APBiologySummerAssignment2019Mr.Lane&Mrs.Waldbaum
WelcometoAPBiology!
WearelookingforwardtoagreatyeartogetherinAPBiology.Asyouknow,thisisacollege-levelcourseculminatingwithanAPexaminearlyMay.Inordertocovertheextensiveamountofmaterialthatisontheexam,wehavedesignedthissummerassignmenttorefreshyourmemoryongraphingandexperimentaldesign.Itwillalsohelporientyoutothetextbookandcorrespondingreadingguideswewillbeusingthroughouttheyear.Thecoursewillrequireyoutoreadyourtextbookonaweeklybasis,analyzeandinterpretdata,andapplyyourcontentknowledgetovarioussituations.Yourassignmentsforthesummerareasfollows:
1. CompletetheGraphingPacket2. ReadChapters1-5inthetextbook3. Answerthequestionsonthereadingguidesforeachchapter.Thesemaybetypedorhand-
written.Pleasemakesureyoucompletethereadingguidesthoroughlyandcompletely.Answerstoallquestionsmaybefoundinthetextbookchaptersprovided,butsimplyskimmingthechaptersforaoneortwowordanswerwillnotsuffice.Youshouldreadtheentirechapterandusethereadingguidequestionsasasupplementalsupporttomakesureyouaregraspingthemostimportantconceptsofthechapters.Readingguideswillbegivenforeachchapterthroughouttheyear,and10pointopen-notebookquizzeswillbegivenoneachonethedaytheyaredue.Thepurposeofthesequizzesistoboostyouraverageandtoensureyouareunderstandingthebasickeyconceptssowemayspendclasstimeexploringmorecomplexones.Theduedatesforthesummerassignmentsareasfollows:
• Wednesday,September4th–CollectGraphingPacket• Friday,September6th–OpenNotebookReadingGuideQuiz(Chapters1-3)• Friday,September13th–OpenNotebookReadingGuideQuiz(Chapters4-5)
Ifyouhaveanyquestionsonthesummerassignment,youmayfeelfreetocontacteitheroneofus.Ouremailaddressesare:
• Mr.Lane:[email protected]• Mrs.Waldbaum:[email protected]
CopiesofthesummerassignmentsmaybefoundonthePlainedgewebsite,orMr.Lane’swebsite(www.mrlane.org).ThetextbookchaptersmustbeobtainedfromusinRoom102aor104,andwillalsobesharedwithyouviaemail.
Enjoyyoursummer,andhappyreading!
APBIOLOGYSUMMERGRAPHINGACTIVITYPACKET
TheNextGenerationofScienceStandardsemphasizestheeightsciencepracticesallstudentsshouldbeabletodobeforegraduatinghighschool.APBiologywillhelpyouhonetheseskills.Youwillbeableto:
1. Askquestionsanddefineproblems.2. Developandusemodels3. Planandcarryoutinvestigations4. Analyzeandinterpretdata5. Usemathematicalandcomputationalthinking6. Constructanddesignsolutions7. Engageinargumentfromevidence8. Obtain,evaluateandcommunicateinformation
Thisactivitypacketwillhelpreinforcegraphingandanalyticalskillsyouhavelearnedinpreviousscienceclasses.Beforeproceedingtotheactivityquestions,watchPaulAndersen’sBozemanScience“ABeginner’sGuidetoGraphingData”(http://www.bozemanscience.com/beginners-guide-to-graphing-data)videoandreviewtheGraphElementChecklistoutlinedbelow.GraphElementChecklist
• Thecorrecttypeofgraphismadeforthetypeofdatapresented(i.e.bar,line,histogram,pie,etc…)• Graphisneatlyconstructed,organized,andmakesgooduseofspace.Ifused,colorsmakethegraph
morereadable.• Forpiegraphs,thewedgesareclearlylabeledorcolorcodedwithakey• ForX-Yaxisgraphs…
• TheYaxisislabeledwiththeRespondingVariable(dependent)andtheXaxisislabeledwiththeManipulatedVariable(independent)
• UnitsareclearlyandcorrectlyidentifiedalongtheXandYaxis• Thegraphaxesareproportionaltothedata(meaningthedataisspreadoverthespanofthe
axis,notclumped)• XandYaxisintervalsareconsistentandcorrect• Allpointsareplottedclearlyandcorrectly.Inmostcases,themeanofthedataisgraphed
(noteachindividualtrial).• Whenthemeanisgraphed,thestandarddeviationofeachmeaninincludedandlabeled• Ifneeded,bestfitlinesorcurvesareaddedtothegraphtoshowtrendsorrelationships
• Specifictitleisincluded.Thetitleindicateswhatdataispresented,includingscientificnameifrelevant.
• “Series”boxesaredeletedfromgraphscreatedinExcel
HowdoIknowwhichtypeofgraphtouse?Followthiskey…1.Isthedataapercentthatsumsto100%oratotalamountoftime?a.Ifyes.…………………………………Piechartb.Ifno…………………………………....Goto#22.Arebothyourmanipulatedandrespondingvariablesquantitative?a.Ifno…………………………………....Bargraphb.Ifyes………………………………….Goto#33.Isyourmanipulatedvariablelevelscontinuous(i.e.timeinyears)orclumpedintogroups(i.e.0-5years,6-10years)?a.Continuous…………………………...Scatterplot/lineb.Clumped.....………………………….Histogram
PieChart
Designedtoshowapercentofawhole,wherethewholeequals100%.Piechartsareusedtocomparedata,butcannotbeusedtoseehowamanipulatedvariableaffectsarespondingvariable.Piechartsdonotshowchangewithrespecttoanothervariable.
Ex:Percentoftimethecellspendsineachphaseofthecellcycle
BarGraph
Designedtomakecomparisonsofdata.Thedatarepresentedinbargraphsarenotnecessarilydependentonanyothervariablesandthegroupingsareusuallyqualitative(i.e.groupedintocategories,likebloodtypesorcolor).ThebarsdoNOTtouch.
Ex:Comparisonofthemeanreactionrateforfivedifferentenzymes
Histogram
Histogramsaresimilartobargraphsexceptthedatarepresentedinhistogramisusuallyingroupsofcontinuousnumerical(quantitative)data.Inthiscase,thebarsdotouch.Histogramsareoftenusedtoshowfrequencydata.
Ex:MinimumDecibels(dBA)ofsoundheardby20people
LineGraph
Alinegraphconsistsofaseriesofpointsplottedonthegridandthenconnectedtogetherpointtopointbyaline.Linegraphsareonlyusedwhenbothvariablesarequantitative.Linegraphsshowtrends,suchashowthingschangeovertime.
Ex:Averagemeantemperaturebetweentheyears1900and2000
ScatterPlot
Thepointsareplottedonthegrid,buttheyarenotjoinedpointtopoint.Abestfitlinemaybeaddedtoascatterplottoshowatrend.Linegraphsareonlyusedwhenbothvariablesarequantitative.Thesegraphsareusefulforshowingifacorrelationexistsbetweentwovariables,especiallywhenitisnotpossibletoaltereitherofthevariables(i.e.indescriptivestudies).
Ex:Reactionrateatvariousenzymeconcentrations
APBiologytypicallyworkswithbargraphsandlinegraphs.Youwillberequiredtoknowwhichtypeofgraphisappropriateforthedatagiven.GRAPHINGTERMINOLOGY
• IndependentVariable:Thevariablemanipulatedbytheresearcher.Itiswhattheresearcheristestingintheexperiment.Thisisplottedonthex-axis.
• DependentVariable:Thevariablethatisbeingmeasured.Itiswhatrespondstowhatisbeing
tested.Thisisplottedonthey-axis.
• Control:Thecomparisongroupintheexperimentthatwillhelptheresearcherdetermineiftheindependentvariablebeingtestedhasaneffectonthemeasuredvariable.Therearetwotypesofcontrolgroups:NegativeControlandPositiveControl.Anegativecontrolgroupisthesetofconditionstestsubjectsareexposedtothatwillnotelicitaresponse.Apositivecontrolgroupisthesetofconditionstestsubjectsareexposedtothatwillelicitaresponse.
• QuantitativeData:datathatismeasured
• QualitativeData:Descriptivedata(approximateorcharacterizesqualities)
ReviewthescientificinvestigationpresentedinFigure1.27(Chapter1,page22)ofyoursummerreadingpacket.Notetheprogressionofinformation.
• ResearchersdefinedaproblemQuestion:Doesthepresenceofvenomouscoralsnakesaffectpredationratesontheirmimics,kingsnakes?
• Theyplannedandcarriedoutaninvestigation
Hypothesis:Kingsnakesbenefitfrommimickingthewarningcolorationofvenomouscoralsnakesonlyinregionswherecoralsnakesarepresent.
Experimentaldesign:Equalnumberofartificialkingsnakes(experimentalgroup)andbrownartificialsnakes(controlgroup)at14fieldsites,halfintheareathetwosnakescohabitandhalfintheareawherecoralsnakesareabsent.Theresearchersrecoveredtheartificialsnakesafterfourweekandtabulatedpredationdatabasedonteethandclawmarksonthesnakes.
Results:Infieldsiteswherecoralsnakesareabsent,mostattackswereonartificialkingsnakes.Wherecoralsnakeswerepresent,mostattackswereonbrownartificialsnakes.
• TheyanalyzedandinterpretedtheresultsConclusion:Thefieldexperimentssupportthemimicryhypothesisbynotfalsifyingtheprediction,whichwasthatmimickingcoralsnakeseffectiveonlyinareaswherecoralsnakesarepresent.Theexperimentsalsotestedanalternativehypothesis:thatpredatorsgenerallyavoidallsnakeswithbrightlycoloredrings.Thathypothesiswasfalsifiedbythedatashowingthatinareaswithoutcoralsnakes,theringedcolorationfailedtorepelpredators.(Thefakekingsnakesmayhavebeenattackedmoreofteninthoseareasbecausetheirbrightpatternmadethemeasiertospotthanthebrownfakes.)
QUESTIONSTOANSWER:
1. WhatistheINDEPENDENTVARIABLEintheaboveexperiment?WhatistheDEPENDENTVARIABLE?
2. WhatexperimentalresultswouldyoupredictifpredatorsthroughouttheCarolinasavoidedallsnakeswithbrightlycoloredringpatterns?
3. PRACTICEGRAPH1:
a. Graphtheabovedata.Besuretoincludeallparts(referto“GraphingChecklist”above)b. Whatistheindependentvariable?
c. Whatisthedependentvariable?
d. Drawoneconclusionaboutthedataandprovideevidencetosupportyourconclusion.
Month # of deer Sept 38 Oct 32 Nov 26 Dec 20 Jan 15 Feb 12
4. PRACTICEGRAPH2:
a. Graphtheabovedata.Besuretoincludeallparts(referto“GraphingChecklist”above)
b. Whatistheindependentvariable?
c. Whatisthedependentvariable?
d. Drawoneconclusionaboutthedataandprovideevidencetosupportyourconclusion.
# of Days # of Bacteria
1 4 2 16 3 40 4 80 5 100 6 200
5. PracticeGraph3:Anumberofbeanseedsplantedatthesametimeproducedplantsthatwerelaterdividedintotwogroups,AandB.EachplantingroupAwastreatedwiththesameconcentrationofgibberellicacid(aplanthormone).TheplantsingroupBwerenottreatedwithgibberellicacid.Allothergrowthconditionswerekeptconstant.Theheightofeachplantwasmeasuredonfiveconsecutivedays,andtheaverageheightofeachgroupwasrecordedinthedatatablebelow.
a. Graphtheabovedata.Besuretoincludeallparts(referto“GraphingChecklist”above)
b. Whatistheindependentvariable?
c. Whatisthedependentvariable?
d. Whatisthecontrolgroup?
e. Drawoneconclusionaboutthedataandprovideevidencetosupportyourconclusion.
6. PracticeGraph4:Parentslivinginaneighborhoodnearalocalelementaryschoolwererequestingthetowntoplaceacrossingguardonthecornerofaparticularlybusyroadcrossingthattheirchildrenmustcrosswhenwalkingtoandfromschoolbetweenthehoursof7:30am-8:30amand3:00pm-4pm.Thetownboardofficialscommissionedanindependentsurveyortocollectdataonthevehiculartrafficatthiscrossingoverthecourseofthedayonaparticularweekday.Thesurveyordecidedtocollectadditionaldataonthesamedayandduringthesametimeperiodsatalocationwherethetownhasstationedacrossingguard.Theresultsareinthetablebelow.
a. Graphtheabovedata.Besuretoincludeallparts(referto“GraphingChecklist”above).
TimeofDay #ofCarsIntersectionwithnocrossingguard
#ofCarsIntersectionwithcrossingguard
6am-7am 450 8007am-8am 665 7008am-9am 650 6509am-10am 300 72010am-11am 200 70011am-12pm 150 79012pm-1pm 175 8001pm-2pm 170 6752pm-3pm 150 7003pm-4pm 200 6554pm-5pm 455 730
b. Whatistheindependentvariable?
c. Whatisthedependentvariable?
d. Explainwhythesurveyorcollecteddataatanintersectionthatalreadyhadacrossingguard?
e. Basedonthisdata,doyouthinkthetownshouldplaceacrossingguardattherequestedlocation?Supportyouranswerwithevidencefromthedatacollected.
f.Whatcouldthesurveyordotomakethisdatamorereliable?Justifyyouranswer.
APBiologyUnitOne:ChemistryofLife
CampbellBiology(9e)ReadingGuidesMr.Lane/Mrs.Waldbaum
Chapter1:Introduction:ThemesintheStudyofLife
Concept1.1:Thestudyofliferevealsunifyingthemes.
• Identifyanddescribesomecharacteristicsalllivingthingsshare.• Explainhowlivingandnon-livingthingsmayinteracttotransformenergywithinanecosystem.• Describetherelationshipbetweenstructureandfunction.• IdentifyatleastTWOdifferencesbetweenprokaryoticandeukaryoticcells.• Explainwhatismeantbyafeedbacksystem.Identifythetwotypesoffeedbackandgivean
exampleofeach.Concept1.2:Evolutionaccountsfortheunityanddiversityoflife.
• Identifythethreedomainsoflifeandexplainthedifferencesbetweenthethreedomains.• Darwin’stheoryofEvolutionattemptstoexplainboththeunityanddiversityoflifeonEarth.
ExplainhowalllifeonearthisunifiedANDhowitisdiverse.• Describe(indetail)theterm“naturalselection.”• Befamiliarwithhowtointerpretevolutionaryrelationshipsasshowninacladogram(pg.17).
Concept1.3:Instudyingnature,scientistsmakeobservationsandformandtesthypotheses.
• Explainthedifferencebetweenahypothesisandatheory.
Chapter2:TheChemicalContextofLife
Concept2.1:Matterconsistsofchemicalelementsinpureformandincombinationscalled
compounds.
• Describethedifferencebetweenelementsandcompounds.• Identifythefourelementsthatmakeup96%ofalllivingmatter.• Explainwhatismeantbya“traceelement”andgiveanexample.• CONCEPTCHECK:Inhumans,ironisatraceelementrequiredfortheproperfunctioningof
hemoglobin,themoleculethatcarriesoxygeninredbloodcells.Explaintheeffectsofanirondeficiencyonthehumanbody.
Concept2.2:Anelement’spropertiesdependonthestructureofitsatoms.
• Identifythethreesubatomicparticlesandtheircharges.• ExplainwhatALLatomsofthesameelementMUSThaveincommon.• Explainwhyisotopesofthesameelementbehavethesameinchemicalreactions(besureto
includeHOWisotopesofthesameelementdifferfromoneanotherinyourresponse).• Describetheytypeofenergypresentinelectronsandexplainwhathappenstoanelectronwhen
itabsorbsorreleasesenergy.Concept2.3:Theformationadfunctionofmoleculesdependonchemicalbondingbetweenatoms.
• Describethedifferencebetweencovalentandionicbonds.Besuretoincludedifferencesintermsofelectronegativityaswellaselectronsinyouranswer.
• ExplainwhatismeantbyelectronegativityandHOWdifferencesinelectronegativityaffecttheelectrondistributioninamolecule(i.e.Figure2.13,pg.39).
• Identifytwotypesofweakchemicalbondsanddescribehoweachofthemforms.• Explainhowthefunctionofamoleculeisdeterminedwithinachemicalreaction.• CONCEPTCHECK:Ifyouwereapharmaceuticalresearcher,whywouldyouwanttolearnthe
three-dimensionalshapesofnaturallyoccurringsignalingmolecules?Concept2.4:Chemicalreactionsmakeandbreakchemicalbonds.
• Explainwhatismeantbythetermchemicalequilibrium.• Describewhathappenstomatterinachemicalreaction(Isitcreatedordestroyed?).
Chapter3:WaterandLife
Concept3.1:Polarcovalentbondsinwatermoleculesresultinhydrogenbonding.
• Describethetypeofbondthatholdsawatermoleculetogether.• Identifythebondsthatformbetweenwatermoleculesandaccountformanyofitspropertiesand
explainhowthisbondforms.
Concept3.2:FouremergentpropertiesofwatercontributetoEarth’ssuitabilityforlife.
• IdentifythefouremergentpropertiesofwaterthatcontributetoEarth’shabitabilityANDthepropertyofwatermoleculesthatallowsforeachofthesetooccur.
• Explainwhywater’scohesivepropertyiscriticallyimportanttoplants(inyouranswerbesuretodefinewhatcohesionisbeforeexplainingwhyplantsneedittosurvive).
• Describethedifferencebetweencohesionandadhesion.• Describewhatismeantbysurfacetension.• Explainthedifferencebetweenheatandtemperatureintermsofkineticenergy.• Describewhatismeantbythetermspecificheat.• Explainwhywatertendstoresistchangesintemperature.• Explaintherelevanceofwater’shighspecificheattolifeonEarth.• Describewhatismeantbyevaporativecooling.• ExplainwhyicefloatsonliquidwaterANDwhatapplicationsthispropertyhastolifeonearth.• Identifywhichtypesofcompoundsareabletoreactwithwater.• CONCEPTCHECK:Awaterstrider(whichcanwalkonwater)haslegsthatarecoatedwitha
hydrophobicsubstance.Whatmightbethebenefit?Whatwouldhappenifthesubstancewerehydrophilic?
Concept3.3:Acidicandbasicconditionsaffectlivingorganisms.
• Identifythetwoionswaterformswhenitisdissolvedinwater.• Describetheactionsofacidsandbaseswhendissolvedinwater.• DescribethepHscale.• ExplaintheeffectofachangeinoneonthepHscaleonthechangeinacidityorbasicity.• Explainwhatismeantbyabuffersolution.• DescribeonenegativeeffectofchangingpHonmarinelifeANDoneonterrestriallife.
Chapter4:CarbonandtheMolecularDiversityofLife
Concept4.1:Organicchemistryisthestudyofcarboncompounds.
• Explain(indetail)thefindingsoftheMillerexperiment.
Concept4.2:Carbonatomscanformdiversemoleculesbybondingtofourotheratoms.
• IdentifyhowmanyvalenceelectronscarbonhasANDthenumberandtypesofbondsitmayform.• Identifythreedifferencesthatmayexistbetweenlongchainsofcarbonatomsthatarebonded
togethertoformtheskeletonfororganicmolecules.• Explainwhyisomershavedifferentproperties(youranswershoulddefinewhatanisomerisand
usethatdefinitiontoexplainthedifferenceinpropertiesthatexists,suchasinthepharmaceuticalindustry).
• Describethethreetypesofisomers.• Drawamodeldemonstratingthedifferencebetweencisandtransisomers.
Concept4.3:Afewchemicalgroupsarekeytothefunctioningofbiologicalmolecules.
• Explainhowmoleculeswiththesamecarbonskeleton(i.e.EstradiolandTestosterone)mayhavesuchsignificantlydifferentproperties.
• Explainintermsofpolaritywhyalcoholwouldreactwithwater.• Identifytheionizedformofcarboxylgroupsandaminogroups,ANDstatehowtheyactinwater.• Explaintheimportanceofthesulfhydrylgroupwithinproteinstructure.• Identifythechargeofthephosphatefunctionalgroup.• DescribethestructureofATPANDwhathappenswhenitreactwithwater.
Chapter5:TheStructureandFunctionofLargeBiologicalMolecules
Concept5.1:Macromoleculesarepolymers,builtfrommonomers.
• Identifythefourmainclassesoflargebiologicalmolecules(macromolecules)ANDstatewhichonedoesnotconsistofpolymers.
• Explainthedifferencebetweenamonomerandapolymer.• Identifyonemacromoleculethataidsinthesynthesisandbreakdownofothermacromolecules.• Explainhowdehydrationandhydrolysisreactionsoccur.• Explainhowarelativelylimitednumberofmonomersmayproducesuchadiverseamountof
polymers.• CONCEPTCHECK:Howmanymoleculesofwaterareneededtocompletelyhydrolyzeapolymer
thatistenmonomerslong?Concept5.2:Carbohydratesserveasfuelandbuildingmaterial.
• Identifythemonomersofcarbohydrates.• IdentifythebondthatconnectsmonomerswhenformingacarbohydratepolymerANDthetype
ofreactionthatallowsthisbondtoform.• Describethedifferencebetweenalphaandbetaglucosemolecules.• IdentifytwostoragepolysaccharidesANDwhichtypeofglucosemonomerstheyconsistof.• Identifytwotypesofstarchanddescribethedifferencebetweenthem.• Describethefunctionofglycogen.• IdentifytwostructuralpolysaccharidesANDwhichtypeofglucosemonomerstheyconsistof.• Proposeanexplanationastowhythebondsinstructuralpolypeptidesallowforamoresturdy
structuretoform.• DescribethefunctionofcelluloseANDchitin.• CONCEPTCHECK:Adehydrationreactionjoinstwoglucosemoleculestoformmaltose.The
formulaforglucoseisC6H12O6.Whatistheformulaformaltose?
Concept5.3:Lipidsareadiversegroupofhydrophobicmolecules.
• Explainwhylipids(i.e.fats)exhibitextremelyhydrophobicbehavior.• Identifythethreemostbiologicallyimportantlipids.• Explainthedifferencebetweensaturatedandunsaturatedfats.• Proposeanexplanationforwhyunsaturatedfatsremainfluidatroomtemperature.• Identifythemajorfunctionoffats.• Describethepropertiesofphospholipidsthatallowthemtoformbilayersinwater.Inyour
answer,besuretousetermsrelatedtoaffinityforwater(i.e.hydrophilicandhydrophobic).• Describethestructureofasteroid(includingwhatgivesdifferentsteroidsdifferentproperties).• Identifytwousesofthecholesterolmolecule.• CONCEPTCHECK:Supposeamembranesurroundedanoildroplet,asitdoesincellsofplant
seeds.Drawamodeloftheformthemembranemighttake.(HINT-Yourdrawingshouldincludephospholipidsaswellasalabelfortheinternalandexternalcellularenvironments’affinityforwater(hydrophilicorhydrophobic).
Concept5.4:Proteinsincludeadiversityofstructures,resultinginawiderangeoffunctions.
• Identifythemonomersofpolypeptides.• Explainthedifferencebetweenpolypeptidesandproteins.• Identifyatleastfourfunctionsofproteinswithinanorganismandprovideaspecificexampleof
each.• Drawasketchdemonstratingthegeneralmodelofanaminoacidwiththegroupssurroundingthe
alphacarbonlabeled.• Identifytheonedifferencebetweenall20aminoacids.• IdentifythenameANDlocationofthebondthatformstoholdtogethertwoaminoacidsina
polypeptidechain.• Explainwhychangingoneaminoacidinasequenceofapolypeptidemaychangethefunctionof
theprotein.• Describehowaproteinfolds.• IfamutationintheDNAcausedachangeinthesequenceofaminoacids,proposeoneaminoacid
thatcouldbeexpressedinsteadofValine(Val)thatwouldprobablyNOTalterthestructureandfunctionoftheprotein.Justifyyourresponseusingtheinformationinfigure5.16(pg.79).
• DescribeeachoftheFOURlevelsofproteinstructure.• Identifytwoexamplesofproteinswithquaternarystructures.• ExplainhowaproteinmaybecomedenaturedANDtheeffectthatwouldhaveonitsfunction.• Describetheroleofchaperoninsinproteinfolding.• Identifyonemethodbywhichscientistsanalyzethe3-Dstructureofproteins.
Concept5.5:Nucleicacidsstore,transmit,andhelpexpresshereditaryinformation.
• Explainhowgeneticinformationflowswithininacell(inotherwords,howdoesDNAregulatecellularfunctions?)
• Identifythesiteofproteinsynthesiswithinthecell.• IdentifythemonomersofnucleicacidsANDdescribetheirstructure(whatarethe3components
ofthismonomer?)• DescribeatleastthreedifferencesbetweenDNAandRNA.• Describewhatismeantbythe“antiparallel”arrangementofaDNAmolecule.Drawasketchto
helpyoumodelthisidea.• ExplainhowDNAandproteinsmaybeusedasindicatorsofevolutionaryrelationships.
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