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Chemical Risk Assessment & Occupational Hygiene Measures: A
Case Study
in
Small and Medium Sized Enterprises
by
Saeed A Awan
Director, Centre for the Improvement of Working
Conditions and Environment, Directorate of Labour
Welfare, Punjab
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Chemical Risk Assessment & Occupational HygieneMeasures: A Case Study
in
Small and Medium Sized Enterprises
Author: Saeed Ahmed Awan,
MSc Occupational Health (UK) MSc. Chemistry
Tamgha-e-Imtiaz, Laureate of Tech Award of Innovation
Director Centre for the Improvement of Working Conditions & Environment
(CIWCE), Lahore Pakistan
Saeed Ahmed Awan
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C O N T E N T S
A Tribute to the Mother Nature I
Foreword ii
Chapter 1:Consumption of Chemicals in Pakistan 1
Chapter 2:Methodology 10
Chapter 3:A Profile of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises 12
Chapter 4:Industry-wise Profile of Chemical Hazards 22
Chapter 5:Safety, Health and Environmental hazards and Control Measures
Adopted by the Small and Medium-sized Enterprises
43
Chapter 6
Combating Chemical Hazards in IndustryNeed for Adopting a Practical Strategy
50
Appendix A:List of Chemicals Requiring Priority Action 53
Appendix B:List of Chemical Mixtures Requiring Priority Action 54
Appendix C:Questionnaires Used During the Survey 55
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A Tribute to the Mother Nature
How can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of the land? The idea is strange to us. If we do not
own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how can you buy them? Every part of the earth
is sacred to my people. Every shining pine needle, every sandy shore, every mist in the dark woods,
every clearing and humming insect is holy in the memory and experience of my people.
We are part of the earth and it is part of us. The perfumed flowers are our sisters; the horse, the
great eagle, these are our brothers. The rocky crests, the juices in the meadows, the body heat of the ponyand man all belong to the same family.
So when the Great Chief in Washington sends word that he wishes to buy our land, he asks much
of us. The rivers are our brothers, they quench our thirst. The river carry our canoes, and feed our
children. If we sell our land, you must remember and teach your children that the rivers are our brothers,
and yours and you must henceforth give the kindness you would give your brother. We know that white
man does not understand our ways; he kidnaps the earth from his children. His fathers grave and his
childrens birth-right are forgotten. He treats his mother, the earth, and his brother, the sky, as things to
be bought, plundered, sold like sheep or bright beads. His appetite will devour the earth and leave behind
only a desert.
There is no quite place in the white mans cities. No place to hear the unfurling of leaves in
spring or rustle of an insects wings. But perhaps it is because I am a savage and do not understand. Theclatter only seems insult to the ears. And what is there in life if a man cannot hear the lonely cry of
whippoor- will or the arguments of frogs around a pond at night? I am a red man and do not understand.
The Indian prefers the soft sound of the wind carting over the face of pond and the smell of the wind
itself, cleansed by a midday rain, or scented with the pinon pine.
The air is precious to the red man for all things share the same breaththe beast, the tree, the
man, they share the same breath.
What is man without the beasts? If all the beasts were gone, man would die from a great
loneliness of spirit. For whatever happens to the beasts son happens a man. All things are connected.
This we know: The earth does not belong to man, man belongs to the earth. This we know: All
things are connected like the blood which unites one family. All things are connected.
Whatever befalls the earth befalls the sons of the earth. Man did not weave the web of life; he ismerely a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.
___This is an excerpt from the reply of the Chief Seattle to the American president, who in 1854 had offered to buy the land
of Indians. The reply is profound and gripping and is as relevant today as it was 143 years
ago.
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FOREWORD
The accidents and diseases caused by the usage of chemicals remain one of the mostappalling tragedies of modern industrial era. Workers are one of the most productive and
economically useful segment of a society. If our workers would remain sick or suffer
from accidents during their work, it would result not only in suffering of the families and
individuals, but the national economy and the economic growth rate would be affected.
The Directorate of Labour Welfare Punjab has been entrusted with the welfare of the
workers in the Punjab province. Through its field inspection staff, the Directorate
enforces the legislation related to the protection of the rights of workers. The protection
of safety and health of the industrial workers (under Chapter-III of the Factories Act) also
falls within the jurisdiction of the Directorate.
Some recent tragedies involving chemicals resulted in terrible losses of lives. In one
incident involving the release of chlorine gas during transportation, more than 20 human
lives were lost in Baja Line area of Lahore. Earlier half a dozen workers were killed in a
fire in a bandage making factory in Lahore.
These tragedies point to the gravity of the situation of chemical safety in the country.
There was an urgent need to assess the true dimensions of the hazards posed by the usage
of chemicals in the workplaces to the health and safety of the workers and the
environment and ecology of the surrounding areas. The situation in the small-sized
enterprises needed special attention as the little protection afforded by the legislation tothe workers in the medium and large scale enterprises is generally not available to the
workers in such enterprises.
This prompted the Centre for the Improvement of Working Conditions and Environment,
Lahore to undertake the present study. This centre is research, training advisory and
information wing of the Directorate and it has done commendable work in the past to
highlight the safety, health and environmental problems prevalent in the local industry.
The study, though undertaken in the Punjab province is as relevant to the other provinces
as similar patterns of work are followed everywhere. I congratulate the staff of the Centre
for undertaking this venture and hope that the findings of the present study will help lay
the foundations for some tangible improvement in the situation of chemical safety in thecountry.
Mohammad Ejaz Chaudhry
Director Labour Welfare
Punjab
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Chapter 1
Consumption of Chemicals inPakistan
A Gl impse in to the Economic and Geographic Dimensions of the
Usage of Chemicals in the Workplaces
The world around us is full of and is made up of chemicals and chemicals provide the
basis for virtually every activity that nurtures our civilisation. Whether it is space
technology or practice of medicine, agriculture or industry, weaponry or toiletry,
chemicals are used everywhere. The quality of life in the modern day world has improved
remarkably as a result of the usage of chemicals. Their use in the form of pesticides and
fertilisers has resulted in green revolution, and massive famines have been averted. Their
use in the chemotherapy brings hope in the fight against cancer and as drugs they bring
relief and good health to millions of sick humans. However, chemicals, if used
unscrupulously can pose major threats to the human health and quality of life on this
planet. In fact, the use of chemicals casts shadows of death and disease upon thousands of
people world wide every year.
The production of chemicals has increased 400-fold since the year 1939 and currentlyaround 400 million tonnes of chemicals are produced annually in the world. Around 10
million chemical substances have been discovered so far. Of these some 70,000 are
produced regularly for use in the industry, agriculture, households and other areas. Of
these, only a few thousand are produced in bulk quantities for use in the industry. Of the
chemicals available for marketing, 5-10% are considered hazardous including 200-300
known as carcinogens.
Use of Chemicals in Pakistan
Of the total world wide consumption of chemicals, around 80% takes place in thedeveloped world. The remaining 20% are consumed by the developing countries.
However, recently the consumption in the developing countries has been on the increase
and the trend is likely to continue in the coming years. In terms of risks posed to the
safety and health of workers and consumers and damage to the ecology, the developing
countries are faced with more severe and complex problems due to general lack of
awareness about the potential hazards of chemicals and lack of adequate protective
measures.
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Pakistan, like most of the developing countries needs a considerable amount of chemicals
for its agricultural, industrial and other needs. The economy of Pakistan is based upon
agriculture, therefore a sizeable amount of agrochemicals are required every year.
Similarly a number of industries, especially the textile and small scale engineering
industry consumes chemicals in large quantities.
About the Workforce
To estimate the numbers of workers potentially exposed to chemicals in the workplaces,
well have to look into the employment and occupational patterns of the workforce in the
country. According to the latest estimates, out of the total population of 135.28 million,
approximately 90.04 million were of the working age. The total labour force of the
country was estimated at 37.15 million people. Of these, 35.15 million were employed.
The labour force participation ratio of the country comes out to be 27.46%. The labour
force and employment data of the country for the last 5 years is given in Table 1.1
Table 1.1 Labour Force and Employment 1992-971
Year
1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97
Population 120.83 124.45 128.01 131.63 135.28
Working Age
Population
79.49 82.59 85.20 87.61 90.04
Labour Force 33.67 34.69 35.15 36.14 37.15
Employed Labour
Force
32.08 33.01 33.26 34.20 35.15
Labour Force
Participation Rate (%)
27.86 27.88 27.46 27.46 27.46
Pakistan has an agro-based economy, with agriculture constituting 24.2% of the total
GDP and employing 16.45 million workers, who form 46.8% of the total employedlabour force. The data for the sectoral share in the GDP and employment is given in
Tables 1.2 and 1.3. As can be seen from Table 1.2, mining and manufacturing sectors
employ only 3.69 million people. However, Pakistan has a large small scale sector, which
1Source: (Federal Bureau of Statistics, Labour Force Surveys)
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is largely undocumented and only rudimentary statistics for the employment and its
contribution in the economy are available.
Table 1.2 Employment of the Labour Force bySectors of Economy
2
(Millions)
Sector 1994-96 1996-97 (Estimated)
Agriculture 15.56 16.45
Mining & Manufacturing 3.49 3.69
Construction 2.40 2.53
Trade 4.82 5.10
Transport 1.69 1.78
Community & Social Services 4.75 5.02
Others 0.55 0.58
Total 33.26 35.15
Table 1.3 Sectoral Share in GDP 1996-973
Agriculture 24.2%
Manufacturing 17.9%
Mining & Quarrying 0.5%Construction 3.9%
The objective of the present study was mainly to assess the risks posed due to the
exposure to chemicals in the industrial enterprises. However, the story would remain
incomplete, if the chemical risks in the agriculture sector are not mentioned. As given in
Table 1.4, about 40000 tonnes of pesticides are consumed in the country every year. Most
of these pesticides are used on cash crops like cotton, a considerable proportion is used to
on rice, vegetables and fruit crops. Pesticides pose a major threat to the health and safety
of the agriculture workers as well as the ecology of the country (the risks are exacerbated
by the use of spurious and cheap formulations which are also sold in large quantities byunscrupulous dealers). Every year hundreds of cases of poisoning by pesticides are
reported in the press. Due to remote location of the victims and lack of communication
facilities, hundreds more go unreported. There is an urgent need to evaluate the risks
2Source: Labour Force Survey, 1994-95
3Source: Economic Survey 1996-97
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posed by the usage of pesticides. The present study does look into the health and safety
problems faced by the workers engaged in the formulation/packaging of pesticides.
Table 1.4 Import & Local Production/Formulation of Pesticides, 1994-96 (Tonnes)
4
Year Import Local Production/
Formulation
Total
1994-95 23442 17447 40889
1995-96 19946 19757 39703
A Profile of Manufacturing Industry in Pakistan
As described earlier, only 10.5% of the employed labour force of the country works in the
manufacturing sector. However this figure may be misleading as a large proportion of the
labour force is migratory in nature, working in the factories and construction sites for
some time and then returning back to homes in the harvest and sowing seasons. Also the
role of small scale sector is largely unrecognized. However the Economic Survey (1996-
97) acknowledges the role of small scale industrial sector in these words,The small scaleindustrial sector plays pivotal role in industrial development because it employs less fixed
capital investment, generates more employment opportunities, uses indigenous technology
and raw materials, and helps reduce urban migration. Its share in GDP is 4.7% and
employs about 80 percent of the industrial labour force. Its share in manufacturing sector
export is 30 percent, whereas contribution to industrial value addition is 27 percent.
The employment data in major large/medium scale industrial enterprises is given in Table
1.5. As would be clear from these tables, bulk of the industrial workforce is employed in
textile sector, the other major industries in terms of employment are food, leather and
products, ginning of cotton, drugs and pharmaceuticals, iron and steel, industrial
chemicals, non-electrical and electrical machinery manufacture, transport equipment
manufacture and manufacture of fabricated metal products.
Contrary to the industrialised countries, the small-scale sector in Pakistan is not capital
intensive and technologically modernised. Except for a few sectors like (manufacture of
garments, sports goods, hand-made carpets, surgical goods, leather products etc.) thesmall-scale sector usually caters to the demands of the local consumption in the areas
where such enterprises are located. The consumption of chemicals among the small scale
enterprises is also very unevenly distributed. While the small scale enterprises based in
the rural areas are concerned mainly with the fabrication or manufacture of labour
intensive goods like garments, rugs, handicrafts etc. with very little exposure of the
4Source: Economic Survey 1996-97
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workers to chemicals, the urban based enterprises are usually more technical and skill-
oriented, and use machines, tools, electric devices and chemicals in their processes.
Industrial Consumption of Chemicals in Pakistan
The consumption of chemicals in Pakistan has been on the rise for the last few years,
which is evident from a look at Fig 1.1, which gives 5-year import bill of chemicals and
allied products, including dyes & colours, pharmaceuticals and chemical fertilisers. The
volume of chemical imports (in terms of the cost incurred on imports) has shown a steep
upward curve for the last 3 years, and is expected to rise even further in the coming years
as demand for consumer goods and industrial products is expected to rise to meet the
requirements of burgeoning population and increasing standards of living. Table 1.7
provides the 5-year data for all imports in the country, including the chemicals and allied
products.
Fig 1.1
Imprort Trends for Chemicals & Allied Products(1991-96)
1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-960
10
20
30
40
50
Chemicals
Dyes &
Colours
Rs. Billion
ChemicalFertilizers
Pharma-
ceutical
products.
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While assessing the health, safety and environmental risks posed by chemicals, we
shouldnt concentrate only on the volume consumed by particular industries, but on how
the chemicals are used and how many people are involved, will have to be kept in mind.
While large fertilizer and chemical plants may consume huge amounts of chemicals, the
actual numbers of workers exposed may not be very high owing to the closed processes,safety precautions in-built within the processes and the level of training information of
the workers in such plants. On the other hand the workers in small scale enterprises are
usually exposed to a plethora of health and safety hazards. The safety and health facilities,
the skill/training and information level of the workers in such enterprises are not
adequate, also the workforce in such enterprises tends to be mobile.
As mentioned earlier, small scale sector is the backbone of the economy. In the last few
years, while the large/medium scale sector has been stagnating and has shown negative
growth rate, the small-scale manufacturing sector has been thriving , which is evident
from the comparison of GDP/GNP real growth rates of different sectors of economy.
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Table 1.5 Average Daily Employment in
Major Industries (1984-91)5
Average daily Employment (000 Nos.)
Industry 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1990-91
Food 64 66 69 67 84
Beverages 5 6 5 6 5
Tobacco 10 10 9 9 6
Textiles 175 177 168 171 238
Wearing Apparels 7 9 12 12 20
Leather & Products 6 7 11 12 15
Ginning, Pressing & Bailing of
Cotton
14 11 10 10 10
Wood & products 2 3 3 3
Furniture & Fixture 2 1 2 2 2Paper & Products 8 8 7 9 8
Printing & Publishing 8 9 11 12 8
Drugs & Pharmaceutical
Products
15 15 14 15 18
Industrial Chemicals 17 19 17 16 18
Other Chemical Products 8 10 13 11 9
Petroleum Refining 3 3 3 2 2
Petroleum & Coal products 1 1 1 1 2
Rubber Products 10 11 7 8 8
Plastic products 4 4 5 4 5
Non Metallic Mineral Products 23 25 27 28 28Iron & Steel Basic Industries 40 43 42 39 44
Fabricated Metal Products 9 9 9 9 12
Non-Electrical Machinery 18 19 19 19 25
Electrical Machinery 18 17 19 20 19
Transport Equipment 19 17 21 23 19
Measuring, Photographic &
Optical Goods
3 3 3 3 4
Sports & Athletic Goods 1 1 2 1 8
Others 2 3 2 3 2
Total 493 507 532 515 622
5 Source Economic Survey 1996-97
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Table 1.6 GDP/GNP Real Growth Rates of Different Sectors of
Economy
Sector 1995-96 1996-97
Agriculture 5.27 0.70
Mining & Quarrying 7.07 2.05
Large Scale Manufacturing 2.57 -1.43
Small Scale Manufacturing 8.40 8.40
Total Manufacturing 4.40 1.78
Construction 3.25 2.42
Table 1.7 Values of Major Imports (1991-96)
6
(Value Rs. Million)
Item 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96
Chemicals 21997 23144 25946 32700 45897
Drugs &
Medicines
5184 5980 6992 8147 11007
Dyes & Colours 2945 3219 4109 4174 4982
Chemical
Fertilizers
6367 6438 8018 3954 11767
Total 229889 258643 258250 320892 397575
Geographical Distribution of the Industry
Due to one or the other reason, certain geographical areas become famous for some kinds
of industries. The reason for clustering of industries may be manifold, including
proximity of ports, markets, roadways, availability of raw materials, skilled manpower,
utilities and facilities to dispose of waste etc. Each industry has its own peculiar
processes, work practices, traditions and poses unique problems of occupational safety,
health and environment. The chemicals and technological requirements also vary from
industry to industry. The knowledge of the geographical distribution of differentindustries would be helpful in appreciating the particular ecological, safety and health
problems encountered in certain areas and may also help in seeking collective solution to
these problems.
6Source : Economic Survey, 1996-97
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Although it is not possible to associate a particular geographical region with a particular
industry, an attempt has been made in Table 1.8 (based upon the experience of the author)
to present a picture of the size and distribution of those industries, which consume
chemicals during their processes and activities and are likely to be clustered in particular
geographical regions. The other industries may have no particular affinity for some
typical regions and are likely to be scattered all over the country.
Table 1.8 Geographical Distribution of Chemical-Consuming Industries
Type of Industry Typical Size Geographical Area,
where Concentrated
Textile (Spinning, Weaving, Dyeing &
Processing
Medium/Large Faisalabad, Karachi
(also scattered around
major urban centres
Soap/Detergent Manufacture Small/Medium Faisalabad, KarachiPharmaceutical Manufacture Medium Karachi, Lahore & other
urban centres
Printing Presses Small Lahore, Karachi & other
urban centres
Auto Repair Workshops Small Along the major and
urban centres
Leather Tanning Small/Medium Kasur, Sialkot, Karachi
Pesticide Formulation/Packing Small/Medium Multan, Karachi
Wool Dyeing (for hand-made carpets) Small Lahore
Washing/Finishing of hand-made Carpets Small Lahore
Surgical Instruments Manufacture Medium Sialkot
Electric Household Items manufacture Small/medium Gujranwala, Gujrat
Fibreglass items Manufacture Small/medium Lahore, Gujranwala,
Karachi
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Chapter 2
Methodology
As small and medium sized industrial enterprises are scattered all over the country, it was
not possible within the limited time frame to cover each type of industry. However
attempt was made to cover as many types of industries as possible, which are known for
their use or exposure of the workers to chemicals. In this regard, the experience of
working with Centre for the Improvement of Working Conditions and Environment,
Lahore proved very useful, as this institution has to provide inspection, training,
information, research and advisory services to the industry in combating with their day to
day safety and health problems.
A questionnaire was designed containing multiple-choice as well as open-ended questions
about the enterprise. Following areas were covered in the questions: (The questionnaire
used is attached as Appendix C).
Basic information about the enterprise (including, name, address, size and process
detail
Age/gender distribution of the workers
Pattern of work (working hours, shifts, rest breaks, free days etc.)
Eating/washing facilities available to the workers
Information about the chemicals (including names, quantities used, labelling, methods
of use for each chemical substance and waste disposal facilities.) Occupational hygiene controls adopted by the enterprise.
Numbers of workers expose to different chemicals (through inhalation, skin, ingestion
routes).
Specific diseases mentioned by the workers or from the dispensary record, if
available.
Magnitude of fire, explosion and spill hazards.
Emergency and other control measures available at the enterprise.
Classification of the Enterprises
The definition of factory provided under the Factories Act, 1934 was followed to
categorise the workplaces into small or medium-sized enterprises. This Act, which
regulates the work in the industrial enterprises including health & safety, working hours,
child labour, etc., defines a factory as any premises, including precincts thereof, whereonten or more workers are working, or were working on any day of the preceding twelve
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months, and in any part of which a manufacturing processes is being carried on [or is
ordinarily carried on with or without the aid of power].
Those enterprises having 9 or less number of workers were categorised as small-sized,
while those with a workforce of 10-300 were included in the medium-sized category. The
cut-off number of 300 was fixed arbitrarily, as most of the enterprises listed in thedirectories of factories in all the four provinces of the country fell in this category. It may
be noted that only workers related to production/manufacturing were included for
determining the size of the enterprise. Those engaged in managerial, administrative and
research/development activities were not included in the workforce.
The types of enterprises to be covered under the survey were selected after consulting the
directory of registered factories. Most types of small scale enterprises are not listed
anywhere, to select such enterprises the knowledge of the pattern of local industry was
used.
One hygienist and two technicians from the CIWC&E were trained for using thequestionnaires by making preliminary visits to three enterprises (one medium and two
small-sized). Each enterprise was visited by this team, who met the manager/owner of the
enterprise and filled in the answers to relevant questions. A walk-through survey of each
enterprise was carried out, during which the hazards and their magnitude were assessed.
The workers and supervisors were also approached for information about any specific
problems, hazards, occupational diseases or accidents, which might have happened in the
enterprise. The chemical handling, storage and disposal practices were observed and
where permitted, photographs were also taken. To assess the problems posed to the
surrounding communities/localities, people in the neighbourhoods were also contacted.
Depending upon the size of the industry or the complexity of hazards, 1-3 enterprises
from each category of industry were covered in the survey. In case an industry exists bothas medium and small scale enterprises, 1-3 enterprises from each category were covered.
Not only the structured questionnaires used to collect the information, but the team
members took extensive notes about the specific circumstances and problems of each
enterprise, through informal discussions held with the employers, workers, supervisors or
members of surrounding communities. The findings of the study in the subsequent
chapters are based not only on the data collected through questionnaires, but the
information collected through personal discussions has also been extensively used to
describe all the dimensions of the story. Descriptions of the specific accidents/disasters
and chemical safety and ecological problems posed by some particularly hazardous
industries have been included in an effort to present the problems of chemical safety in
their true perspective.
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Chapter 3
A Profile of the Small and Medium
Sized Enterprises
A total of 60 enterprises were included in the study. Of these 31 were of the small-sized
category, while the remaining 29 were medium-sized enterprises. As mentioned in the
previous chapters, due to constraint of time not all types of the industry in the country
could be included in the study. Therefore the focus was narrowed down to those
enterprises, which are known for their use of chemicals during their processes. Even
within an industry, only those types of enterprises were covered, which consume
chemicals in large amounts. For example, textile industry consists of ginning mills,spinning factories, weaving looms and dyeing/processing and printing factories. Of these,
the dyeing & processing factories consume bulk of the chemicals and were covered in the
study.
Pattern of Workforce in the Enterprises
A total of 2935 workers were employed in the 60 enterprises. Of these 152 were working
in the 31 small-sized enterprises, while the remaining 2783 were employed by the 29
medium-sized enterprises.
The distribution of the workforce in the small and medium-sized enterprises covered in
the study is given in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 respectively. It may be noted that the workers
working in the small-sized enterprises may not strictly be defined as wage workers, but
most often they are self-employed workers, who are members of a family or an extended
family, running an enterprise for the whole family. An elder brother or the father, who is
usually more skilled, receives the payments for the services rendered or work performed
by such enterprises.
As presented in Fig 3.1, most small-sized enterprises had 6-9 workers. There was no set
workforce pattern in the medium-sized enterprises, with 9 enterprises out of the 29 having
workers in the range of 21-50 and 7 in the range of 101-200.
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Distribution of Enterprises by the Numberof Workers
Fig 3.1
9
7
15
6
9
2
7
5
1-2
3-5
6-9
10-20
21-50
51-100
101-200
201-300
No. of Enterprises
No. of Workers
As mentioned earlier, small-sized sector in Pakistan is not capital intensive and
technological modernised as in the developed countries. Most such enterprises are 1-2
man affairs, providing services like dyeing of clothes, welding, auto repair and dry
cleaning to the households in their vicinity. Since they are located at a convenientdistance, they are easily approachable for the people to get these services virtually at their
door steps.
Gender Profile of the Workforce
Apart from the packaging section of a surgical instruments and a pharmaceutical
formulation plant, women were not found to be working in the surveyed enterprises. It
does not mean that females dont have participation in the labour force of the country.
They constitute a considerable proportion of the workforce in certain sectors of economy
especially agriculture and household based enterprises, particularly those concerned withhandicraft manufacture, stitching, carpet-weaving etc. However the professions, in which
women are engaged are not known for exposure to chemicals. Even in agriculture, where
pesticides are used, women are usually involved during the harvesting, cotton picking or
sowing seasons, when exposure to pesticides is at the minimum.
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Table 3.1 Processes and Workforce Pattern in the Small-sized
Enterprises
Establishment TypeNo. of Enterprises
CoveredNo. of workers ineach Enterprise
Auto Repair ((Electrical &
Mechanical Repair)
2 2,6
Auto Repair (Body Repair &
Painting)
3 2,6,7
Battery Repair 1 3
Carpet washing (hand-made
carpets)
1 7
Dental Workshop 1 8
Laundries 3 2,6,9
Dyeing Shop (head-dresses &
clothes for women)
1 1
Furniture making 3 2,6,9
Paint manufacture 1 8
Painting of Publicity Boards 1 2
Plate making for Printing Press 1 3
Printing Press 3 5,6,6
Rubber Adhesive Solution
Manufacture
1 2
Screen Printing 1 5Shoe Making 2 5,8
Plastic Scrap remoulding 1 3
Tannery 2 7,8
Welding (Oxyacetylene) 1 1
Wool Dyeing (for rugs) 1 5
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Table 3.2 Processes and Workforce pattern in the Medium-sized
Enterprises
Establishment Type
No. of Enterprises
Covered
No. of workers in
each Enterprise
Auto Repair (Electrical,
Mechanical, Body Repair)
1 22
Carpets (Machine-made) making 1 283
Chipboard/Plywood Manufacture 2 165,290
Chloralkali Plant 1 175
Dyeing/Processing of Cloth 2 105,150
Fibreglass Items Manufacture 1 30
Formaldehyde & Glue
Manufacture
1 50
Match Manufacture 1 26
Paint Manufacture 1 285
Pesticide Filling & Packing 3 12,18,20
Pharmaceuticals Formulation &
Packing
1 122
Polyester Fibre Manufacture 1 225
Polypropylene Bags Manufacture 1 57
Polyurethane Foam Manufacture 1 135
Shoes (sports, leisure)Manufacture 1 50
Soap (Washing) Manufacture 2 20,25
Stearic Acid, Soaps & Glycerine
Manufacture
1 120
Sodium Silicate manufacture 1 30
Steel Rerolling 1 66
Surgical Instruments Manufacture 1 210
Tannery 3 12,13,30
Age Distribution of the Workers
An overwhelming majority of the workers in both the small-sized and medium-sized
enterprises were young and fell in the age group of 19-35 years (55.9% in the small sized
and 55.6% in the medium sized enterprises). The incidence of child labour in the
surveyed enterprises was almost negligible 1.4% of the total workforce were children
below the age of 14. Small-sized enterprises had 5.9% and medium-sized enterprises had
1.2% child workers. Out of the 31 small-sized enterprises, children worked in 5
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enterprises, while only one medium-sized enterprise out of the 29 had some child
workers. The reason for
Age Distribution of the Workers
Fig 3.2
15-18 yrs.
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above the age of 55 was found working in the small-sized enterprises, also the proportion
of 36-55 year old workers in the workforce of the small-sized enterprises was worked out
to be 16%, while in the medium-sized enterprises this age group comprised 24% of the
workforce. The reason for relative youth of the workforce in the small-scale sector may
be the mobility of the workforce, which was reported high by the employers. Workers in
the young age join such enterprises, learn the ins and outs of the business and either opentheir own shop or join a medium/large-sized concern, where working conditions and
emoluments are generally better. Workers from the medium-sized enterprises rarely move
away.
Work Routines
All of the small-sized enterprises surveyed during the study worked in single shift, during
the day. Out of the 29 medium-sized enterprises, 11 performed work in shifts, the
remaining 18 had no shift-work. Again some of the enterprises (notably the cloth
dyeing/processing mills) had two shifts of 12-hour each. All the enterprises at least onehour lunch break. Some of the enterprises, observed staggered beaks, every 3-4 hours, so
the process may not suffer due to the absence of workers.
Working Hours Observed by the SurveyedEnterprises
Fig 3.3
8-Hr.
9-Hr.
10-Hr.
11-Hr.
12-Hr.
8-Hr.9-Hr.
10-Hr.
11-Hr.
12-Hr.
As presented in Fig 3.3, almost one third of both types of enterprise observed an 8-hour
workday. Also another third observed 10-hour workday. A large number of medium-sized
enterprises (24%) observed 12-hour workday. Most small-sized enterprises work like
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other shops and stores. They open late in the morning (around 10 a.m.), have a long break
in the noon and remain open till late in the evening. They follow the pattern of time
observed by most markets. There might be exceptions, especially in the auto-repair
sector. Those workshops, which are located on busy inter-city roadways, remain open late
into the night (in some cases whole nights) to provide service to the customers who may
drop in for repair to their vehicles developing problems during the journey.
General Housekeeping
According to the observations made during the walk-through surveys of the enterprises,
there were surprisingly marked differences between the small and medium-sized
enterprises in general organisation of the work. The work area, stores and the work
routines in the small enterprises can be described on the whole to be haphazard, relaxed
and rather disorganised. Empty and semi-filled chemical containers, machine tools, waste
generated by the process and trash/litter in general was scattered in such enterprises.
While the general housekeeping and storage of materials in 80% of the small-sizedenterprises covered in the present survey could be described as dirty, only 31% of the
premises in the medium-sized enterprises could be categorised as dirty. This general lack
of proper housekeeping in the small-sized enterprises can be attributed to a number of
factors including; lack of adequate work space, lower skill/literacy level of workers,
higher workloads etc.
About the Eating Facilities
There are three main routes for the entry of chemicals into the body. They either enterthrough inhalation or through skin or in some cases through ingestion. The chemicals are
rarely eaten as such. However they can enter the body through the mouth, if due care is
not exercised during eating, drinking or smoking.
It was observed during the survey, that a large number of workers were exposed to
chemicals unnecessarily due to wrong practices of eating. In a large number of small and
a significant number of medium-sized enterprises, the meals were brought by the workers
from home and eaten at the premises, sometimes while the work was still going on. In
many cases workers were seen sitting on the floor, opening their meal boxes (or cloth rags
in which meals had been wrapped) and eating with unwashed hands. In many such cases
chemicals with potential long term health implications were not properly washed beforeeating. Smoking and drinking tea during the work is customary among workers especially
in the small-sized enterprises. As shown in Table 3.3, one third of the medium sized
enterprises had their own canteen, while none of the small-sized enterprises had a canteen
(which is quite reasonable considering the small number of workers in such enterprises).
Also workers in 34% of the medium-sized and 84% of the small-sized enterprises brought
their meals from home or from a nearby restaurant and ate it at the work floor. Such
practice especially in the tanneries, auto workshops, furniture shops etc. exacerbates the
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hazards to the health of the workers. This aspect needs some attention if a meaningful
improvement in the workers exposure to the chemicals has to be brought about. A water
tap with soap and clean towel and a table with some chairs in a separate room from the
premises will help a long way in reducing the exposures of the workers in the small-sized
enterprises.
Table 3.3 Where do the Workers Eat?
Small-sized
Enterprises
Medium-sized
Enterprises
At the canteen of the enterprise 0% 34%
At a nearby restaurant 16% 32%
Bring meal from home/restaurant and eat at
the premises
84% 34%
Washing and Sanitation Facilities
While all the medium-sized enterprises covered in the study, had their own washing and
toilet facilities a large number of small-sized enterprises (68%) had no washing/toilet
facility. Workers in these enterprises either went to a nearby public toilet or a water tap
for their washing/toilet needs. The basic sanitation facilities are not much different in the
industry than in the community in general. In fact such facilities are better in the medium
sized enterprises than those available to the general public and in most households. The
lack of adequate washing/toilet facilities combined with the inadequate eating facilitiesresults in accentuation of the chemical and in many cases biological hazards to which the
workers are already exposed.
Impact of the Enterprises on the Environment
Except for two chemical manufacturing plants (both belonged to multinationals) none of
the enterprises had an arrangement for treating the solid, liquid waste and the gases,
fumes before releasing to the environment. However some industries made economic use
of their waste. The soap factories did not waste even the sludge of soap from the soapbaths. These baths were washed and the soapy solution was bought by the surrounding
households for their washing requirements. Similarly most woodworking and furniture
making enterprises used the waste wood shavings and powder as fuel. Wood powder is
also used in the villages to preserve the ice. Even tanneries, which were discharging
hazardous waste into the environment untreated, sold the meat debris (removed from the
skins during dehairing process) to the glue making enterprises, leather shavings were sold
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to the cardboard making factories. A detailed description of the types of wastes generated
by different types of enterprises and how they are disposed of is given in the next chapter.
Chapter 4
Industry-wise Profile of
Chemical Hazards
Now we look one by one into the chemical usage, handling, storage, disposal,
occupational hygiene controls, specific health problems of the workers for each of the
industrial process covered during the study. The information presented in the subsequent
paragraphs is based on the data collected during the visits to these enterprises and the
observations made during the walk-through surveys. Where required, auxiliary
information from other sources, such as press, neighbouring community members has
been used. Wherever known, the exact quantities of chemicals used by the enterprises,
have been given, otherwise the types of chemicals used by the enterprises are given. The
lists of chemicals may not be exhaustive, as some of the chemicals might have been
overlooked by the employers/managers while giving details.
Auto Repair Workshops (Body Work)
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Paint (Nitrocellulose based) 1-7 litre/week
Putty 2-3 Kg/week
Thinner 0.5-4 litre/week
Polish (Lacquer) 0.5-1 Kg/week
Filler (Redoxide primer) 0.5-1 Kg/week
Calcium carbide 2-5 Kg/week
Rubbing compound 0.5-1 Kg/week
Commercial enamel 0.5-3 litre/week
Glasso small amount
Caustic soda 0.5-2 kg/week
A large number of such workshops (mostly small-sized) exist in all the urban areas, with
high concentration in major urban centres like Lahore, Karachi, Faisalabad etc. The work
in such workshops is manual, with very little use of machinery. The damaged bodies of
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the automobiles are repaired in these workshops. The dents from the damaged parts are
removed first, manually. The surface is smoothed by sand papering, thinners are also used
by rags to remove paints if required, putty is filled in the damaged area by means of putty
knives, the area is again smoothed by rubbing, the surface is spray painted, another coat
of lacquer is applied to harden the paint. Oxyacetylene flame is used for welding the
damaged parts, if required. Calcium carbide is placed in acetylene generator in whichwater is poured to generate acetylene.
The whole process is labour intensive and manual in nature. All the chemicals are mixed
and used manually. Most such workshops are in the open, therefore natural ventilation
reduces the intensity of exposures. However the work practices are not hygienic. No
personal protection or exhaust ventilation was seen being used in the workshops visited
during the study. The solvent vapours from the paint spray guns could be smelled all
around the workshops. The dresses of the workers were splattered with all kinds of
solvents and chemicals used during the process. Workers wear proper working dress in
some modern workshops, but in most of the workshops, the working dress consists of
dirty clothes which are worn until the rags fall away in tatters. The washing facilities insuch workshops were found to be inadequate. The workers in most workshops ate their
meals on the shop floor, in many cases without even washing their hands. This practice
exacerbates the hazards already posed due to exposure through inhalation and skin.
The solid waste from the process was swept aside daily or after every few days and
sometimes dumped into a drum at the premises, which was emptied by a sweeper
occasionally and in turn dumped in the municipal waste collection sites. When asked
about any particular health problems faced by them, most workers did not feel they were
affected by the process, however a few complained of headaches from use of solvents,
others told of skin irritation from the use of chemicals. One of the workshops had an
explosion in the acetylene cylinder three months ago, which occurred due to leak ofacetylene from the acetylene gas generator. No one was injured in the explosion.
Auto Workshops (Electrical & Mechanical Repairs)
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Kerosene 0.5-10 litre/week
Diesel 1-10 litre/week
Gasoline 1-5 litre/week
Such workshops can be found all over the country. They provide repair services to the
auto users in their local area. Most such workshops specialise in the repair of some
particular type of automobile. A large number of motor cycle workshops exist in every
urban and rural centre as motor cycles are the most popular mode of travel and daily
commute for small distances in the country. Similarly other workshops specialising in
particular brands of cars, trucks, buses and tractors are scattered in all regions of the
country. Most of these workshops have a head mechanic alongwith a few apprentices,
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who repair/replace the mechanical parts of the engines. Still others specialise in the
electrical repairs. Whatever the specialisation, three chemicals are used in almost every
workshop i.e., gasoline, kerosene, and diesel. These fuel oils are used as solvents to
remove grease and oils from the surface of auto parts. The parts are normally dipped in an
open container containing the solvent and washed with the help of rags with bare hands.
Kerosene and sometimes diesel are used for preliminary washing. The final washing isgiven by gasoline. These workshops normally remove the fuel from the tanks of the
vehicles brought in for repair. Kerosene is brought in bottles from nearby grocery stores.
Auto electricians also require small amounts of kerosene or gasoline to clean the ends of
cables during electrical repairs. Most of such workshops work in the open, therefore the
intensity of exposures is reduced due to the natural ventilation. However the work
practices are such that the workers are exposed to the hydrocarbons and tetraethyl lead
and benzene (in case of gasoline) through skin and inhalation. The solvent soaked
clothing increases the intensity of exposure, which are further complicated due to lack of
adequate washing and eating facilities. Most often the workers bring their meals from
home wrapped in a cloth sheet, which is opened at lunch time and eaten in a corner of the
workshop. Smoking and tea-drinking continues, long with work the whole day. Howevernone of the workers complained of any specific health problem during the survey.
However a close inspection of the hands revealed evidence of skin damage which the
workers considered only minor problem.
The used rags were usually burnt by these workshops, the remaining were thrown in a
heap in a corner, which was lifted by a sweeper occasionally and thrown in the municipal
dump. The fuel oils dirtied by use were not wasted, rather most workshops sold them to
some hawkers who sold these to the households to be used as fuel in the stoves etc.
Battery Repair Workshop
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Sulphuric acid 50 litre/week
Such workshops are usually small-sized specialising in the repair of auto batteries. Most
of their work consists of recharging the weak storage batteries by a battery charger, which
does not involve the usage of any chemicals. However the workers were exposed to
sulphuric acid mist, when they opened the batteries or diluted sulphuric acid in water and
poured it in the batteries. There was also the risk of skin burns due to the acid. The spilled
acid was left to be absorbed in the soil, the floor was occasionally swept and the wastethrown by the sweeper in the municipal dump.
Carpet (hand-knotted) Washing
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Sodium hydroxide (liquid) 300 litre/week
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Bleaching liquid (Sod. hypochlorite) 250 litre/week
Most of the hand-knotted carpets in Pakistan are made in the rural areas of the Punjab
province, where dyed yarn is distributed in the households having looms. The carpets are
collected by the manufacturers and mostly brought to Lahore, which is the main centre of
export of carpets. The carpets from loom have to be finished, before they are ready forsale. Hundreds of carpet washing/finishing centres have been established in Lahore, one
such centre was visited during the study.
Defects from the carpets were removed by skilled workers through patch work. Long
scissors were used to shear extra wool strands from the surface to make it even. A strong
comb with plastic teeth was used to remove twist from the wool. The carpets were then
laid on the floor and soaked in caustic solution and later in bleach solution. Thorough
washing was given after each soaking. Workers sprayed the solution from a sprinkler
manually by walking bare feet on the carpet. After washing, the water was wrung by
heavy moppers and the carpets which were now clean with all the dirt and stains
removed, were allowed to dry in the sunshine by spreading them on the walls.
No personal protection was seen being used by the workers, who were exposed through
direct contact with caustic and bleach solutions. They were also likely to be exposed to
chlorine gas given off by the bleaching solution. Like most other industries the effluvea
was allowed to drain into the sewers and some could be seen stagnating in small pools
outside the enterprise. Workers complained of skin burns and scalds from the corrosive
solutions.
Dental Workshop
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Methylmethacrylate 2 Kg/month
Plaster of Paris 50 Kg/month
Modelling wax 2 Kg/month
Like most of such workshops, the enterprise visited during the study was in the small
scale sector. They made dentures by pouring thermosetting plastic materials in the
moulds. Some workers told of addiction to solvents, others mentioned skin problems due
to the handling of plastic material. Natural ventilation was good as the workshop was
based in an open shed, however personal protective equipment were not used.
Plate Making (for printing presses)
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Copper salt 0.5 Kg/month
Hydrogen peroxide 800 ml/month
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Acetic acid 800 ml/month
Developer G90 250 gm/month
Developer Flex 250 gm/month
Photo Opaque 25 gm/month
The two enterprises visited during the study were catering to the needs of printingindustry by making positives and plates for printing. As printing industry in the country is
mostly in the small-scale sector, it has diversified itself into small enterprises specialising
in different aspects of the printing operation. The workshops visited during the study used
the above mentioned chemicals in different stages of the positive and plate making. Large
open baths containing chemical solutions were used to dip the plates/positives. Splashes
of liquids were common, workers were not much concerned with the splashes as they
considered the chemicals to be innocuous. The liquid waste was drained in the sewers or
thrown on the road outside.
Laundries
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Laundry soap 60-70 Kg/month
Bleaching powder (Calcium hypochlorite) 12-20 Kg/week
Gasoline 10-15 Litre/week
Three such shops were visited during the study. They washed the clothes in large washing
machines, bleaching powder was used for some clothes. Gasoline (according to the
owners) was used to dry clean the clothes and to remove grease stains from other clothes.
One of the laundry had caught fire six years ago from the short circuiting of a machine,
all the materials were burnt, but no casualty occurred. The engineering control on the
machines were not adequate to control the workers exposure to the gasoline vapours.
The affluveae were discharged in the sewers.
Dyeing of Head-dresses and Clothes
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Dyes 200 gm/day
Sodium hydroxide 100 gm/day
Calcium hypochlorite 250 gm/daySulphur powder 250 gm/day
Dying of headdresses and clothes has been fashionable among the women in sub-
continent for centuries. To cater the to needs of dyeing a cottage industry has developed
which can be found in most urban centres and many rural areas. The typical enterprise
consists of a small shop with an open water bath heated by a gas or kerosene stove, in
which clothes are bleached and dyed to produce single or multiple-coloured patterns. The
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enterprise visited during the study had only one person working there. However normally
according to the work load (increases around the festivals) 4-5 persons work in such
enterprises, several of which are located in the local bazaar of each locality. One person
mixes the colours in right proportions, caustic, natural salt and sulphur powder are added
as required, some clothes are bleached by dipping in boiling solution of bleaching
powder. Splashes of chemicals occur frequently during stirring with a wooden prod andduring mixing. Small quantity of chlorine also escapes from bleaching powder. The used
water containing dyes/caustic etc. was thrown on the road in front of the enterprise, which
was visible in the form of pools. Some workers complained of cough from inhalation of
vapours from dye bath, specially when salt is added to the dye bath.
Furniture Making
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Glue (formaldehyde & casein based) 1-12 Kg/week
Methylated spirit 5-30 litre/weekThinner 6-10 litre/week
Lakh grains (a tree gum) 0.5-5 Kg/week
Sindoor (red oxide of mercury) 50-250 gm/week
Dyes 100-500 gm/week
Putty powder 0.5-1 Kg/week
Furniture industry is quite widespread throughout the country, a large number of small-
sized enterprises are in the rural area catering to the dowry and other needs of local
populace. The work was highly labour intensive (some workshops dont even have
electric power) the workers applied glues, putty and different colour and varnish coatings
manually by rags. The shops visited during the study were all in the outdoors, facilitating
the drying of items on which coats of varnish or spirit were applied. The workers
exposure to potentially toxic chemicals seemed high especially due to unhygienic eating,
drinking and smoking practices observed. Only a small amount of waste is generated as
wood shavings, powder and soaked rags were used as fuel by the workshops or the
households. One of the three shops visited during the study had burnt down three years
ago in a fire, when a methylated spirit container had caught fire from a cigarette thrown
by a passerby.
Paint Manufacture
Two enterprises, one small and the other medium-sized were visited, the variety of
chemicals used by both enterprises was quite different. Therefor separate lists of
chemicals for both enterprises are being given here.
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Small Enterprise Medium Enterprisea
Chemicals Quantities
Consumed
Chemicals
Turpentine oil
VarnishTitanium dioxide
Lithophone (zinc oxide)
Talc
Pigments
21 litre/day
21 litre/day175 Kg/day
150 Kg/day
250 Kg/day
100 Kg/day
Alkyl resins, Synthetic resins
Calcium carbonate, Lead oxide,Zinc oxide, Titanium dioxide,
Xylene, Methylene chloride, White spirit
Butyl acetate, Turpentine oil
Mineral oil, Diacetone alcohol, MEK,
MIBK, Isobutanol, Isopropanol,
While the small enterprise manufactured only a limited variety of paints for use in the
construction industry, the medium one made a whole range of paints and allied products
for domestic and industrial usage. The process in the small enterprise was mostly manual,
while that in the medium one was mostly mechanical and where possible, automated. The
small one had only a weeks supply of the raw materials, the medium one had almost sixmonths supply stored at the premises increasing the risks of fire and explosion. The work
practices were more relaxed and unhygienic in the medium sized enterprise, while strict
safety and health measures were adopted by the medium one no smoking was allowed in
the premises, local exhaust and forced ventilation and adequate personal protection
equipment was provided to the workers, who were also monitored occasionally for any ill
effects due to workplace exposures. The medium enterprise had an incinerator for
disposing of the waste, while the small-sized enterprise dumped its waste in the
municipal dump. Despite the precautions, a large number of workers (almost 50%) in the
medium-sized enterprise were exposed to VOCs through inhalation, however exposure
through skin and ingestion was minimal in this enterprise.
Painting of Publicity Boards
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Paints/Enamels 1 litre/week
Kerosene oil 2 litre/week
Fluorescent dye 25 gm/week
Glue 100 gm/week
Such enterprises are mostly small scale with 2-5 persons working on publicity boards.The boards are spray painted with the background colour, then required words/images are
painted using brushes. Kerosene is used to dilute the paints/enamels and to clean the
boards. The work is done along the roadside, where boards are left in the sunlight to dry.
Housekeeping in the visited enterprise was poor, the enterprise was also causing traffic
aThe quantity of chemicals could not be noted, however considering the production volume thousands of
litres of solvents and similar quantities of related ingredients was consumed daily.
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problems by cluttering the footpaths. The smells of paints and solvents could be smelled
at a long distance. Both the workers complained of gastric troubles, which was perhaps
due to poor eating facilities and ingestion of the chemicals during eating and smoking.
The kerosene soaked rags and waste kerosene oil was used by the enterprise to dissolve
some water based dyes.
Printing Presses
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Printing inks 3-10Kg/week
Benzene 100ml-1litre/wek
Kerosene oil 4-8 litre/week
Thinner 100-200 ml/week
Mobil oil (lubricant) 2-4 litre/week
Chromic acid (only one enterprise) 200 gm/week
Grease (only one enterprise) 250 gm/week
Varnish 1-5 Kg/week
Printing presses usually consist of 1-2 printing machines with 4-5 workers. Although
there are a few medium sized printing establishments, but bulk of the industry is small
scale. Three such enterprises were visited during the study. They were using offset and
rota processes. Printing inks were mixed manually and compared with the colour chart
and if the desired colour was achieved the ink was fed into the machine by metal spoons.
The exposure of workers occurred during the cleaning of rollers. After each colour had
passed rollers were cleaned by rags soaked in kerosene, rubber rollers were cleaned with
benzene. Some inks were cleaned by thinners. After a printing job was completed a
thorough cleaning of the machine was carried out by kerosene soaked rags. Mobil oil and
grease was applied to the rollers and gears during cleaning. All the printing shops were in
the basements of buildings, local exhaust ventilation was not provided in any of theenterprises. The work practices aggravated the exposure of workers through skin and
inhalation. The waste oils, inks, paper etc. was dumped in a drum, daily cleaned by a
sweeper, who dumped it in the municipal waste. No health related complaint was
mentioned by the workers. However considering high skin exposure to solvents and inks
there was a likelihood of skin related ailments.
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Rubber Solution (Adhesive) Manufacture
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Smoke rubber 350 Kg/weekResin 6 Kg/week
Magnesium oxide 5 Kg/week
Gasoline 7 barrels/week
Such enterprises (all are small sized) are concentrated along the river bank in Lahore.
They cater to the need of adhesive rubber solution for puncture shops scattered
throughout the country. One such enterprise was visited. Rubber pieces were cut by
knives and soaked in a barrel of gasoline for 24 hours, the slurry was then agitated in a
mixing machine and magnesium oxide and resin were added during mixing. The prepared
mixture was filled in small containers. Both the workers working in the enterprise were
exposed to gasoline vapours through inhalation and skin. They also complained ofrespiratory problems. The enterprise posed a serious fire and explosion risk as large
quantities of gasoline was handled and no fire fighting equipment was at hand.
Screen Printing
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Benzene 1 litre/week
Butyl acetate 3 litre/week
Nitrobenzene 1 litre/weekInks 1 Kg/week
Most such enterprises are small-sized and are located in major urban centre like Lahore,
Karachi, Faislabad, Sialkot etc. One enterprise was visited employing 5 workers
(including the proprietor). Different solvents were used to thin the inks and to clean the
screens. Work was all manual including printing and washing etc. Due to the congested
nature of the shop, lack of personal and industrial hygiene control measures and absence
of local exhaust ventilation, the exposures of workers and the visitors in the surrounding
shops seemed high. The waste was placed in a drum and removed daily by a sweeper,
who dumped it in the municipal waste.
Shoes Manufacture
A variety of processes are involved in the shoe making depending upon the type of shoes.
Four enterprises, one medium sized (making sports shoes) and three small-sized (two
making leather shoes and one making plastic soles for the shoes) were visited during the
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study. As different processes and chemicals were involved the lists are given separately
below:
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Leather Shoes/Sandals Shoe Soles (Plastic) Sports Shoes
Chemicals Quantities Used Chemicals Quantities Used Chemicalsa
Glue Bond 2 litre/week GasolineThinner
Dyes
Plastic Scrap
50 litre/week50 litre/week
200 gm/week
800 Kg/week
PVC grainsDOP
MEK
Toluene
MDI
Glues
The small scale leather shoe making facilities were based in homes, where household
members alongwith neighbours worked on cutting and joining different shoe parts by
stitching and by applying glue bond. The smell of solvents (from glue) could be smelled
in all the homes in the locality as most were engaged in this occupation. Children and
women of the households were also exposed to the smells from the process.
The plastic shoe sole manufacturing was like other plastic extrusion processes, where
waste plastic and grains mixed with gasoline and other organic solvents was extruded
through an extruding machine to make the plastic shoes. Dyes were also added during the
process. Smell of gasoline and other volatile organic compounds could be smelled in and
around the workshops. Waste from the shop was thrown in the nearby garbage dump.
In the sports shoes manufacturing facility, the soles were made by injection moulding of
PVC granules at high temperature. Different parts of shoes were joined by glues and
epoxy resins. The exposure of workers engaged in the joining operations seemed high.
Otherwise the enterprises had good forced and local exhaust ventilation in the injectionmoulding room which was isolated from the other processes. The waste from the
enterprise was thrown in the waste dump of the industrial estate, in which the enterprise
was located.
aExact quantities not known, however most plastic items and solvents were consumed in hundreds of
kilograms/litre per week
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Leather Tanneries
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Sodium sulphide 150-600 Kg/week
Sulphuric acid 80-300 Kg/weekFormalin 6-25 litre/week
Urea 150 Kg-600 Kg/week
Sod. bicarbonate 30-120 Kg/week
Ink 50-90 Kg/week
Katha (coloured wood for large hides) 15-60 Kg/week
Mineral oil 35-150 Kg/week
Chrome Pak (Chromium sulphate) 60-240 Kg/week
Lime 150-750 Kg/week
Ammonium chloride 40-150 Kg/week
A total of 5 tanneries (two small and three medium sized) were visited in the town ofKasur near Lahore, famous for its tanneries and toxic waste. There are around 200 small
and medium sized tanneries in the town. All the tanneries visited were carrying out the
same processes albeit, at different scales. Hides/skins were brought in and salt from them
was removed by soaking in water. Then they were soaked in lime + sodium sulphide
solution to loosen the hair/flesh, which were removed manually at the shop floor.
Deliming was done in rotating drums containing bating solution (ammonium chloride).
Tanning chemicals and sulphuric acid etc. were added in different stages and drained into
the open sewers visible throughout the city. Dyes and oils were added to colour the skin
and rotated in the drums. Buffing and starching operations were carries out later on.
Finally the hides/skins were polished by spray painting (on the roof tops usually) with
paint solutions containing formalin. Most workers were exposed through skin, inhalation
and ingestion as personal hygiene conditions and engineering controls were poor.
Workers were seen using improvised personal protective equipment (e.g., vehicle tubes
were used to make gloves and foot protection) which seemed inadequate to protect
against the corrosive and toxic effects of chemicals. Many workers were seen eating their
meals in the middle of floors splattered with all kinds of toxic chemicals. Many workers
complained of respiratory and skin problems (TB was said to be common in the area).
Liquid waste was thrown by each tannery in the open sewers which remained stagnant
around the town and has seeped into the ground water. It has become a serious pollution
and public health issue. A waste water treatment and chrome recovery plant is beinginstalled but the progress is very slow. Flesh debris was sold by the tanners to the glue
making factories, leather shavings to the cardboard manufacturers and the leather cuttings
were either burnt outside the tanneries or thrown outside to rot in the open.
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Gas Welding
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Calcium carbide 15 Kg/month
Oxygen cylinders 2 Nos./month
Fluxes 250 gm/monthWelding rods unknown
Such enterprises are scattered all over the country, usually attached with some other
workshop but also a large number of these exist on their own. One such typical shop with
only one worker was visited. He worked on small jobs of welding in the area. Acetylene
was generated in a generator in which calcium carbide was added and water poured on it.
Calcium carbide was handled with bare hands. The lime from the process was thrown
outside in the street. The main source of exposure of the worker was the fumes from
brazing and heating enamelled surfaces. He did not complain of any particular health
problem.
Wool Dyeing
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Acetic acid 70 litre/week
Sulphuric acid 30 litre/week
Dyes (chrome, acid & metal complex) 5 Kg/week
A number of wool dyeing enterprises (mostly small-sized) are based in the inner city area
of Lahore, catering to the needs of carpet weaving (hand-made) industry. Theseenterprises work mostly on contract basis for some major carpet manufacturer. The
enterprise visited during the study had (like all similar establishments) an entirely manual
and labour intensive process. Acetic acid was added to boiling water in which dissolved
dyestuffs were added, then wool yarn supported on long bamboo rods was dipped in the
boiling water, wool was occasionally turned manually. After boiling for 45 minutes, wool
was given 2-3 washings with water containing sulphuric acid. Splashes of hot water
containing dyestuffs and acids were common. Lot of steam was generated. The place was
at the ground floor of a house, there were no local exhaust or forced ventilation available.
Workers worked without personal protection. It was estimated that for dyeing of 20 Kg
bundle of yarn 500-800 ml of acetic acid and 200 ml of sulphuric acid were consumed.
The water containing the dyestuffs and other chemicals was disposed of into the sewers,some remained stagnating outside in the street. Skin burns and scalds were the health
related complaints mentioned by the workers.
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Carpet Manufacture (machine made)
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumeda
Sulphuric acid 300 litre/weekAcetic acid 1500 litre/week
Wool dyes 150 Kg/week
The enterprise visited was a medium-sized one employing 283 workers, the process
consisted of dyeing of wool yarn, spinning of yarn into carpets and finishing operations. It
was during the wool dyeing process that workers were exposed to chemicals. 10 workers
were found working in this section. In this process, the wool yarn was soaked in large hot
water baths, in which dyes were dissolved alongwith acetic acid, the dyed yarn was
washed with sulphuric acid solution to remove the acetic acid. The process overall was
clean with very little manual handling involved. The exposures occurred mostly from
splashes or during the mixing of chemicals. The floor was kept clean by repeatedwashing. Like most other industries, this enterprise also had no arrangement for treating
the liquid waste. Like most other medium-sized enterprises, workers here were better off
with better sanitary, emergency treatment, eating and social security facilities available to
them. They did not mention any specific illness due to their work.
Chipboard & Plywood Manufacture
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Formaldehyde 3000 Kg/dayUrea 1500 Kg/day
Ammonia 4 Cylinders/day
Caustic soda 1 Kg/day
Ammonium chloride (sol) 300 litre/day
Phenol small amount
Sodium meta bisulphite 250 mg/day
Sulphuric acid 1.5 Kg/day
Antifoam small amount
Two medium sized enterprises were visited. The process consisted of shredding or
making plies of different types of woods and then joining them using urea formaldehyderesin. Other chemicals were also added during bonding. As good engineering and
administrative controls were observed, only a small number of workers were exposed to
the chemicals, mostly during maintenance of equipment. The liquid waste was thrown in
a ditch outside, while some solid waste was buried, less toxic waste was thrown in a
dump outside the factories.
aExact quantities not known, estimated from the production volume
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Chloralkali Plant
Chemicals used and the Quantities ConsumedaSodium chloride Hydrochloric acid
Sodium Hydroxide Chlorine gas
Sod. hypochlorite Calcium hypochlorite
Mercury (in process) Lime
Only a few such plants (2 in Punjab province) are working in the country. However the
plant visited had profound impact on the environment of the area and its products were
used in a large number of industrial processes. Brine solution was electrolysed in cells
containing mercury. Caustic soda and chlorine were produced. Excess chlorine was
converted into hydrochloric acid and drained in a nearby stream. Sodium and calcium
hypochlorites were also produced. There were occasional instances of chlorine escapeduring liquefaction, due to which the vegetation outside the plant was badly affected. The
process was closed and as most plants were in open air, workers exposure was not very
high except during leaks of gas.
Dyeing/Processing of Cloth
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Detergent 400-500 Kg/month
Desizer (diastase) 100-200 Kg/monthCaustic soda 400-600 Kg/month
Sod. hypochlorite 100-200 Kg/month
Disperse dyes 50-70 Kg/month
Direct dyes 50-100 Kg/month
Hydrogen peroxide 300 Kg/month
Formic acid 300-350 Kg/month
Hydrochloric acid 150-200 Kg/month
Elastomer 500-600 Kg/month
Softener 100 Kg/month
Acetic acid 30-50 Kg/month
Faisalabad and Karachi are two major textile industry centres with large number of
dyeing processing units based in these cities. Two such enterprises were visited in
Faislabad. Both used similar processes and dyed the cotton and mixed clothes. Cloth was
desized, scoured, bleached, dyed and finished in a closed process. Good engineering
aExact quantities not known, but large amount of chemicals were produces (several thousand tonnes per
annum)
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controls were observed. Exposures of some workers occurred during the handling of
chemicals and during maintenance. The workplaces were clean and tidy. The liquid waste
was drained in the sewers.
Fibreglass Items Manufacture
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumeda
Glass fibres Toluene
Styrene Acetone
Spirit Epoxy resin (828 Germany)
DER 331 (DOW Chemicals) Unsaturated polymer
MEK Paints
Thinner Plaster of Paris
MDI (ICI)
Such enterprises are mostly medium and some are small-sized and usually manufacturewater storage tanks and other household items. The enterprise visited was medium sized.
Glass fibres were wound around moulds and adhesives and plasticizing materials were
applied manually. Items were ground by abrasive wheels resulting in considerable
exposure of workers to glass fibres. Some items were painted by brushes and spray
painting. Workers mentioned headache, skin and respiratory problems and a few
mentioned solvent addiction. Liquid waste was drained in the sewers, solid waste was
thrown on the dump outside.
Formaldehyde & Resin Manufacture
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Methanol 10 tonnes/day
Formaldehyde 9.2 tonnes/day
Urea 4.5 tonnes/day
Formic Acid 4 litre/day
Caustic Soda 4 Kg/day
The enterprise visited, produced formaldehyde from oxidation of methanol.
Formaldehyde was mixed with urea to produce urea formaldehyde resin. All the process
was closed with good engineering controls in place. However a few workers were likelyto be exposed especially those involved with maintenance and stores. Liquid waste was
drained in nearby ditch.
aExact quantities not known, however hundreds of litres of solvents/paints was consumed every week.
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Match Manufacture
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumed
Potassium nitrate 50 Kg/day
Glue, Glass powder, Kissal, 50 Kg/day
Zinc oxide, Sulphur, Lead oxide,
Phosphorus00-500 Kg/month
Like most other similar establishments, the enterprise visited made safety matches from a
slurry of chemicals mentioned above, wooden matches were dipped in the slurry and
packed. The process was closed with little direct exposure of workers to chemicals.
However small exposure through skin and inhalation was likely during mixing of
chemicals and maintenance/cleaning of equipment. Solid waste was thrown outside the
factory in a dump. Some workers complained of headaches.
Pesticide Packing
Three enterprises with different capacities and varieties of pesticides were visited during
the study. The list of pesticides and quantities packed by each enterprises is listed nbelow
Enterprise No.
1 2 3
Pesticide Qty. Pesticide Qty. Pesticide Qty.
Methamidophos
Monocrotophos
Cypermethrin
Fenpropathrin
Endosulfan
Feslan
3500 litre
per day of
each
Methamidophos
Monocrotophos
Cypermethrin
Fenpropathrin
Endosulfan
Dimethoate
Fenvalerate
Methylparathion
One
contain-
er of
16000
Kg per
year of
each
Methamidophos
Monocrotophos
Cypermethrin
Methylparathio
n
Fenfluorid
Dimethoate
3000
litre
per
day of
each
A large number of small and medium sized pesticide formulation and repacking
enterprises are located in Multan which is in the heartland of cotton growing region of the
country, where most of the pesticides are consumed. The three enterprises (like most
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others) were seasonal and imported pesticides in large containers, which were off loaded
and emptied into large tanks, from which one-litre plastic bottles were filled, sealed
labelled, packed and sold in the market. There was some contact of the workers with
pesticides during handling of filled bottles. They used improvised gloves (from polythene
bags) to protect their skin. Some workers died in a small enterprise (not included in the
study) one year ago. The liquid waste was drained into a nearby drain resulting in toxicand foul vapours for the surrounding locality. It might also affect the live stock and
vegetation in the surrounding area. Workers mentioned headache, skin and respiratory
problems as the main health related problems.
Pharmaceuticals Manufacture
The one enterprise included in the study used a large number of liquid and powder
pharmaceutical ingredients and made different kinds of medical formulations and
medicaments. Most processes were closed, good industrial hygiene controls were
adopted, making the likelihood of exposures very minute. Workplace was tidy and theworkers seemed healthy.
Polyester Fibre Manufacture
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumeda
Tere phthalic acid Antimony oxide
Mono ethylene glycol Cutting oils
Sod. sulphite Trichloroethylene
Hydrazine Chlorine (for water treatment)Titanium dioxide
The enterprise produced polyester fibres by polymerisation of tere phthalic acid with
monoethylene glycol. The process was all closed and automated, with very little chances
of workers exposure. Workers were well trained and drilled in emergency response and
first aid and were often monitored for any health effects. Waste water was disposed of
after treatment in a plant.
Polypropylene Bags Manufacture
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumedb
Polypropylene chips
Stabilisers
aExact quantities not known, however considering the size of plant hundreds of tonnes of raw materials
(Monoethylene glycol and tere phthalic acid were consumed daily)bExact quantities not known, however hundreds of kilos of polymer grains were consumed daily
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Pigments
The enterprise produced polypropylene bags after producing fibres from extrusion of
polypropylene chips, stabilisers and pigments were also added during the process, which
resulted in some airborne dust. As local exhaust ventilation was not sufficient to remove
all the aerosols, some workers were exposed to the airborne dusts.
Polyurethane Foam Manufacture
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumedc
TDI (Toluene diisocyanate) Stannous octoate
Polyol (Polyethylene glycol) Tegoamine (mixture of ter. amines)
Silicone oil Methylene chloride
The enterprise produced foam by passing carbon dioxide gas through a mixture of TDI
and polyol containing tertiary amines and fillers. Foam was left to dry then removed andcut to pieces of desired size and filled into different fabric covers. Although the process
was closed one and chemicals were pumped directly from stores, the local exhaust system
was not able to remove all the toxic vapours resulting in exposure through inhalation of
some workers in the reaction chamber area. These workers complained of asthma
symptoms. The respirators available were not being used, anyway the cartridges had
already expired. The liquid waste was drained in the sewers. Solid waste was thrown on a
dump.
Rubber Items Manufacture
Chemicals used and the Quantities Consumeda
Rubber Accelerators (PBM, MBTS, MBT)
MEK Gasoline
Clay Chalk
Pigments
The enterprise visited was medium-sized and produced a number of rubber items
including rubber-coated cloth. Rubber pieces were cut and fed into a two-roller
masticating machine, accelerators and additives were added during mixing. Rubber was
shaped into different items through presses. Some articles were heat treated and painted.The whole process was dirty and poorly organised, chemical containers were scattered all
around the place was reeking of rubber smell and solvent vapours. Fire fighting
arrangements were not adequate, which may result in some tragedy. Solid and liquid
waste was drained and thrown away untreated.
c Exact quantities not known. However several tonnes of foam was produced dailyaExact quantities not known. However several tonnes of rubber was processed daily
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Soap & Allied Products Manufacture
Tree enterprises, all medium sized, (one making toilet and laundry soaps and glycerine,
the other two making laundry soap only) were visited during the study. Most of the soap
industry is located in Faisalabad and Karachi. The lists of chemicals and quantities used
by each enterprise are given below:
Enterpris