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Job Analysis and design
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Introduction
Job analysis is vital to any HRM program
and answers such questions as:
How long does it take to complete important
tasks?Which tasks are grouped together as a job?
How can ajob be designed or structured so
that employee performance can be enhanced?
What behaviors are needed to perform the job?
What kind of person, in terms of traits and
experience, is best suited for the job?
How can the information acquired by a job
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The Vocabulary of Job Analysis
Position: the responsibilities and duties performed by an individual. There
are as many positions in an organization as there are employees
Job: group of positions that are similar in their duties, such as computer
programmer
Job analysis: a purposeful, systematic process for collecting informationon the important work-related aspects of a job
Job description: the principal product of a job analysis. It represents a
written summary of the job as an identifiable organizational unit
Job specification: a written explanation of the knowledge, skills, abilities,
traits, and other characteristics (KSAOs) necessary for effective
performance on a given job
Tasks: Coordinated and aggregated series of work elements used to
produce an output
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LINKAGE BETWEEN ORGANISATION &
JOBS
Jobs are therefore:
the basic units of an organizational structure(The Building Blocks)
the link between an individual and the organization(Employee/Employer)
the bridge between people and what is expected ofthem(Their Work)
designed independent of the person doing the job atthat point in time
Help evaluate the job for identifying compensatoryspecifications
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JOB ANALYSIS IS .NOT
A personal analysis
A performance appraisal
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Job Analysis
Job analysis is the process of gathering information about the job andevaluating such information in terms of what is necessary and relevant.
Essentially, job analysis involves three questions:
1. What is a job?
2. What should be analyzed?
3. What methods of analysis should be used?
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The Uses of Job Analysis
Job analysis is critical to assessments of
discrimination under most employment-related laws
It is linked to these laws through court rulings
For job analysis to be viewed favorably by the
courts, it must:
Yield a thorough, clear job description
Assess the frequency and importance of job behaviors
Allow for an accurate assessment of the knowledge, skills,
abilities, and KSAOs required by the job
Clearly determine which KSAOs are important for each job duty
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The Steps in Job Analysis
Step 1
Examine the
total organi-
zation and
the fit ofeach job
Step 2
Determine
how job
analysis
informationwill be used
Step 3
Select jobs
to be
analyzed
Step 5
Prepare job
description
Step 6
Prepare job
specification
Use information from
Steps 16 for:
Job design
Planning
Recruitment
Selection and trainingPerformance evaluation
Compensation and benefits
EEO compliance
Follow-up evaluations
Step 4
Collect data
by using
acceptable
job analysistechniques
Fig 6-1
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Nuts and Bolts
Who is involved in the job analysis?
Management
Supervisors Job analysts
Job incumbent
Unions
Consultants
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JOB ANALYSISTWO BASIC RULES:
We will not analyse the strengths andweaknesses of the incumbent holding the job
We will analyse the value contribution of the job
to the organisation, as if it is being performed at
the normal level
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The Use of Charts
Before beginning analysis, an overview of
the organization and its jobs is required
This provides a better understanding of work flow
An organization chart presents therelationships among departments and
units of the firm, as well as:
Line and staff functionsNumber of vertical levels in the organization
Number of functional departments
Formal reporting relationships
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Methods of Data Collection
When collecting job data, these basic
methods can be used separately or in
some combination:
Observation Interview
Questionnaires
Job incumbent diaries or logs In each method, job information is:
Collected
Studied in terms of tasks completed by the jobincumbent ob oriented anal sis
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Methods of Data Collection
When collecting job data, these basic
methods can be used separately or in
some combination:
Observation Interview
Questionnaires
Job incumbent diaries or logs In each method, job information is:
Collected
Studied in terms of tasks completed by the jobincumbent ob oriented anal sis
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Methods of Data Collection
A job can also be analyzed in terms of
behaviors (work-oriented analysis)
What the job incumbent does to perform the job
Both orientations are acceptable under the
Uniform Guidelines on Employee SelectionProcedures
They must identify job duties and behaviors thatare critical to performing the job
Because time and cost are considerations,
managers must collect comparable, valid
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Methods of Data Collection
The job analysis information format (JAIF)
provides core information for any job
analysis method
The questionnaire provides a thorough picture ofthe job, job duties, and requirements
Questionnaire answers are used to structure the
data collection technique that will be implemented
Incumbents and supervisors may not view
a job in the same way
Collect information from a variety of incumbents
Dont assume everyone has the same amount
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Observation
Direct observation is used for jobsthat require manual, standardized,
and short-job-cycle activities
Direct observation is not usually
appropriate when the job involves
significant mental activity
Job analysts must be trained to:
Observe relevantjob behaviors
Be as unobtrusive as possible
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Interviews
Interviewing job incumbents is often done
in combination with observation
This is the most widely used technique
It allows the job analyst to talk with job incumbent
Interviews can be conducted with a:
Single incumbent
Group of incumbents
Supervisor who is familiar with the job
A structured set of questions is used so
answers
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Interviews
Interviews are difficult to standardize
Different interviewers may ask different questions
The same interviewer might ask different
questionsof different respondents
Information may be unintentionally distorted by
the interviewer
Interviewing costs can be high, especially if
group interviews arent practical
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Questionnaires
Questionnaires are the least costly data
collection method
They can collect large amounts of data in a short
timeA structuredquestionnaire includes specific
questions about the job, working conditions, and
equipment
An open-endedformat permits job incumbents touse their own words and ideas to describe the job
The format and structure of a questionnaire
are debatable issues
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Questionnaires
To make a questionnaire easier to use:
Keep it as short as possible
Explain what the questionnaire is being used forKeep it simple
Test the questionnaire before using it
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Job Incumbent Diary or Log
The diary or log is a recording by
incumbents of:
Job duties
Frequency of the dutiesWhen the duties are accomplished
Most people are not disciplined enough to
keep a logKept properly, the log permits an examination of
routine duties and exceptions
The diary or log is useful when analyzing jobs that
are difficult to observe
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Which Method to Use?
There is no agreement about which
methods of job analysis yield the best
information
Interviews should not be the sole data collectionmethod
Certain methods may be better for a given
situation
Most organizations base their choice on:
The purpose of the analysis
Time and budget constraints
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Which Method to Use?
Many organizations use a multi-methodsjob analysis approach
The analyst interviews incumbents and
supervisors in conjunction with on-siteobservation
A task survey based on expert judgments is
constructed and administered
A statistical analysis of the responses isconducted
Using a comprehensive process is
relatively expensive and time-consuming
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Specific Quantitative
Techniques
Three of the more popular quantitative
techniques:
Functional job analysis
Position analysis questionnaireManagement position description questionnaire
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Job Analysis for Staffing
A job analysis that produces a valid selectionsystem identifies worker characteristics that:Distinguish superior from average and unacceptableworkers;
Future-oriented job analysis: job analysistechnique for analyzing new jobs or analyzinghow jobs will look in the future
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The ELEMENTS OF JOB
DESCRIPTION
Job Purpose
Job Context & Major Challenges
Principal Accountabilities
Organizational Relationships
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Person Specification
Person specification: summarizes the characteristics of
someone able to perform the job well
Essential criteria:job candidate characteristics that are
critical to adequate new hire performance and for which
candidates should be screened
Desirable criteria:job candidate criteria that may
enhance the new hires job performance, but that are not
essential to adequate job performance
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Outcomes of Job Analysis
Figure 4-1
S ifi Q tit ti
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Specific Quantitative
Techniques
Three of the more popular quantitative
techniques:
Functional job analysis
Position analysis questionnaireManagement position description questionnaire
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Functional Job Analysis
Functional job analysis (FJA)is the result
of 60 years of research on analyzing and
describing jobs
Conceived in the late 1940sDeveloped to improve job classifications in the
Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)
DOT descriptions helped job analysts learnwhat was involved in a particular job
FJA could then be used to elaborate and more
thoroughly describe the content of a job
The goal was creating a common language for
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Functional Job Analysis
FJA assumes jobs can be described in
terms of three basic relationships the
worker has with the work:
Physically relating to thingsUsing mental resources to process data
Interacting withpeople
Using behavioral terms, each relationshipcan be organized along a continuum of
complexity
Lowest to highest
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Functional Job Analysis
Experience RequirementsTraining
Experience
Licensing
Worker Requirements
Basic skills
Cross-functional skills
General knowledge
Education
Worker CharacteristicsAbilities
Interests and work values
Work styles
Occupational CharacteristicsLabor market information
Occupational outlook
Wages
Occupational RequirementsGeneralized work activities
Work context
Organizational context
Occupational Specific Requirements
Occupational skills, tasks,
and knowledgeMachines, tools, and equipment
O*NET
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Functional Job Analysis
Typical users of O*NET:
Human resource professionals
Career counselors
Recruiters Trainers and educators
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Position Analysis Questionnaire
Theposition analysis questionnaire (PAQ):
Was developed by researchers at Purdue
University
Contains 195 itemsRequires considerable experience and a high
level of reading comprehension to complete
properly
Is often filled out by a trained job analyst, whomust decide whether each item applies to a
particular job
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Position Analysis Questionnaire
PAQ items are divided into six major
sections:
Information input
Mental processesWork output
Job context
Other job characteristics
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Position Analysis Questionnaire
Computerized scoring of the PAQ is based
on seven dimensions:
Decision making
CommunicationSocial responsibilities
Performing skilled activities
Being physically active
Operating vehicles or equipment
Processing information
The scores permit development of job
profiles and job comparisons
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Position Analysis Questionnaire
PAQ advantages:
Has been widely used and researched
Is an effective tool for a variety of purposes
Is reliable, with little variance among job analystsratings of the same jobs
Is an effective way to establish differences in the
abilities required for jobs
Is valid; jobs rated higher with the PAQ prove to
be those compensated at higher rates
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Position Analysis Questionnaire
PAQ disadvantages:
Requires time and patience to complete
No specific work activities are described, so
behavioral activities performed in jobs may distortactual work task differences
Example: A typist and a ballet dancer may have similar
profiles because both require fine motor skills
Ratings might represent the job analystsstereotype about the work, rather than actual
differences among jobs
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Management Position Description
Questionnaire
Conducting a job analysis for managerial
jobs is challenging because of:
The disparity across positions
Levels in the hierarchy The type of industry
An attempt to systematically analyze
managerial jobs was conducted at ControlData Corporation
The result is the management position description
questionnaire (MPDQ)
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Management Position Description
Questionnaire
The MPDQ is:
A checklist of 208 items related to the
concerns and responsibilities of managers
A comprehensive description of managerial work Intended for use across most industrial settings
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Management Position Description
Questionnaire
The latest version of the MPDQ has 15
sections:General information Decision making
Planning, organizing Administering
Controlling Supervising
Consulting, innovating Contacts
Coordinating Representing
Monitoring business indicators Overall ratings
Knowledge, skills, abilities Organization chart
Comments, reactions
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Management Position Description
Questionnaire
The common metric questionnaire (CMQ) is
another method of quantitative job analysis
It is completed by a job incumbent
Questionnaire items require a lower reading level It is more behaviorally concrete, making it easier
for incumbents to rate their jobs
It is applicable to exempt and nonexempt
positions
Much research on job analysis is being
conducted in Europe, focusing on
alternative quantitative methods
Job Descriptions and
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Job Descriptions and
Specifications
The job description is one of the primary
outputs of a systematic job analysis
It is a written description of what the job entails
It is hard to over-emphasize how importantthorough, accurate, and current job descriptions
are to an organization
J b D i ti f th d t di f
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Job Description- for the understanding of
the perspective employee
A written description of the duties and responsibilities ofthe job itself based on a job analysis. Job descriptionsusually include: The size and type of organization
The department and job title
The salary range Position grade or level
To whom the employee reports and for whom the employee is responsible
Brief summary of the main duties and responsibilities of the job
Brief summary of the occasional duties and responsibilities of the job
Any special equipment used on the job
Any special working conditions (e.g. shift or weekend work, foreign travel, etc.) Purpose and frequency of contact with others
The statement, Other duties as assigned to accommodate job changes andspecial projects
Job Analysis & Employee
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Job Analysis & Employee
Competencies
Competency modeling reflects an
organizations desire to:
Communicate job requirements in ways that
extend beyond the job itselfDescribe and measure the organizations
workforce in more general, competency-based
terms
Design and implement staffing programs focusedaround competencies, rather than specific jobs,
as a way to increase staffing flexibility
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Job Design
Approaches to the design of work:
Perceptual-motor
Biological
MechanisticMotivational
The perceptual-motor and biological
approaches are based on human factorsengineering
They emphasize equipment design and matching
machines to operators
S i tifi M t & th M h i ti
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Scientific Mgmt & the Mechanistic
Approach
Job design was a central issue in F. W.
Taylors model of scientific management
The work of every workman is fully planned out
by management at least one day in advanceEach man receives complete written instructions
The instructions specify what is to be done, how it
is to be done, and the time allowed for doing it
The goal was to break jobs into simple,
repetitive tasks that could be done quickly
and efficiently
S i tifi M t & th M h i ti
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Scientific Mgmt & the Mechanistic
Approach
Recommendations from scientific
management:
Work should be studied scientifically
It should be arranged so workers can be efficientEmployees should be matched to the demands of
the job
They should be trained to perform the job
Monetary compensation should be tied directly to
performance
Job Enrichment: A Motivational
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Job Enrichment: A Motivational
Approach
Job enrichmenttries to design jobs in ways
that help incumbents satisfy their need for:
Growth
RecognitionResponsibility
The job is expanded vertically
Employees are given responsibility that mightpreviously have been part of a supervisors job
According to Herzberg, employees are
motivated by jobs that enhance their
feelin s of self-worth
Job Enrichment: A Motivational
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Job Enrichment: A Motivational
Approach
A job must possess core job dimensions
to lead to desired outcomes:
Skill variety
Task identity Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Work Family Balance and Job
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Work-Family Balance and Job
Design
Work-family tension is driven by changing
workforce demographics
Women and single parents entering the workforce
Dual-career couples The aging population
Some organizations meet employees
needs through flexible work arrangements: Job sharing
Flextime
Telecommuting
Work Family Balance and Job
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Work-Family Balance and Job
Design
Benefits of family-friendly arrangements:
Higher recruitment
and retention rates
Improved morale
Lower absenteeism
and tardiness
Higher levels of employee productivity
Telecommuting allows employees to work at homepart- or full-time
Communication is through phone, fax, computer
Often resisted by managers who fear loss of control and