Personality

• Thescienceofpersonalityexploresindividuals’characteristicpatternsofthinking,feelingandbehaving.• Theoriesofpersonalityoffersomeproposalaboutthecontentsofhumannature,aswellasthewaysthatexperiencesshapeindividualdifferences.

PsychodynamicTheories

• Freudwasnotapsychologist,andhewasingeneralwrong aboutthenatureofhumans.

• Hispsychodynamictheoryofpersonality(i.e.,id,ego,superego) haslargelybeendiscredited

• Howeversmallkernelsoftruthcanbeacknowledged!

• E.g.,Muchofthemindishiddenfromconsciousview(i.e.,unconsciousprocesses)

•Thenotionthatmuchofthemind’sactivityisbelowthelevelofconsciousnessisstillsupportedbymuchresearch.

• However,itisvastlymorecomplicatedthanFreudwouldhaveyoubelieve.

PsychodynamicTheories

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Conscious:Ideas, thoughts,

and feelings of which we are aware

Preconscious:Material that can be easily

recalled EgoSelf; coordinates

needs of id with reality

SuperegoInternalization

of morality; conscience

Unconscious:Well below the surface

of awarenessId

Pleasure principle;inborn drives

PsychodynamicTheories

• AcolleagueofFreud’s,CarlJung,thoughtthattheunconsciousmindwasnotentirelypersonal.

• Jungproposeda“collectiveunconscious”• A setofsymbolsandassociations thatwereculturallyuniversal.

• Hespokeof“archetypes”thatwerepasseddownthroughgenerations,andthatserveasthe“psychiccounterpartsofinstinct.”

• Thesearchetypesshapeindividualpersonality

MBTI• Myers-BriggsTypeIndicator(MBTI)

• Inshort, just anabsolute piece ofgarbage.

• i.e.,theworstkindofpseudo-scientificnonsense.

• Thestoryofitsdevelopmentbordersupontheabsurd.

• Advice: Ifyouareeveraskedtotakeoneofthese, politely decline.

• Or,havefun!(e.g.,Trytofakeaprofile-- it’sreallyeasy!)

• Type-modelsaredangerously deterministic(i.e.,Iamanextrovert,thereforeIshouldactaccordingly).

• Validity: poor acrosstheboard

• Scores correlateweaklyandinconsistently withcriteria.

• Reliability: pooracross theboard

• Scoresonsubsequentadministrationsdon’tcorrelatewell.

• Why isitused then?

• People liketoplaypsychologist/scientist.

• Real psychologistswhostudypersonalityoverwhelminglypreferdifferentmeasures ofpersonality:

• E.g.,Big5TraitModelofPersonality

TraitTheoriesofPersonality

•Whilepsychodynamictheoriesofpersonalityarevividandcompellingtosome,theydonotlendthemselveswelltoscientificresearch.

• Theyaredifficulttofalsify.• Traittheoriestakeadifferentapproach,usinga“bottom-up”approachtoidentifyingthekeyfactorsonwhichindividualsdiffer.

TraitTheoriesofPersonality

•Traittheoristsseektoidentifythekeydimensionsofpersonalitybyseeinghowwellalargenumberoftraits“hangtogether”orcovaryamongpeople.

•Earlystudiesaskedresearchparticipantstoratethemselvesorothersonlargenumbersofadjectivesusedtodescribepeople:•“LexicalTheories”– personalityisrepresented inlanguage.

•Researchersusedastatisticaltechniquecalled“factoranalysis”toidentifymajorclustersoftheseadjectives,whereratingstendedtocorrelatestronglyacrosspeople.•Forexample,ratingsof“reliable”and“prompt”wouldbelikelytocorrelatehighly,aswouldratingsof“outgoing”and“lively.”

TraitTheoriesofPersonality

Receptivity

Warmth

Self-reliance

Emotional stability

Privateness

Impulsivity

Insecurity Irritability

Perfectionism

Skepticism

Boldness

Conformity

Openness to change

Intelligence

Imagination

Sensitivity

DominanceExtroversion

Anxiety

Self-control

Independence

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Q1

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Q3

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The“Big5”PersonalityTraits

• Numerousstudiesusingthisapproachhaveidentifiedasetoffivecoredimensionsofpersonalitythatemergefromtraitvocabulary.

• Acrosslanguages&cultures• Personalitypsychologistsrefertotheseasthe“BigFive.”

• Researchersbelievethesemaybecoretraitsbecauseoftheir importanceinsocialrelationships.

The“Big5”PersonalityTraits

Big Five

Openness

Conscientiousness

ExtroversionAgreeableness

Neuroticism

Continuavs.Typologies

Extraversion HighExtraversionLowExtraversion

Introvert Extrovert

Extraversion

• Higherlevelsofextraversionreflectsanoutgoing,sensation-seekingwayofinteractingwiththeenvironment.

• Lowerlevelsofextraversionareassociatedwithshynessandcaution.

EXTROVERSIONWarmth

Gregariousness

Assertiveness

Activity

Excitement-seeking

Positiveemotion

Agreeableness

• Higheragreeablenessisassociatedwithkindness,helpfulness,andaffectiontowardothers.

• Loweragreeablenessisassociatedwithcoldnessand/orhostility.

AGREEABLENESSTrust

Straightforwardness

Altruism

Compliance

Modesty

Tender-mindedness

Conscientiousness

• Higherconscientiousisassociatedwithreliability,organizations,andself-discipline.

• Lowerconscientiousnessisassociatedwithlowdependability,laziness,andcarelessness.

CONSCIENTIOUSNESSCompetence

Order

Dutifulness

Achievement-striving

Self-discipline

Deliberation

EmotionalStability(Neuroticism)

•Term“neuroticism”isusedtorefertooverallpsychologicaldysfunctionincasualspeech

• TheBigFivefactorofNeuroticismreferstoahighdegreeofnegativeemotionality– especiallyanxietyandsadness.

NEUROTICISMAnxiety

Angryhostility

Depression

Self-consciousness

Impulsiveness

Vulnerability

Openness

• OpennesstoExperiencereferstoanindividual’stendencytobecurious,unconventional,andimaginative.

• Higheropenness isassociatedwithseekingoutnewexperiencesinart,food,travel,andculture.

• Loweropenness isassociatedwithpreferencesforfamiliarexperiences,traditionalism andconformity.

OPENNESSFantasy

Aesthetics

Feelings

Actions

Ideas

Values

Personality&Situations

• TraittheoriesaretechnicallyagnosticastothesourceofindividualdifferencesontheBigFiveandothertraits

• Theydoemphasizestablecharacteristicsthatmayhaveageneticorearly-established origin.

• Social-cognitiveapproachesemphasizeindividualdifferencesinhowwehavelearnedtointerprettheworldaroundusasthebasisfordifferencesinpersonality.

Skinner

•B.F.Skinnerofferedanearlyversionofabehavioralapproachtopersonality

• Proposedthatoperantconditioning(i.e.,learnedassociationsbetweenbehaviorsandpunishmentsorrewards)couldproducelastingdifferencesinpeople’sbehavior.

•Personalityreflects“stableresponsetendencies”

LocusofControl

• Peoplehaveexpectationsabouttheirabilitytoinfluencetheenvironment.

• Forexample,peoplemightlearntothinkofthemselves:

• Asincontroloftheirexperiencesandoutcomes– aninternal locusofcontrol• Ashelpless inthefaceofchanceandtheactionsofothers– anexternal locusofcontrol.

• Peoplewithastronginternal locusofcontroltendtobemoreoutgoing,managestresswell,andarelikelytoachievetheirgoals.

• Peoplewithanexternal locusofcontrolmaybemoreattunedtoeffectsofthesituationontheirownandothers’behavior.

Mischel

• WalterMischel soughttointegratetheoriesthatemphasizedstableaspectsofpersonality(i.e.,traittheories)withthosethatemphasizedthepoweroftheenvironment (i.e.,situationtheories).

• Personalitiesasbestthoughtofasasetof“if-then”algorithms

• i.e.,Tendenciestoactinacertainwaygiven acertainkindofsituation.• AccordingtoMischel,anindividual’sbehaviorcouldbepredictedmuchmoreeffectivelybyamodelofperson-situation interactionthanbyeitherforcealone.

• ThisharkensbacktoLewin’s(1936)formula:

B=F(P,E)

AssessingPersonality

• Differenttheoriesemphasizedifferentaspectsofpersonality,andwhetheritisconsciousornot.

• Thesetheorieshaveledtotwoverydifferentapproachestomeasuringpersonality

• Researchersdisagreeaboutwhichkindofmeasureismorevaliddependingonthetheorytheymostendorse.

ProjectiveTests

•Theoriesthatemphasizetheunconsciousaspectsofpersonality(i.e.,psychodynamictheories)useprojectivetests•Seektotapfeelingsandbeliefsofwhichpeopleareunaware.

•Participantsviewaseriesofabstractorambiguoussituations,andareaskedtodescribewhattheythinktheyareseeing.

•Theiranswersarecodedforvariousaspectsofcontent.

•Someprojectivetests(e.g.,Rorschach)arewidelyusedbypsychiatristsdespitelimitedevidenceforreliabilityandvalidityofconclusionsacrosspractitioners.

•Evidenceforsomewhatmoreconcretetests,suchastheThematicApperceptionTests(TAT),issomewhatstrongerwithrespecttopersonalitycharacteristicssuchasconcernwithaffiliationversusachievement.

Rorschach

HermannRorschachLookedalotLikeBradPitt

TAT

MeasuringPersonalityTraits

• Traittheoristsfocusmoreonovertbehaviorthanunconsciousfeelingsandbeliefs

• Assumethatpeopleareabletoreportaccuratelyontheirownpersonalities

• Morelikelytouseovertself-reportquestionnairesasmeasuresofpersonality.

• Evidenceofreliabilityandvalidityarestrong:• Self-reportsandreportsbyfriendsandobserverstendtoagreeforquestionnairemeasuresoftheBigFiveandlocusofcontrol.

• Self-reportinventoriesareproblematicforaspectsofpersonalitythatarenotavailabletoconsciousnessandfortraitsthatarehighlydesirableorundesirable.

“Italktoalotofdifferentpeopleatparties”EXTROVERSION

“Ipayattentiontodetails”CONSCIENTIOUSNESS

“Igetstressedouteasily”NEUROTICISM

“Ihaveavividimagination”OPENNESS

“Isympathizewithothers’feelings”AGREEABLENESS

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TheScienceofPersonality