Presented by:Lacie Zimmerman
Adam SerdarJacquie OttoPaul Weiss
Alice and Bob’s Alice and Bob’s Excellent AdventureExcellent Adventure
• Brief Review of Quantum Mechanics
• Quantum Circuits/Gates
• No-Cloning
• Distinguishability of Quantum States
• Superdense Coding
• Quantum Teleportation
What’s to Come…What’s to Come…
Bra-Ket Notation InvolvesVector Xn can be represented two
waysKet |n>
zyxwv
Bra <n| = |n>t
***** zyxwv
*m is the complex conjugate of m.
Inner ProductsAn Inner Product is a Bra multiplied by a Ket
<a| |b> can be simplified to <a|b>
= <a|b> =
ponml
***** zyxwv ***** pzoynxmwlv
Outer ProductsAn Outer Product is a Ket multiplied by a Bra
|a><b| =
ponml
=
*****
*****
*****
*****
*****
pzpypxpwpvozoyoxowovnznynxnwnvmzmymxmwmvlzlylxlwlv
***** zyxwv
By Definition acbcba
• State Space: The inner product space associated with an isolated quantum system.
•The system at any given time is described by a “state”, which is a unit vector in V.
nCV
• Simplest state space - (Qubit) If and form a basis for , then an arbitrary qubit state has the form
, where a and b inhave .
• Qubit state differs from a bit because “superpositions” of a qubit state are possible.
2CV 0| 1| V
1|0|| bax C1|||| 22 ba
The evolution of an isolated quantum system is described by a unitary operator on its state space.
The state is related to the state by a unitary operator .
i.e.,
)(| 2t)(| 1t
2,1 ttU
)(|)(| 1,2 21tUt tt
Quantum measurements are described by a
finite set of projections, {Pm}, acting on the
state space of the system being measured.
• If is the state of the system immediately before the measurement.
•Then the probability that the result m occurs is given by .
|
||)( mPmp
• If the result m occurs, then the state of the
system immediately after the measurement is
)(|
|||
2/1 mpP
PP m
m
m
• The state space of a composite quantum system is the tensor product of the state of its components.
• If the systems numbered 1 through n are prepared in states , i = 1,…, n, then the joint state of the total composite system is
.
)(| it
n || 1
Quantum Uncertainty and Quantum Circuits
Classical Circuits vs. Quantum CircuitsHadamard Gates
C-not GatesBell States
Other Important Quantum Circuit Items
Classical Circuits vs.
Quantum CircuitsClassical Circuits based upon bits, which are represented with on and off states. These states are usually alternatively represented by 1 and 0 respectively.
The medium of transportation of a bit is a conductive material, usually a copper wire or something similar. The 1 or 0 is represented with 2 different levels of current through the wire.
Circuits Continued…
Quantum circuits use electron “spin” to hold their information, instead of the conductor that a classical circuit uses.
While a classical circuit uses transistors to perform logic, quantum circuits use “quantum gates” such as the Hadamard Gates.
Hadamard GatesHadamard Gates can perform logic and are usually used to initialize states and to add random information to a circuit.
Hadamard Gates are represented mathematically by the Hadamard Matrix which is below.
11
112
1H
Circuit Diagram of aHadamard Gate
Hx y
When represented in a Quantum Circuit Diagram, a Hadamard Gate looks like this:
Where the x is the input qubit and the y is the output qubit.
C-Not GatesC-not Gates are one of the basic 2-qubit gates in quantum computing. C-not is short for controlled not, which means that one qubit (target qubit) is flipped if the other qubit (control qubit) is |1>, otherwise the target qubit is left alone.
The mathematical representation of a C-Not Gate is below.
0100100000100001
CNU
Circuit Diagram of a C-Not Gate
x
y
x
yx
When represented in a Quantum Circuit Diagram, a C-Not Gate looks like this:
Where x is the control qubit and y is the target qubit.
Bell StatesBell States are sets of qubits that are entangled.
They can be created with the following Quantum Circuit called a Bell State Generator:
With H being a Hadamard Gate and x and y being the input qubits. is the Bell State.
Hx
yxy
Bell State EquationsThe following equations map the previous Bell State Generator:
0011002
100002
100
0110012
111012
101
1011002
110002
110
1110012
111012
111
So we can write: 2
110 yy x
xy
Controlled U-GateA Controlled U-Gate is an extension of a C-Not Gate. Where a C-Not Gate works on one qubit based upon a control qubit, a U-Gate works on many qubits based upon a control qubit.
A Controlled U-Gate can be represented with the following diagram:
Un n
Where n is the number of qubits the gate is acting on.
Measurement DevicesThese devices convert a qubit state into a probabilistic classical bit.
It can be represented in a diagram with the following:
M x
A measurement with x possible outcomes has x wires coming from the device that measures it.
CloningCan copying of an unknown qubit
state really happen?
By copy we mean:
1. Take a quantum state
2. Perform an operation
3. End with an exact copy of
Z
Z
Using a Classical Idea• A classical CNOT gate can be used for an
unknown bit x• Let x be the control bit and 0 be the target• Send x0 xx where is a CNOT gate• Yields an exact copy of x in the classical
setting
Move the Logic to Quantum States
• Given a qubit in an unknown quantum state such that• Through a CNOT gate we take such that• Note if indeed we copied we would thus
end up with which would equal
Z 1b 0aZ Z ZZ0
10b 00a 0)1b 0(a Z
ZZ
11b² 10ab 01ab 00a²
Proving the difficulty of cloning
• Suppose there was a copying machine• Such that can be copied with a standard
state• This gives an initial state which when
the unitary operation U is applied yields SZ
ZZSZU
ZS
…difficulty cloning
• Let • By taking inner products of both sides:
• From this we can see that: = 0 or 1• Therefore this must be true: or• Thus if the machine can successfully copy it is
highly unlikely that the machine will copy an arbitrary unknown state unless is orthogonal to
yy )sy U(& zz )szU(
²yz yz yz
y z y zz
zy y
Final cloning summary
• Cloning is improbable. • Basically all that can be accomplished is
what we know as a cut-n-paste. • Original data is lost. • The process of this will be shown in the
teleportation section soon to follow.
Distinguishability• To determine the state of an element in the
set: • This must be true:
-• Finding the probability of observing a
specific state , let be the measurement such that
n21 y,...,y,y
n21 y...yy
mmm yy P my mP
Distinguishability cont.• Then the probability that m will be observed is:
-• Which yields • Because the set is orthogonal
- • If the set was not orthogonal we couldn’t know for
certain that m will be observed.
mm y|P|y P(m) m
mmmm yyyy P(m)
1 11P(m)
Cloning and Distinguishability
• Take some quantum information• Send it from one place to another• Original is destroyed because it can’t just be
cloned (copied)• Basically it must be combined with some
orthogonal group or distinguishing the quantum state with absolute certainty is impossible.
THE CONDITIONS…• Alice and Bob are a long way from one
another.
• Alice wants to transmit some classical information in the form of a 2-bit to Bob.
HOW IT WORKS…• Alice and Bob initially share a 2-qubit in the
entangled Bell state
which is just a pair of quantum particles.
2
1100
HOW IT WORKS…• is a fixed state and it is not necessary for
Alice to send any qubits to Bob to prepare this state.
• For example, a third party may prepare the entangled state ahead of time, sending one of the qubits to Alice and the other to Bob.
HOW IT WORKS…1) Alice keeps the first qubit (particle).
2) Bob keeps the second qubit (particle).
3) Bob moves far away from Alice.
HOW IT WORKS…• The 2-bit that Alice wishes to send to Bob
determines what quantum gate she must apply to her qubit before she sends it to Bob.
HOW IT WORKS… • Since Bob is in possession of both qubits,
he can perform a measurement on this Bell basis and reliably determine which of the four possible 2-bits Alice sent.
TeleportationTeleportation•Teleportation is sending unknown quantum information not classical information.
•Teleportation starts just like Superdense coding.
•Alice and Bob each take half of the 2-qubit Bell state:
•Alice takes the first qubit (particle) and Bob moves with the other particle to another location.
2/110000
TeleportationTeleportation
•Alice wants to teleport to Bob:
•She combines the qubit with her half of the Bell state and sends the resulting 3-qubit (the 2 qubits-Alice & 1 qubit-Bob) through the Teleportation circuit (shown on the next slide):
Teleportation Teleportation CircuitCircuit
Top 2 wires represent Alice's system
Bottom wire represents Bob’s system
43210
2
1
Z
xyX
MMH
00 {
Single line denotes quantum information being transmitted
Double line denotes classical info being transmitted
TeleportationTeleportationCircuit Circuit
11001110002
1
10
000
ba
ba
Initial State
43210
2
1
Z
xyX
MMH
00 {
TeleportationTeleportationCircuitCircuit
After Applying the C-Not gate to Alice’s bits:
01101110002
11 ba
43210
2
1
Z
xyX
MMH
00
C-Not gate
{
TeleportationTeleportationCircuitCircuit
01111010
01011000
21
2 baba
baba
After applying the Hadamard gate to the first qubit:
43210
2
1
Z
xyX
MMH
00
Hadamard gate
{
TeleportationTeleportationCircuitCircuit
.0111 ,1010
,0101 ,1000
33
33
baba
baba
After Alice observes/measures her 2 qubits, she sends the resulting classical information to Bob:
43210
2
1
Z
xyX
MMH
00 {
Measurement devices
TeleportationTeleportationCircuitCircuit
43210
2
1
Z
xyX
MMH
00 {
.101001:11
,1010:10
,1001:01
,:00
4311
4301
4310
43300
babZaZbXaXZXZ
babZaZXZ
babXaXXZ
IXZ
Bob applies the appropriate quantum gate to his qubit based on the classical information from Alice:
ConclusionConclusion• Brief Review of Quantum Mechanics• Quantum Circuits/Gates
– Classical Gates vs. Quantum Gates– Hadamard Gates– C-not Gates– Bell States
Conclusion, cont.Conclusion, cont.• No-Cloning
• Distinguishability of Quantum States
• Superdense Coding- Pauli Matrices
- The Conditions
- How it Works
Conclusion, cont.Conclusion, cont.• Quantum Teleportation
- What is it used for?
- Teleportation Circuit
Bibliographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_product_space
http://vergil.chemistry.gatech.edu/notes/quantrev/node14.html
http://en2.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_operator
http://vergil.chemistry.gatech.edu/notes/quantrev/node17.html
http://www.doc.ic.ad.uk/~nd/surprise_97/journal/vol4/spb3/
http://www-theory.chem.washington.edu/~trstedl/quantum/quantum.html
Gudder, S. (2003-March). Quantum Computation. American Mathmatical Monthly. 110, no. 3,181-188.
Special Thanks to: Dr. Steve Deckelman