From modern dayFrance…
1
Image: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_EBq9covCU9o/RotnNrG6YII/AAAAAAAACDk/M1QEHmownhM/s400/YIMG_2326.JPG
Image: http://guidesofistanbul.com/eng/images/bozdogan_2/766662-roman_aqueduct-Istanbul.jpg
to Turkey…
2
Image: http://www.guenter-lehnen-koeln.de/Denkmaeler_62.jpg
Image: http://i1.trekearth.com/photos/12917/dsc_2102-1124.jpg
from Germany…
to Tunis…
3
Image: http://www.aymavilles.vda.it/site/foto/DSC_0028_302_l.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/ilelouine4.jpg
from the Alps mountains…
to the mountains ofAlgeria…
4
Image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/19/Almunecar3042603.JPG/800px-
Almunecar3042603.JPG
Image: http://www.greatcommission.com/israel/CaesareaMaritimaRomanAqueduct.jpg
from the shores of Spain
to the beaches of Israel…
the Romans built one-storey aqueducts,
5Image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aqueduc.jpg/800px-Aqueduc.jpg
two storey aqueducts…
6Image: http://www.andalucia.com/province/granada/almunecar/image/3506-14monumentos.jpg
three storey aqueducts,
7Image: http://images.cdn.fotopedia.com/flickr-4262726711-original.jpg
and four storey aqueducts.8Image: http://costablog.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/nerja_aqueduct.jpg
BUT, these magnificent structures
which we call aqueducts today, were in reality,only a fraction of the system
by which ancient Romans acquired water.
Fully 80 % of Roman aqueductslay hidden underground or in workaday disguise.
Let’s look at the aqueduct of Segoviain Spain to discover how the Romans got their
drinking water.9
ANCIENT ROMAN WATER ACQUISITION
10
Image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Vista-aerea-del-acueducto-de-Segovia.jpg/800px-Vista-aerea-del-acueducto-de-Segovia.jpg
to
11
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
covered trench
tunnel
shafts
underground
seepageo
tunnelsubstruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Headwater Collection: Caput Aquae
sedimentation
On a steep hillside in central Spain, a small mountain stream…
12Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/weirtopsegovia.jpg
…is slowed and strained to capture a supply of pure, fresh water which is then sent…
13Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/weirsegovia.jpg
…past the granite dam…
14
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/P5082778.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/
aquasite/foto/weirblockssegovia.jpg
and through a regulating sluice gate.
to
15
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
underground
seepageo
tunnelsubstruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Open and Covered Trenches:Canales
sedimentation
It then
would have flowed along
an openstone
conduit…
16
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/weirblockssegovia.jpg
before being covered with large, flat stones designed to shield the fresh water
from the sun and from contaminants.
17
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/coversegovia.jpg
These flat stones could be removed for access to several small settling basins designed to slow the flow of rushing water and let sand carried from the mountain stream sink below the water’s current.
18
Image: http://roma.andreapollett.com/S3/roma-aq2.htm
to
19
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
underground
seepageo
tunnelsubstruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Underground Tunnel: Specus
sedimentation
After passing the settling basins, the mountainwater entered a long underground tunnel called the specus. In many locations, the Romans had no choice but to cut these through solid rock, but if possible, they built a specus by digging a trench in the earth and constructing its side walls, floor and roof, in that order. The roof could be flat, pointed, or arched. A specus could be constructed of stone, brick or cement; it was coated inside with waterproof plaster, and when completed, it was then buried, making it resistant to wind or storm damage, enemy destruction, and even some earthquakes.
20
Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 11.
The specus: an aqueduct’sundeground channel
21
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/P5062217.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/tekconduitmodel.jpg
Image:http://roma.andreapollett.com/S3/roma-
aq2.htm
to
22
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
underground
seepageo
tunnelsubstruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Shafts: Putei or Lumina
sedimentation
Above a buried specus, a series of evenly spaced manholes, called putei, marked its path across the countryside. Each puteus brought air and light (lumen) into the buried specus and allowed maintenance crews to descend into the water channel for cleaning and repair.
23
Image: http://www.celtiberia.net/imagftp/im199269499-Arquetas.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/koelnputei.jpg
At the bottom of each puteus, the flowing water was aerated as it fell into a drop basin designed to catch and remove debris from the main specus.
24
Image: http://www.celtiberia.net/imagftp/im199269587-Agua-arquetas.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/lijntekstillingbasin.jpg
Puteus and sedimentation
drop basin
Workers would remove the mud and debris by hauling buckets up the puteus shaft.They would also clean the specus walls by removing calcium and hard-water deposits called sinter.
25
Image: http://www.TinyURL.com/287cux7
Image: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/telegraph/multimedia/archive/01565/aquaduct_1565777c.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/a
quasite/foto/roupbridge.jpg
Image: http://news.discovery.com/archaeology/2010/01/29/aqueduct1-825x550.jpg
Related to settling and drop basins, regulation basins might use a sluice gate to divert the flow of water from a specus during its cleaning or repair.
26
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/P5190053.jpg
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/
aquasite/foto/P5082778.jpg
to
27
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
underground
seepageo
tunnelsubstruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Sedimentation or Cleaning Tanks:Piscina Limaria
sedimentation
As the flowing water neared its destination, the specus rose again to ground level. At this point, it entered a preliminary cleansing facility called a piscina limaria; in Latin the word for mud is limus.
28
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casapiedra1.jpg
In this little building, incoming water would slow its flow and settle into a basin designed to gather particles of dirt and debris in a pit at the bottom. Water intake could be halted with a metal sluice gate while workers cleaned and then flushed the sediment from the pit.
29
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casapiedrain.jpg
After the water was
cleaned, it left thispiscinalimaria
and traveled on in its open-airconduit.
30
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casapiedra1.jpg
A short distance ahead, the water flowed intoanother, larger piscina limaria…
31
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casaaquas.jpg
…where it fell into a deeper drop basin. As the water rose back up again, a separate shunting channel…
32
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casaaquain2.jpg
carried the water into a side tank in which a
stone sieve filtered the flow one last time
before it reached the upcoming arcade.
33
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/P5082769.jpg
to
34
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
underground
seepageo
tunnelsubstruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Elevating Wall:Substructio
sedimentation
Leaving the large settling basin, the water continued its trip forward on top of a substructio, a raised stone wall, usually no more than 7-10 feet high, supporting the specus without the use of arches.
35
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casaaqua0.jpg
to
36
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
underground
seepageo
tunnelsubstruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Elevating Arches or ArcadeArcuationes
sedimentation
After travelling on the substructio for 463 feet, the water channel then rose slowly onto the first level of the 2240 foot long arcuatio, or arcade bridge, on which it would cross the deep valley ahead.
37
Image: http://lh5.ggpht.com/_8uWGonu6jVk/SavtVX1YDvI/AAAAAAAAAvw/vqVBqCfF6Ks/s800/DSC00992.JPG
After a several sharp angles, the conduit finally turned out onto a double arcade and…
38
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/curvesegovia.jpg
…crossed a long straightaway as the arches below…
39
Image: http://www.ige.csic.es/HWC2006/espanol/images/acueducto.jpg
rose to a dizzying height of 95 feet before…
40
Image: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/215/457600861_d67a0fdeb5.jpg
reaching the opposite side and descending once again towards the ground, where the mountain stream’s water would be distributed to the city.
41
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/finalarchessegovia.jpg
to
42
distribution
underground seepage
water collection
open/covered trench
tunnel
shafts
underground
seepageo
tunnelsubstruction
arcade
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.
Water Distribution
sedimentation
Sedimentation Tanks and CisternsPiscinae et Cisternae
43
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 18.
ground level pressurized subterranean pipes secondary
castella and
water towers
sedimentation/cistern
homes, industrybathspublic fountains
closed system (pressurized) open system (gravitational)
main castellum
At the end of an aqueduct, water was often delivered to large holding tanks, called cisterns.
44Image: http://pjspictures.me.uk/images/Cr_Cistern.jpg
These also served as final piscinae limariae, slowing the water’s flow through multiple chambers and allowing one last chance for sediment to cleaned out of the water before delivery to the public.
45
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/p2castellumvirgo.jpg
Main Water House and Delivery PipesCastella Aquae, Pipae et Fistulae
Castellum Divisorium
46
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 18.
ground level pressurized subterranean pipes secondary
castella and
water towers
sedimentation/cistern
homes, industrybathspublic fountains
closed system (pressurized) open system (gravitational)
main castellum aquae
The aqueduct’s water then arrived at the rear of the main distribution house, called the castellum
aquae or the castellum divisorium. 47
Image: http://commondatastorage.googleapis.com/static.panoramio.com/photos/original/7287015.jpg
48
paraphrase of Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.6.1-2. cf. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html
When [aqueducts] are brought to the walls of the city a castellum is built, with a triple cistern attached to it to receive the water. In the castellum are three pipes of equal sizes, [each] connected in such a manner that when water overflows [from the side basins], it is discharged into the middle one. [From that middle basin comes a pipe for the public fountains, and from the side basins come pipes] a)for the supply of the thermae(baths), thus affording a yearly revenue to the people and b) for the supply of private houses… Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.6.1-2.
Castellumdivisorium:
sluice gates to control and direct
flow of water
strainer
lead weir
public supply
thermae
private supply
49
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/lijntekpompeii.jpg
Water entering the castellum divisorium…50
Image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Castellum_Aquae_Pompeii_271.jpg
…was divided into three channels…51
Image: http://www.avignon-et-provence.com/tourisme/pont-du-gard/img/pont-du-gard-12.jpg
52
Image: http://www.eskimo.com/~mikeg/italy_2007/water_dept.jpg
…which exited the building in three pipes.
53
Image: http://roma.andreapollett.com/S3/roma-aq2.htm
Image: http://roma.andreapollett.com/
S3/roma-aq2.htm
Image: http://www.eskimo.com/~mikeg/
italy_2007/water_dept.jpg
“That the flavor of water conveyed in
earthen pipes is better, is shown at our daily meals, for
all those whose tables are furnished with silver vessels, nevertheless use
earthenware vessels because the
purity of the water’s flavor is
preserved in them”
Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.11http://penelope.uchicago.edu/
Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html
“Water conducted
through earthen pipes is more
wholesome than that through
lead;This may be verified by
observing those who work with lead; they are of a pallid color…”
54
Image: http://www.flickr.com/photos/sparker/2662921627/in/photostream/
Image: http://www.eskimo.com/~mikeg/italy_2007/water_pipes.jpg
Paraphrase of:Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.1-11
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/
Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html
55
Nevertheless, lead pipes were almost essential for
delivering water under pressure throughout many large Roman cities. The possible side-effects of that lead
may well have been diminished, however, by the natural buildup of
minerals within these pipes, mirroring the accumulation of sinter within an
aqueduct’s specus.
Water Towers and Water Pressure:Secondary Castella and Public Consumption
56
Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 18.
ground level pressurized subterranean pipes secondary
castella and
water towers
sedimentation/cistern
homes, industrybathspublic fountains
closed system (pressurized) open system (gravitational)
main castellum
Thirsty visitors gather for a drink. Where will their water come from?
57
Image: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/94/260046813_06c17543b4.jpg
In most Roman cities, the castellum aquae was located, as it was in Pompeii, on the highest spot in town. There the great force of the mighty aqueduct pushed water into small diameter lead pipes and that water, further pressurized by gravity on its downhill route, continued on to secondary castella, which we call water towers, located in many local neighborhoods. There, lead pipes carried the water up into lead-lined basins at the top of brick towers 15 or more feet tall. Such gravity-feed mini-reservoirs reduced and regulated the pressure of the water as it entered the next set of pipes… 58
Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/lijntekwatertorenpompeii.jpg
Oleson, John. Handbook of engineering and technology in the Classical world. 1st. New York,, NY: Oxford University Press, USA, 2008. 303.
which actually delivered the water for the public to drink
at a corner fountain…
59
Image: http://lejournaldelouise.com/wp-content/gallery/rome/pompeii-water-fountain.jpg
Image: http://image09.webshots.com/9/8/79/35/115187935GPIMbo_ph.jpg
…or carry back in a bucket to businesses or homes in their neighborhood.
60
Image: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_nHmUxKq2nz4/SiC_RBHjJeI/AAAAAAAAB3k/umlse2xG5NI/s1600-h/2008-05-22+257+Ercolano+-+Herculaneum.jpg
Image: http://www.ostia-antica.org/regio2/pr/viafon.htm
Some wealthy Romans paid to have water piped directly into their homes, where it often was put to use for fountains in their own private gardens (horti).
61
Image: http://enginova.com/water Image: http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1136/624800701_ee6a3e9e87.jpg
Image: http://museumvictoria.com.au/melbournemuseum/discoverycentre/
pompeii/objects/water-pipe/
62
Remember, too, that one- third of the water leaving
a castellum divisorium, was directed to the public baths.
In the thermae, it filled both steamy hot-water soaking basins and cold-water plunge pools…
63Image: http://images.travelpod.com/users/bandglittle/
uk2006.1167413760.pc292754.jpg
Image: http://0.tqn.com/d/gouk/1/0/O/-/-/-/bath.jpg
… and, as a fresh supply continually
entered, dirty water was channeled from
the bathhouse...
into adjoining latrines, where it flushed away waste and, in many Roman cities, carried it outdoors
64
Image: http://images.travelpod.com/users/bandglittle/uk2006.1167413760.pc292754.jpg
into cloacae (sewers) under the street, which then carried it to nearby rivers or the sea-
65
Image: http://0.tqn.com/d/ancienthistory/1/0/s/a/2/800px-040227_tevere16CloacaMaxima.jpg
Image: http://www.tempt.ee/uploads/3457_cloaca%20maxima1.jpg
underscoring why Romans expended such great effort tobuild the aqueducts that supplied fresh water from afar.
Recommended