An Age of Nationalis
m and Realism,
1850 - 1871
Chapter 22
Good Musical? Nah.
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Now, there’s a good musical.
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The France of Napoleon III: Louis
• Not allowed to stand for re-election under laws of French Republic
• Restored universal male suffrage and asked for longer term--gets it (10 years)
• Asked that the empire be restored--gets it
• Assumed the title of Napoleon III (Emperor), December 2, 1852
Napoleon III: Domestic Policy
• Economic prosperity
•Industrial growth•Government subsidies for infrastructure projects and industrialization
•Provided better housing, hospitals & medicine for workers•Reconstruction of Paris
• Broad streets--for armies to get through and less ability to barricade…
• underground sewage system
Authoritarian Government
(Bonapartesque)
Napoleon led the army, the police, and the civil service
He alone could introduce new legislation and declare war
The Legislative Corps (which was chosen by popular vote) gave the illusion of a representative government, but held no real power
Domestic Policy
1. Invested in national infrastructure2. The economy soared in his first 5 years
3. Developed hospitals, healthcare, etc.
4. Redesigned the streets of Paris.5. When opposition mounted, he conceded some liberal reforms (legalized unions, strikes, gave power to parliament, etc.)
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Foreign policy:
• Napoleon’s domestic policy was popular and successful, his foreign policy led to his demise• Mexico--1864 tried to take over Mexico, as both the US and Mexico were distracted with their own civil wars. Unfortunately, it didn’t work out. The Mexicans got Cinco de Mayo, and his would be emperor, Maximilian of Austria, lost his life.
• The Crimean War• Franco-Prussian War
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The Decline of the The Ottoman Empire
Disintegration of the Ottoman EmpireEncroachment by the Russian Empire
Geographically closeShared cultural ties with Greek Orthodox Christians
The Crimean War 1854-1856
Russia versus France and, well, just about everyone else.
Started when Russia invaded the Ottoman Empire and allegedly insulted France.
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The Crimean WarRussians demand to protect Christian shrines
(Privilege already given to the French)Ottomans refuseRussia invades Moldavia and WallachiaOttomans declare war, October 4, 1853Britain and France declare war on Russia, March 28, 1854Fear of a too powerful RussiaUpsets the balance of the Concert of Europe
Austria stayed neutral (to Russia’s chagrin)Russia’s loss causes them to retreat from Euro politicsGreat Britain also retreats someSets the stage for Germany and Italy to unify
Crimean War First war between
European powers since the Napoleonic Wars & the Congress of Vienna
marked a breakdown of the alliance system that had maintained peace for nearly half a century--No more Concert of Europe
Russia and Austria now enemies
Cholera killed thousands during the Crimean War. More would have died if not for the efforts of Florence Nightingale to provide strict sanitary conditions.
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When King William I (1861-1888) came to power he wanted to double the size of Prussia's army
The middle class dominated legislature feared compulsory military service and rejected the budget
The king appointed a new prime minister......
Otto von Bismarck
• a conservative
• Junker class (land-owning aristocracy)
• Experienced diplomat
• Wanted to guide the German states to unification
• A political realist who believed in Realpolitik (power politics)
• Ignored the liberals in parliament
Austro-Prussian War
Prussia & Austria had dominated the German states for years
The Austrian Empire: Toward a Dual MonarchyAusgleich, Compromise, 1867
Creates a dual monarchy
German and Magyars dominate minorities
Francis Joseph Emperor of Austria/King of Hungary
Some things in held in common
Other minorities
Austro-Hungarian Empire
Franco-Prussian WarPrussian desires for a unified Germany lead Bismarck to provoke France into war.
Dispute over the Spanish throne the catalyst
Bismarck sees France as its last obstacleAlready defeated AustriaPrussian victory=loss of French power and German unification under Prussian rule
Siege of Paris January, 1871
Paris after the siege
Bismarck & Napoleon III after the Battle of Sedan, September 2, 1870
The Unification of Germany
William I, 1861-1888Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
Reorganization of the army
Realpolitik
Austro-Prussian War (1866)Austrian defeat
Southern German states joined the Northern German Confederation in the Franco-Prussian War
William I proclaimed Kaiser of the Second German Empire
German liberals were happy despite unification being achieved through the Prussian monarchy & military
Germany was now the most powerful state on the Continent
A Unified Germany
National Unification: Italy
• Kingdom of Savoy
• Victor Emmanuel II, 1849-1878
• Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861)
• Napoleon III alliance with Piedmont, 1858
• War with Austria, 1859
• Northern states join Piedmont
• Guiseppi Garibaldi (1807-1882)
• The Red Shirts
• Invasion of Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 1860
• Kingdom of Italy, March 17, 1861
• Annexation of Venetia, 1866
• Annexation of Rome, 1870
Count Camillo di Cavour, prime minister of Piedmont
With wealth from an expanded infrastructure he financed a large army
Fostered an alliance with Napoleon III to drive the Austrians out of Italy
France would control Nice & Savoy in exchange
The Unification of Italy
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• Giuseppe Garibaldi• Leader of Southern Italian
unification
• Led “Red Shirts” to victory in Sicily against the Bourbon King
• Crossed to the mainland and conquered southern states
• Did not want to go to war with Cavour and retired
• 1861 New kingdom of Italy under king Victor Emmanuel II (ruler of Piedmont)
January 18, 1871, Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, France
Great Britain: The Victorian Age
• Did not experience revolts in 1848
• Reforms
• Economic Growth & Stability--25% increase in wages
• Victorian Age
• Queen Victoria (1837 – 1901)
• Sense of duty and moral respectability come to symbolize the age
Queen Victoria & her family, 1881
Benjamin Disraeli
Tory (conservative) leader pushed the passage of the Reform Act of 1867
Lowered the monetary requirements for voting
Disraeli thought it would help conservatives, but it actually helped liberals in parliament
Party loyalty intensified
William Gladstone
Whig (liberal) leader
Introduced civil service exams to reduce political patronage
Secret ballot
Education Act of 1870-elementary education for all children
Imperial Russia
Alexander II, 1855-1881Emancipation of serfs, March 3, 1861
after defeat in Crimean Warserfdom seen as holding Russia back
Problems with emancipation poverty, debt
Growing dissatisfaction--Alexander Herzen and “Land ad Freedom” populism--revolution led by the peasants
Assassinated by revolutionaries of the Narodnaya Volya (People’s Will)
Alexander III (1881-1894)repressive
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The United States: Slavery and War
The United States: Civil War and Reunion
Differences between North and South
• The cotton economy, state’s rights, slavery
Election of Abraham Lincoln, secession of South Carolina, 1860
Civil War, 1861-1865
• Becomes about abolition
• Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 A war measure
Differing interpretations about
1865--13th Amendment
Lincoln’s assassination
Problems for freed slaves (similar to Russia’s)
Letter to Joshua Speed--1855
I am not a Know-Nothing. How could I be? How can any one who abhors the oppression of Negroes be in favor of degrading classes of white people? Our progress in degeneracy appears to me pretty rapid. As a nation we began by declaring "all men are created equal." We now practically read it, "all men are created equal, except Negroes." When the Know-Nothings get control, it will read "all men are created equal, except Negroes, and foreigners, and Catholics." When it comes to this I should prefer emigrating to some country where they make no pretense of loving liberty--to Russia, for example, where despotism can be taken pure and without the base alloy of hypocrisy.
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Marx and Marxism• Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich
Engels (1820-1895), The Communist Manifesto, 1848
• History is the history of class struggle (dialectical materialism)
• Stages of history--feudalism to capitalism to socialism to communism.
• In the end would be a classless society
• After 1848 revolutions, Marx went to London
• Marx, Das Kapital
Basic Principles of Capitalism
• Private ownership: individual not gov’t
• Free enterprise: anyone can participate in business
• Profit motive: do it for $$$$• Competition: lower prices, better quality, bigger choice, stimulates creativity
• Market economy: supply & demand
Labor Discontent
• LOW WAGES Barely above starvation level
• LONG HOURS 12-16 Hrs./day
• Women & children (from age 5 )
• Unsanitary & UNSAFE working conditions
• Technological Unemployment displaced workers
Utopian Socialists: response to I.R.
They believed that capitalists, once convinced of the merits would voluntarily discard private ownership & profit motive
To many people the possibility that this would happen seemed unlikely, therefore these people were considered dreamers or UTOPIANS
Robert Owen, Claude St. Simon, & Charles Fourier advocate the establishment of ideal communities, however, their experimental communities typically failed.
Karl Marx & Scientific Socialism
Karl Marx : 1818-1883 “father of communism”
lived in poverty & witnessed the suffering of English industrial workers
Wrote:– Communist Manifesto: pamphlet written w/ Fredrich Engels
Used “communist” to distinguish himself from Utopians
– Das Kapital: criticism of capitalism
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Socialism- a movement to displace Capitalism
CAPITALISM• Private individuals own & operate
• Private owners provide people with goods & services
• Individual owners make decisions
SOCIALISM• Gov’t representing people owns & operates
• Gov’t determines needs of the people
• State planning Gov’t plans economy
A New Age of Science
Development of the steam engine led to
science of relationship between heat and mechanical energy
Growth of scientific interest
Louis Pasteur – germ theory of disease
Dmitri Mendeleyev – atomic weights
Michael Faraday – generator
Louis Pasteur – Germ discovery was a major breakthrough in medicine
Germ theory of disease pioneered by Louis Pasteur
A chemist, Pasteur helped launch the science of bacteriology
Developed a process of heating to kill bacteria which helped prevent disease in the wine industry
Developed vaccination for rabies
Dmitri MendeleyevClassified material elements based on their atomic weight
This would lay the groundwork for the periodic law
Michael Faraday
Discovered the process of electromagnetic induction
Created a generator, pioneering the use of electricity
Charles Darwin and the Theory of Organic
Evolution
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
• On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 1859
• All plants and animals have evolved over a long period of time
• Those who survived had adapted to the environment
• The Descent of Man, 1871
• Ideas highly controversial; gradually accepted
Studied theology at Cambridge
Organic Evolution- all plants & animals over a long period of time from simpler forms of life
Expanded on Mathus’s ideas: there are more individuals than can possibly survive
life forms engage in a “struggle for existence
A Revolution in Health Care
Joseph ListerHospital gangrene a major problemAntiseptic principle (to fight infection)
New Public Health MeasuresPasteurization of milkWater purificationimmunization
American Medical AssociationSome standardization of medical training and practices
Women and Medical SchoolsElizabeth Blackwell (New York)
Female Medical College of Pennsylvania
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Joseph ListerUsed carbolic acid as a disinfectant during surgery, thus preventing “hospital gangrene”
Antiseptic steamer
Elizabeth Blackwell1st woman in America to earn a M.D.
Established a clinic in New York City
Realism in Literature • The Realistic Novel
• Rejected Romanticism
• Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880), Madame Bovary, 1857
• Romantic ideals have made Madame Bovary unhappy—unrealistic expectations
• William Thackeray (1811-1863), Vanity Fair, 1848
• A novel should convey the sentiment of reality
• Charles Dickens (1812-1870)
• Famous for his descriptions of the industrial age
Thomas EakinsThe Gross Clinic (1875)
Dr. Samuel Gross is seenperforming surgery.
He pauses midway to explain the operation with his students in the Amphitheater of JeffersonMedical College
Gustav Courbet’s The Stonebreakers Aimed at a lifelike portrayal of the daily activities ofordinary people. Use of browns & grays to communicate the Drudgery of the work. of their work. Courbet is the most famous of
Jean-Francois Millet’s The GleanersFrench peasants. These women appear as powerful figures despite thefact that they are performing backbreaking labor.
The March of the Weavers, Kathe
Kollwitz, 1897.
Women Ironing, Edgar Degas, 1884
Franz Liszt and the New German School
1. Virtuoso pianist/composer
2. The peak of romanticism in music.
3. Got to love the piano recital.
Richard Wagner--opera composer
1. German nationalist. 2. Loved the leitmotiv: recurring musical form (chord progression, melody, etc.) that evoked the theme of the opera.
3. Obsessed with Germanic myths, etc. His The Ring of the Nibelung is an example of this.
4. Famous today for being Hitler’s favorite composer
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