

arrogance, they were not in position to leave their deep imprint on

the Indian minds. As a result the very aim of western education

fell flat. Prof. A bid Husain rightly pointed out, "Lord Macaulay had

hoped that the study of English and the modern science would

produces a class of the people Indian in appearance but European

in spirit. What actually happened was that many educated Indians

became imitating Englishmen in outward appearance, but in the

moral and intellectual spheres, they were either totally uninfluenced

by the English Character, or assimilated its worst features, which

turned them into unprincipled, unbalanced denationalised

individualists. "2

If we just have a glance at the baneful influence of colonial

English culture, which was exercised through school and university

1. The National Culture of India

2. 1hid P. 107-108

295

education, we will find that on the elementary level the religious

education was set aside and some new disciplines like Geography,

History etc. were added to the syllabus and some arrangement

was made for the training of teachers. Of course this was a

welcome change, brought some remarkable results, but at the

same time these changes made the education expensive and

unaccessible to many heepless poor people. As a result, many

schools were closed.

On the secondary level, the problem of education was manifold.

A uniform syllabus of purely literary type was introduced, without

caring for the personal aptitude of the students. Similarly English

was made the medium of instruction. These two major changes

lowered the general intellectual standard of the students and

destroyed their imaginative and creative calibre.

Despite above demerits on the elementry and secondary levels

there are some products of system who short to fame in various

domains, but their prominence can't be attributed to the success

of the system. It was all their mental calibre by which they

reached the pinnacle. Otherwise, generally those educated in modern

western educational institutions were like the products of the old­

fashioned oriental seminaries.

Comparing the two systems Prof. Abid Husain says, "obviously

these bearers of colonial English culture who could not even derive

enjoyment or benefit from the intellectual aesthetic wealth which

296

the English language offered were incapable of making any

contribution of their own to it. The only writing of any value in

English was done by those Indians whose mind had originally been

trained by the traditional oriental education and who had

subsequently learnt English. They wrote books on Indians

Philosophy, Law, religion, history and archaeology in English as

well as in their own languages. They also tried to adjust their

literature and art to new circumstances and cast them in new

modules. " 1

He went on say1ng, "Those educated exclusively in English

medium schools and colleges during this period had very little

share in the transmission of knowledge, interperation of life or

creation of beauty. Their effusions, if any, were mainly confined

to newspaper articles contributed to English journals under Indian

direction, only a few having the singular honour of being accepted

by Anglo-Indian Newspapers. Their verbosity, confused thinking,

involved writing, faulty grammar and idiom made them the laughing

stock of Englishmen. Caricatures of their 'Babu English' and of

them under fictious names like Babu Jabbar Jee B.A. or Babu

Biche Lal M.A. were often published in Anglo-Indian Journals. " 2

Under the given analytical assessment one can easily understand

the dynamics of East-West exchanges and the contributions made

1. Ibid P 115

2. Ibid PP 115-116

297

by the products of both the systems in vogue side by side finally

he has to conclude that the intellectual as well as spiritual

foundation of colonial English culture was hollow and weak. And

traditional learning system despite its formal victimisation by the

colonial lords resisted and survived with its lion share in the cultural

domain.

298