1
Note
Date: June 19, 2011
Brief History of Elementary Charge by Dan Petru Danescu, e-mail: [email protected]
Keywords: elementary charge, elementary electric charge, electric charge, electron
charge, spin magnetic moment, spin motion, CP symmetry, CPT symmetry.
Contents:
1.Title page
2. Timeline.
14. References.
16. Appendix 1 Spin motion and 4 rotation.
17. Appendix 2 Interpretation of CPT symmetry.
18. Appendix 3 The average electron as a open sliding knot.
19. Appendix 4 The production of electron-positron pair
20. Appendix 5: A possible interpretation of fractional electric charges of quarks.
2
Timeline
● 1733 Charles Francois de Cisternay du Fay discovered the existence of two types of
electricity: “vitreous” and “resinous” (later known as “positive” and “negative” charge
respectively), [1].
● 1769 Benjamin Franklin arbitrarily associated the term “positive” (+) with vitreous
electricity and “negative” (-) with resinous electricity, [2].
● 1785 Charles Augustin de Coulomb discovered, with torsion balance, an inverse
relationship of the force between electric charges and the square of its distance, later
known as Coulomb’s law, [3], Fig.1.
F1,2 = k 2
21
r
QQ (1)
From (1) results the definition of charge unit in cgs system (F1,2 = 1 dyne; r = 1 cm; k=1;
Q1 = Q2 = 1Fr = 1statcoulomb = 1esu).
Fig.1 Coulomb’s torsion balance
3
● 1838 Richard Laming [4] introduced the concept of an indivisible amount of electric
charge to explain the chemical properties of atoms (hypothesized the existence of sub-
atomic particles of unit charge).
● 1843 Michael Faraday [5] discovered the law of conservation of electric charge. It is
written using vector calculation,
t
+ . J = 0 . (2)
● 1859-1873 According to Michael Faraday & James Clark Maxwell theory of field [6],
[7], in expression:
div D = 4
has character of auxiliary notation and the charge notion has character of auxiliary
term. In this context the interpretation of electric charge as a separate substance does not
have any significance. Charge interpretation as a knot-like on field lines [8] becomes very
important.
● 1876-7 Lord Kelvin suggested [9] that atom is composed of string knotted in various
configurations and Peter Guthrie Tait made first systematic study of knots [10].
“Crossing sign” in knot theory was associated with “right handed”and “left handed”
(Fig.2). Later, ± 1 algebric sign was adopted (Fig.2).
Left handed crossing Right handed crossing
Fig.2 Crossing sign
4
● 1891 George Johnstone Stoney proposed the term “electron” to describe the
fundamental unit of electrical charge [11]. This quantity of electricity was estimated to
3×10-11
esu by Professor Richarz.
● 1897 Discovery of electron in cathode rays by Joseph John Thomson. He measured the
mass-to-charge ratio of the cathode rays, [12],
e
me = 0.40 ÷ 0.54×10-7
g/emu (4)
independent of the nature of gas.
The “corpuscles” discovered by Thomson are identified with the “electron” proposed by
G.J. Stoney in 1891.
The inverse ratio, charge-to-mass, more known, is (actual value), [13]
em
e = -1.758 820 150×10
11 C/kg . (SI) (5)
or
em
e = -1.758 820 150×10
7 emu/g . (CGSem) (6)
or
em
e = -5.272 810 159×10
17 esu/g , (CGSes, CGS Gaussian) (7)
● 1911-1913 Robert Andrews Millikan measured the value of the elementary electric
charge ( The oil–drop experiment). The same time it was demonstrated the discrete nature
of electric charge [14], [15],
e = 4.777×10-10
esu (CGSes, CGS Gaussian) (8)
The modern value of the elementary electric charge is, [13],
e = 4.803 204 27×10-10
esu (CGSes, CGS Gaussian), (9)
e = 1.602 176 487×10-19
C (SI). (10)
● 1919-1923 Arthur Holly Compton [16] developed the concept of “thin flexible ring of
electricity” in connection with the electron structure. The radius of ring electron (or ring
of electricity) was estimated as about
5
rC ~ 2×10-10
cm. (11)
Later, in the Compton’s theory of the scattering of X-rays, [17], [18], a more precis
experiment, the Compton wavelength, C = 2.4×10-10
cm. , is aproximated equal to the
radius of the “ring of electricity”(rC ),
C ≈ rC (12)
Fig.3 “Thin flexible ring of electricity” (After A.H. Compton, implicit)
The modern value of the Compton wavelength is [13],
C =cm
h
e
= 2.426 310 2175×10-10
cm. (13)
● 1920 Wolfgang Pauli introduced the elementary unit of magnetic moment,
interpretation in terms of the Bohr’s atom [19], [20]. From the classical expression for
magnetic moment = IA, and considering the effective current I = - e/T = - ev/2r,
which can be rewritten as I = - emevr/2mer, the magnetic moment result, = -(e/2me)L,
where angular momentum L, is quantified, conformable to Bohr-Sommerfeld theory, L
= =n (h/2), n = 1, 2, 3, …,n. A elementary unit of magnetic moment called the “Bohr
magneton” (for n = 1), is
B = c
1
em4
he
|| = 9.2110
-21 emu, (14)
or related to the mol,
B = c
1
em4
he
||N0 = 5548 Gauss.cm, (15)
6
N0 being the number of atoms or molecules per gram-atom, ( N0 = 6.061023
mol-1
) and
the 1/c factor being for conversion esu→emu, (Fig.4)
Fig.4 The charge and the vector model of Bohr’s magneton (implicit).
● 1924-1928 Wolfgang Pauli introduced the idea of “two-valued quantum degree of
freedom” associated with the electron, [21]. Samuel Goudsmit & George Ullenbeck [22],
postulated the electron spin. Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac [23], developed the electron spin
concept, (Fig.5).
Fig.5 The vector model of electron spin
S = 1)s(s = 2
3, s =
2
1 , (16)
7
s = - ge2m
eS ≈ - 3 B , (g ≈ 2, after Dirac) . (17)
Actual value of spin magnetic moment (s ) is
s ≈ 1.608 10-23
J/T (SI) (18)
s ≈ 4.821 10-10
esu (CGSes, CGS Gaussian*)) (19)
*) without 1/c factor of units transferred in torque relation.
● 1899-1905-1930 Hendrik Anton Lorentz, [24], [25] Albert Einstein, [26], and others:
The Lorentz transformations, the relativistic theory. The elementary electric charge is an
relativistically invariant,
e = e0 = const. (20)
Another particle characteristics are relativistically invariant (spin, S and magnetic
moment, s), other are relativistic (mass, me , energy, E and de Broglie wavelength )
S = S0 = const. , (21)
s = s0 = const. , (22)
me = me0 , (23)
E = E0 , (24)
= 0 , (25)
where
=2
c
v1
1
(26)
The property of charge invariance follows from the vanishing divergence of the charge-
current four – vector j
= (cp, j
), with ∂j
8
● 1928-1939 Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac [27] and Ernst Carl Gerlach Stueckelberg [28]
introduced the concept of “point charge electron” as a mathematical approximation. A
point charge (ideal charge) is a hypothetical charge located at a point in space. A point-
like charge electron was difficult to accept, because its magnetic moment presupposes an
area.
● 1931 Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac [29] predicted the existence of the positron.
● 1933 Carl David Anderson [30] discovered the positron (announced in 1932).
● 1936 Werner Heisenberg [31], introduced charge conjugation invariance (C), as a
symmetry operation connecting particle and antiparticle states.
● 1937-1939 H. Hellmann [32] – R. P. Feynman [33] defined the theorem where the
probability density of finding electron (later also named “quantum electron”[34], [35]) is
proportional to the charge density
||2 -e||
2 (27)
(Consequence: the electron or quantum electron is the charge)
● 1955 John A. Wheeler [36] proposed an idea about the relationship between electric
charge and the topology of a curved space-time. Later, Wheeler and Charles W. Misner
presented a model of electric charge (“charge without charge”) based on the topological
trapping of electric field [37].
● 1964-1995 Fractional electrical charges (2/3)e and (- 1/3)e for quarks and (-2/3)e and
(1/3)e for anti-quarks (Table 1 and 2).
The quarks idea was independently proposed by Murray Gell-Mann [38] and George
Zweig [39]. Quarks were introduced of an ordering scheme for hadrons
9
Table 1
Qurks
Name Charge Spin Mass Theoretized Discovered
Up (u) + e
3
2
2
1
1.5 MeV/c2 Murray Gell-Mann (1964),
[38]
George Zweig (1964), [39],
[40]
SLAC (1968)
Down (d) - e
3
1
2
1
4.0 MeV/c2 Murray Gell-Mann (1964)
George Zweig (1964)
SLAC (1968)
Strange (s) - e
3
1
2
1
80 MeV/c2 Murray Gell-Mann (1964)
George Zweig (1964)
SLAC (1968)
Charm (c) + e
3
2
2
1
1.3 GeV/c2 Schledom Glashow (1970),
[41]
John Iliopoulos
Luciano Maiani
SLAC &
BNL (1974)
Bottom (b) - e
3
1
2
1
4.2 GeV/c2 Makao Kobayashi (1973),
[42]
Toshihide Maskawa
Fermilab
(1977)
Top (t) + e
3
2
2
1
173 GeV/c2 Makao Kobayashi (1973)
Toshihide Maskawa
Fermilab
(1995)
SLAC: Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
BNL: Brookhaven National Laboratory
Table 2
Antiqurks
Name Charge Spin Mass
Anti - up ( u ) - e
3
2
2
1
1.5 MeV/c2
Anti - down ( d ) + e
3
1
2
1
4.0 MeV/c2
Anti - strange ( s ) + e
3
1
2
1
80 MeV/c2
Anti - charm ( c ) - e
3
2
2
1
1.3 GeV/c2
Anti - bottom ( b ) + e
3
1
2
1
4.2 GeV/c2
Anti - top ( t ) - e
3
2
2
1
173 GeV/c2
10
See: A possible interpretation of fractional electrical charges of quarks (Appendix 5)
● 1972 Based on Faraday’s and Maxwell’s idea (probably) , Andrei Sakharov developed
the concept of the knot-like charge and he named it “base”[43]
Fig.6 Topological structure of elementary charge (in connection with trefoil knots and cinquefoil
knots) after A. D. Sakharov
● 1977-2002 Dan Petru Danescu defined “the topological structure of elementary electric
charge in connection with the elastic overhand knot (idealized) with minimum energy”
and the fundamental physical constants [44], [45], [46], [47], [48], (Fig.7).
In Gaussian units [48], (LTM dimensions) “electrical constants group” were identified:
|e±| ≈ 4.810
-10 esu;
|s| ≈ 4.810-10
esu;
2C ≈ 4.810-10
cm.
(|s| = gem2
e|S| ≈ 3
em2
e= 3 B , without 1/c factor of units, transferred in torque
relation and g ≈ 2, after Dirac).
In 1-dimensional (geometric) system of units, by transition LTM Gaussian → L, where:
[r, , e, ]= L; [t] = L2; [m, S, h, ] =L
3; [v, c ] =L
-1; [, , G ]= L
-2 ,
we have,
|s| ≈ |e±| ≈ 2C ≈ 4.8 10
-10 cm . (28)
These equalities can be interpreted.
11
Fig.7 The interpretation of elementary electric charge and spin magnetic moment using the
idealized elastic overhand knot with minimum energy. The charge is associated with crossing
sign: a) Convention of crossing sign after P.G. Tait and other; b) Interpretation of the relationship
(28); c) The proposed notation for the elementary electric charge.
In connection with the electric charge interpretation see:
Appendix 1 Spin motion and 4 rotation;
Appendix 2 Interpretation of CPT symmetry;
Appendix 3 The average electron as a open sliding knot.;
Appendix 4 The production of electron-positron pair
Appendix 5 A possible interpretation of fractional electrical charges of quarks.
12
● 1978 Dan Petru Danescu defined the” Elementary electric charge in connection with
kinematic inversion” [45].
From (28) relations and C = h/mec, |s| ≈ 3 eh/4me , in 1-dimensional system of units,
by transition LTM Gaussian →L (cm) result
2C ≈ |e±| ≈
c3
8π = const. (invariant) (29)
The interpretation of relation (29) it is shown in Fig.8 and Fig.9.
The geometric inversion of straight line in a C1 circle, the tangent case (A=A’), (Fig.8a)
imply:
OA . OA’ = OM . OM’ = const. = K (30)
Kinematic inversion of filament AL = , with negligible diameter, in a loop C1 (Fig.8b):
r1 = O1A = 1 cm (arbitrary) → Scale 1/1 (31)
OA’ =
Δ (32)
OA .
Δ = 2
2 cm
2 (33)
t = 1s:
OA .
v = 2
2 cm
2 /s (34)
Or
OA . v = 4 cm2 /s (35)
Kinematic inversion of an elastic straight filament (ℓ), in a overhand knot with
minimum energy (C1) which moves with c velocity (v = c ≈ 3×1010
cm/s), (Fig.9):
OA . 2
3c ≈ 4 cm
2 /s (36)
In a 1-dimensional system of units, result:
13
OA = c3
8π ≈ 4.8×10
-10cm ( ≈2C ≈ |e
±| ) (37)
The scale resulted, for C1 , is : 1/ 2.4×10-10
a) b)
Fig.8 Transition from geometric inversion a) of a straight line () in a circle to the
physics inversion b) of a filament (ℓ) with negligible diameter in a loop (C1).
14
a) b)
Fig.9. From geometric inversion of the straight line in a circle to the kinematic inversion a
elastic filament with negligible diameter in a idealized overhand knot which moves to
v = c velocity (after D.P.Danescu): a) The positive charge; b) The negative charge.
15
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16
[28] E.K.G. Stueckelberg, A New Model of the Point Charge Electron and of Other
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London, A 133, 60-72 (1931).
[30] C.D. Anderson, The positive electron, Phys. Rev. 43, 491 (1933).
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Zeitschr. Phys. 98, 714-732 (1936).
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(1937).
[33] R.P. Feynman, Forces in Molecules, Phys. Rev. 56, 340 (1939).
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17
Appendix 1
Spin motion and 4 rotation
Illustration of the radial spin motion, as an internal double twist, starting from trefoil
knot:
a) The spin motion with 4 internal rotations in the case of trefoil knot.
b) The spin motion with 4 rotations in the case of elastic overhand knot (open trefoil
knot) identified with extended quantum electron (charge). Vector s projection on the 0z
axis (rotational component) is permanently zsμ ≈ -B .
Copyright © 2011 Dan Petru Danescu. All rights reserved
18
Appendix 2
Elementary electric charge and CPT symmetry
Elementary electric charges structure: a), b). CPT symmetry: c), d), e) sequences. In this
case: r → -r (x,y,z →-x, -y, -z) ; e+ → e
- ; Sz → -Sz ;
zs → z
s .
19
Appendix 3
20
Appendix 4
Production electron-positron pairs
Copyright © 2011 Dan Petru Dănescu. All rights reserved
21
Appendix 5
A possible interpretation of fractional electric charges of quarks