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C H A P T E R

13

UnderstandingOrganizational, Political,and Personal Power

. . . power is a positive concept, and several

types of power are prerequisite for human

development and self-expression.

—Sue Thomas Hegyvary

The previous chapter reviewed organizational structure and introduced status,authority, and responsibility at different levels of the organizational hierarchy. InChapter 13, the organization is examined further, with emphasis on the managementfunctions and leadership roles inherent in effective use of authority, establishmentof a personal power base, empowerment of staff, and the impact of organizationalpolitics on power.

The word power is derived from the Latin verb potere (to be able); thus, powermay be appropriately defined as that which enables one to accomplish goals. Powercan also be defined as the capacity to act or the strength and potency to accomplishsomething. Having power gives one the potential to change the attitudes andbehaviors of individual people and groups.

Authority, or the right to command, accompanies any management positionand is a source of legitimate power, although components of management,authority, and power are also necessary, to a degree, for successful leadership.The manager knowledgeable about the wise use of authority, power, and politi-cal strategy is more effective at meeting personal, unit, and organizational goals.Likewise, powerful leaders are able to build high morale because they delegatemore and build with a team effort. Thus, their followers become part of thegrowth and excitement of the organization as their own status is enhanced. Theleadership roles and management functions inherent in the use of authority andpower are shown in Display 13.1.

304 UNIT 4 � Roles and Functions in Organizing

Leadership Roles1. Creates a climate that promotes followership in response to authority.2. Recognizes the dual pyramid of power that exists between the organization

and its employees.3. Uses a powerful persona to increase respect and decrease fear in subordinates.4. Recognizes when it is appropriate to have authority questioned or to question

authority.5. Is personally comfortable with power in the political arena.6. Empowers other nurses.7. Assists staff in using appropriate political strategies.

Management Functions1. Uses authority to ensure that organizational goals are met.2. Uses political strategies that are complementary to the unit’s and organization’s

functioning.3. Builds a power base adequate for the assigned management role.4. Maintains a small authority–power gap.5. Is knowledgeable about the essence and appropriate use of power.6. Maintains personal credibility with subordinates.7. Serves as a role model of the empowered nurse.

Leadership Roles and Management FunctionsAssociated with Organizational Politics, Power Acquisition, and Authority

Display 13.1

UNDERSTANDING POWER

Power may be feared, worshipped, or mistrusted. It is frequently misunderstood.Our first experience with power usually occurs in the family unit. Power, in mostordinary uses of the term, appears to be more aligned with male than with femalestereotypes (Ledet & Henley, 2000). Because children’s roles are likened to latersubordinate roles and the parental power position is similar to management, adultviews of the management–subordinate relationship are influenced by how powerwas used in the family unit. A positive or negative familial power experience maygreatly affect a person’s ability to deal with power systems in adulthood. Sellers(1999) interviewed many of Fortune magazine’s 50 most powerful women in Americaand found that many of them credited their powerful mothers in developing theirpotential for leading companies.

Gender and Power

Successful leaders are aware of their views on the use and abuse of power. Somewomen, in particular, may hold negative connotations of power and never learn touse power constructively. Women have traditionally demonstrated, at best, ambiva-lence toward the concept of power and until recently have openly eschewed thepursuit of power. This may have occurred because women as a whole have beensocialized to view power differently than men do. For some women, power may beviewed as dominance versus submission; associated with personal qualities, notaccomplishment; and dependent on personal or physical attributes, not skill. Manywomen may not believe they inherently possess power but instead must rely onothers to acquire it. Rather than feeling capable of achieving and managing power,some women may feel that power manages them.

However, the historical view of women as less powerful than men appears to bechanging. These changes are taking place within women, in women’s view of otherwomen holding power, in organizational hierarchies, and among both male subor-dinates and male colleagues (Fisher, 1999; Ledet & Henley, 2000).

Today gender differences regarding power are fading and the corporate world isbeginning to look at new ways for leaders to obtain and handle power. Stahl (1999)maintains that nurse leaders in the 21st century will need to deal with organiza-tional power and politics in a completely different way and will need to developpolitical strategies for team building and establishing trust. Political skill in devel-oping consensus, inclusion, and involvement are also needed, skills that have oftenbeen linked to female characteristics (Carli, 1999; Fisher, 1999).

It is notable that these very attributes, which once closed corporate doors andcreated a glass ceiling, are now welcomed in the boardroom. These attributes arecertainly not limited to women; many male leaders also possess these characteris-tics. However, despite significant gains, many women continue to remain unskilledin the art of the political process. While not all agree (Lips, 2000), many recentstudies show that how others view men and women as being powerful has graduallychanged over the last 10 years. At present it is difficult to say with certainty if themale or female is stereotypically viewed as the more powerful in organizations(Fisher, 1999; Ledet & Henley, 2000).

305CHAPTER 13 � Understanding Organizational, Political, and Personal Power

Politics is the art of using legitimate power wisely. It requires clear decision mak-ing, assertiveness, accountability, and the willingness to express one’s own views. Italso requires being proactive rather than reactive and demands decisiveness.Women in power positions in today’s healthcare settings are more likely to recog-nize their innate abilities that support the effective use of power.

In determining whether power is “good’’ or “bad,’’ it may be helpful to look at itsopposite: powerlessness. Most people agree that they dislike being powerless. Every-one needs some control in his or her life. Powerlessness tends to breed bossiness.Thus, the leader–manager who feels powerless often creates an ineffective, petty,dictatorial, and rule-minded management style. Individuals who feel powerlessbecome bossy and rules-oriented. They may become oppressive leaders, punitiveand rigid in decision making, or they withhold information from others, and becomedifficult to work with. Although the adage that power corrupts might be true forsome, it may be more correct to say that powerlessness, not power, corrupts. Power islikely to bring more power in an ascending cycle, whereas powerlessness will onlygenerate more powerlessness. Because the powerful have credibility to support theiractions, they have greater capacity to get things accomplished and can enhance theirbase. As managers gain power, they are less coercive and rule-bound; thus, theirpeers and subordinates are more cooperative.

Apparently, then, power has a negative and a positive face. The negative face ofpower is the “I win, you lose’’ aspect of dominance versus submission.The positive faceof power occurs when someone exerts influence on behalf of rather than over someoneor something. Hegyvary (2003) maintains that several types of power are prerequisitefor self-expression and human development. Power, therefore, is not good or evil; howit is used and for what purpose it is used determine if it is good or evil.

Types of Power

For leadership to be effective, some measure of power must often support it. This istrue for the informal social group and the formal work group. French and Raven(1959) postulate that several bases, or sources, exist for the exercise of power:reward power, punishment or coercive power, legitimate power, expert power, andreferent power.

Reward power is obtained by the ability to grant favors or reward others withwhatever they value. The arsenal of rewards that a manager can dispense to get


Is Power Different for Men and Women?Research studies differ on how men and women view power and howothers view men and women in positions of authority. Do you think thereare gender differences in how people are viewed as being powerful? Dis-cuss this in a group and then go to the library or use Internet sources tosee if you can find recent studies that support your views.

Learning Exercise 13.1

employees to work toward meeting organizational goals is very broad. Positiveleadership through rewards tends to develop a great deal of loyalty and devotiontoward leaders.

Punishment or coercive power, the opposite of reward power, is based on fear ofpunishment if the manager’s expectations are not met. The manager may obtain com-pliance through threats (often implied) of transfer, layoff, demotion, or dismissal. Themanager who shuns or ignores an employee is exercising power through punishment,as is the manager who berates or belittles an employee.

Legitimate power is position power. Authority also is called legitimate power. Itis the power gained by a title or official position within an organization. Legiti-mate power has inherent in it the ability to create feelings of obligation or respon-sibility. As previously discussed, the socialization and culture of subordinateemployees will influence to some degree how much power a manager has due to hisor her position.

Expert power is gained through knowledge, expertise, or experience. Havingcritical knowledge allows a manager to gain power over others who need thatknowledge. This type of power is limited to a specialized area. For example, some-one with vast expertise in music would be powerful only in that area, not in anotherspecialization. Fralic (2000) feels that Florence Nightingale was the first nurse toeffectively use this expert power. When Nightingale used research to quantify theneed for nurses in the Crimea (by showing that when nurses were present, fewersoldiers died), she was using her research to demonstrate expertise in the healthneeds of the wounded. Power derived from expert knowledge is fundamental forany profession (Hegyvary, 2003).

Referent power is power a person has because others identify with that leader orwith what that leader symbolizes. Referent power also occurs when one givesanother person feelings of personal acceptance or approval. It may be obtainedthrough association with the powerful. People also may develop referent powerbecause others perceive them as powerful. This perception could be based on per-sonal charisma, the way the leader talks or acts, the organizations to which he orshe belongs, or the people with whom he or she associates. People others accept asrole models or leaders enjoy referent power. Physicians use referent power veryeffectively; society, as a whole, views physicians as powerful, and they carefullymaintain this image.

Some theorists distinguish charismatic power from referent power. Willey (1990)states that charisma is a type of personal power, whereas referent power is gainedonly through association with powerful others.

Heineken and McCloskey (1985) add another type of power to the French andRaven power sources by identifying informational power. This source of power isobtained when people have information that others must have to accomplish theirgoals. Morrison (1988) refers to all these types of power as patriarchal in that they implypower over others. Morrison prefers a power defined as feminist power or self-power—the power a person gains over his or her own life—and maintains that this power isa personal power that comes from maturity, ego integration, security in relation-ships, and confidence in one’s impulse. The various sources of power are summa-rized in Table 13.1.


THE AUTHORITY–POWER GAP

If authority is the right to command, then a logical question is, “Why do workerssometimes not follow orders?’’ The right to command does not ensure that employ-ees will always follow orders. The gap that sometimes exists between a position ofauthority and subordinate response is called the authority–power gap. The termmanager power may explain subordinates’ response to the manager’s authority. Themore power subordinates perceive a manager to have, the smaller the gap betweenthe right to expect certain things and the resulting fulfillment of those expectationsby others.

The negative effect of a wide authority–power gap is that organizational chaosmay develop. There would be little productivity if every order were questioned. Theorganization should rightfully expect that its goals would be accomplished. One ofthe core dynamics of civilization is that there will always be a few authority figurespushing the many for a certain standard of performance.

People in the United States are socialized very early to respond to authority fig-ures. Children are conditioned to accept the directives of their parents, teachers, andcommunity leaders. The traditional nurse–educator has been portrayed as an author-itarian who demands unconditional obedience. Educators who maintain a very nar-row authority–power gap reinforce dependency and obedience by emphasizing theultimate calamity—the death of the patient.Thus, nursing students may be socializedto be overly cautious and to hesitate when making independent nursing judgments.

Because of these types of early socialization, the gap between the manager’sauthority and the worker’s response to that authority tends to be relatively small. Inother countries, it may be larger or smaller, depending on how people are socializedto respond to authority. This authority dependence that begins with our parentsand is later transferred to our employers may be an important resource to managers.

Although the authority–power gap continues to be small, it has grown in thelast 20 years. Both the women’s movement and the student unrest of the 1960s havecontributed to the widening of the authority–power gap. This widening gap is evi-denced when a 1970s college student asked her mother why she did not protest asa college student; the mother replied, “I didn’t know we could.’’


Table 13.1 Sources of Power

Type Source

Referent Association with othersLegitimate PositionCoercive FearReward Ability to grant favorsExpert Knowledge and skillCharismatic PersonalInformational The need for informationSelf Maturity, ego strength

At times, however, authority should be questioned by either the leader or thesubordinates.This is demonstrated in health care by the increased questioning of theauthority of physicians—many of whom feel they have the authority to command—by nurses and consumers. Figure 13.1 shows the dynamics of the relationships inorganizational authority–power response.


++ Socializationof individuals

to power/authority figures

Perceivedpowerof the

manager

Legitimateauthority

of theposition

++

Responseto

authority==Figure 13.1 Interdependency of response to authority.

Power and AuthorityThink back to your childhood. Who did you feel was most powerful inyour family? Why do you think that person was powerful? If you are usinggroup work, how many in your group named powerful male figures; howmany named powerful female figures?

Did you grow up with a very narrow authority–power gap? Have yourviews regarding authority and power changed since you were a child? Doyou believe children today have an authority–power gap similar to whatyou had as a child? Support your answers with examples.


Bridging the Authority–Power Gap

Sometimes subordinates feel badgered by very visible exercises of authority.Because overusing commands can stifle cooperation, naked commands should beused infrequently. Authority as a power tool should be used as a last resort.

A method to bridge the gap is for the leader to make a genuine effort to knowand care about each subordinate as a unique individual. This is especially importantbecause each person has a limited tolerance of authority, and subordinates are bet-ter able to tolerate authority if they believe the leader cares about them as people.

The manager needs to provide enough information about organizational andunit goals to subordinates so that they understand how their efforts and those oftheir manager are contributing to goal attainment. The manager will have bridgedthe authority–power gap if followers (1) perceive that the manager is doing a goodjob; (2) believe that the organization has their best interests in mind; and (3) do notfeel controlled by authority.

Finally, the manager must be seen as credible for the authority–power gap not towiden. All managers begin their appointment with subordinates ready to believethem. This, again, is due to the socialization process that causes people to believethat those in power say what is true. However, the deference to authority will erodeif managers handle employees carelessly, are dishonest, or seem incapable of carry-ing out their duties. When a manager loses credibility, the power inherent in his orher authority decreases.

Another dimension of credibility that influences the authority–power relation-ship is future promising. It is best to underpromise if promises must be made. Man-agers should never guarantee future rewards unless they have control of all possiblevariables. If managers revoke future rewards, they lose credibility in the eyes of theirsubordinates. However, managers should dispense present rewards to buy patron-age, making the manager more believable and building greater power into his or herlegitimate authority. A scenario that illustrates the difference in dispensing futureand present awards follows.

An RN requests a day off to attend a wedding, and you are able to replace her.You use the power of your position to reward her and give her the day off. The RNis grateful to you, and this increases your power.

Another RN requests three months in advance to have every Thursday off in thesummer to take a class. Although you promise this to her, on the first day of Junethree nurses resign, rendering you unable to fulfill your promise. This nurse is veryupset, and you have lost much credibility and, therefore, power. It would have beenwiser for you to say you could not grant her original request (underpromising) or tomake it contingent on several factors. If the situation had remained the same andthe nurses had not resigned, you could have granted the request. Less trust is lostbetween the manager and the subordinate when underpromising occurs than whena granted request is rescinded, as long as the subordinate believes the manager willmake a genuine effort to meet his or her request.

Empowering Subordinates

The empowerment of staff is a hallmark of transformational leadership. To empowermeans to enable, develop, or allow.

Kreitner and Kinicki (1998) define empowerment as decentralization of power.Empowerment occurs when leaders communicate their vision, employees are giventhe opportunity to make the most of their talents, and learning, creativity, and


Empowerment is aninteractive process thatdevelops, builds, andincreases power throughcooperation, sharing, andworking together.

exploration are encouraged. Empowerment plants seeds of leadership, collegiality, self-respect, and professionalism. Hegyvary (2003) maintains that nurses are empoweredthrough nursing knowledge and research, which then frees staff from mechanisticthinking and encourages critical thinking, problem solving, and the application ofknowledge to practice.

However, Fullam and associates (1998) maintain that empowerment is not aneasy one-step process but a complex process that consists of three components.First, all practitioners must have professional traits, including responsibility forcontinuing education, participation in professional organizations, and politicalactivism, and most importantly must have a sense of value about their work. Sec-ond, the nurse must work in an environment that encourages empowerment. Lastly,the process must include an effective leadership style. The leader–manager must besomeone who nurtures the development of an empowered staff (Fullam, Lando,Johansen, Reyes, & Szaloczy, 1998).

Leaders empower subordinates when they delegate assignments to providelearning opportunities and allow employees to share in the satisfaction derivedfrom achievement. Empowerment is not the relinquishing of rightful power inher-ent in a position, nor is it a delegation of authority or its commensurate responsi-bility and accountability. Instead, the actions of empowered staff are freely chosen,owned, and committed to on behalf of the organization without any requests orrequirements to do so. Empowerment creates and sustains a work environment thatspeaks to values that facilitate the employee’s choice to invest in and own personalactions and behaviors resulting in positive contributions to the organization’s mis-sion (Fullam et al., 1998; Laschinger & Wong, 1999).

There are many barriers to creating an environment for empowerment in anorganization. Seven barriers identified by Tebbitt (1993) are as follows:

• Organizational beliefs about authority and status. Empowerment isblocked if authority and power are viewed as the key motivational forces forachieving the organization’s mission and strategic planning.

• Controlling perceptions, needs, and attitudes. If managers emphasizerules, regulations, mandated policies, and procedures, little room is left foremployee participation and empowerment. The person who is unwilling toteach others and who does not want to see others succeed has been termed aqueen bee and the activities and behaviors used to keep others from power,the queen bee syndrome (Spengler, 1976). The queen bee wants to be the mainattraction and desires that subordinates remain powerless. Behaviors exhibitedby nursing queen bees include identifying with others outside the profession(usually males who hold higher positions in the organization) and a disinterestin improving or changing the profession.

• Organizational inertia. Empowerment does not happen “naturally.’’ Itoccurs only as a result of an organizational commitment of time, energy,and resources.

• Personal and interdepartmental barriers. Interdepartmental rivalries resultin internal competition for resources. The more time managers must spend“defending their turf,’’ the less organizational emphasis will be given to theempowerment process.


Empowerment requiresprofessional traits, asupportive workenvironment, andeffective leadership.

• Employee number, mix, and skill. Larger organizations with greater staffdiversity face a greater challenge in developing focused yet flexible strategiesto empower their work force. Not only are there gender differences in viewsof power but cultural differences as well.

• A lack of ability and unwillingness of staff to assume responsibility andaccountability for their attitudes and behaviors. Clarity of job roles or jobexpectations encourages empowerment as staff understand what is expectedof them and can identify areas for improvement.

• Managerial incompetence. The management skills required to empower staffare planning and goal setting, identifying and addressing problems, makingdecisions, defining priorities, implementing and managing change, forminginteractive and self-directed teams, communicating, resolving conflict, fosteringmotivation, and building consensus. Display 13.2 summarizes these barriers.


Cultural DiversityWhy do you think cultural diversity might be a challenge when empower-ing nurses? Do you agree with this or disagree? Think of ways that variouscultures may view power and empowerment differently. If you know peo-ple from other cultures, ask them how powerful people or those inauthority positions are viewed in their culture and compare that withyour own culture.


• Authoritarianism• Rigid control• Inertia• Internal competition• Employee mix• Lack of staff accountability• Managerial incompetence

Seven Impediments to EmpowermentDisplay 13.2

Once organizational barriers have been eliminated, the leader–manager maydevelop strategies at the unit level to empower staff.The easiest strategy is to be a rolemodel of an empowered nurse. Another strategy would be to assist staff in buildingtheir own personal power base. This can be accomplished by showing subordinateshow their personal, knowledge, and referent power can be expanded. Empowermentalso occurs when subordinates are involved in planning and implementing change;subordinates believe they have some input in what is about to happen to them andsome control over the environment in which they will work in the future.

STRATEGIES FOR BUILDING A PERSONAL POWER BASE

Managers must build a personal power base to further organizational goals, fulfillthe leadership role, carry out management functions, and meet personal goals. Abeginning manager or even a newly graduated nurse can begin to build a powerbase in many ways. Habitual behaviors resulting from early lessons, passivity, andfocusing on wrong targets can be replaced with new power-gaining behaviors.Marquis and Huston (1998) suggest some strategies for enhancing power:

Maintain Personal Energy

Power and energy go hand in hand. Effective leaders take sufficient time tounwind, reflect, rest, and have fun when they feel tired. Managers who do not takecare of themselves begin to make mistakes in judgment that may result in terriblepolitical consequences. Taking time for significant relationships and developingoutside interests are important so that other resources are available for sustenancewhen political forces in the organization drain energy.

Present a Powerful Picture to Others

How people look, act, and talk influence whether others view them as powerful orpowerless. The nurse who stands tall and is poised, assertive, articulate, and wellgroomed presents a picture of personal control and power. The manager who lookslike a victim will undoubtedly become one.

Pay the Entry Fee

Newcomers who stand out and appear powerful are those who do more, work harder,and contribute to the organization. They are not clock watchers or “nine-to-fivers.’’They attend meetings and in-services, do committee work, and take their share ofnight shifts and weekend and holiday assignments without complaining. A powerbase is not achieved by slick, easy, or quick maneuvers but through hard work.

Determine the Powerful in the Organization

Understanding and working within the formal and informal power structures arenecessary. People must be cognizant of their limitations and seek counsel appropri-ately. One should know the names and faces of those with both formal and infor-mal power. The powerful people in the informal structure are often more difficultto identify than those in the formal. When working with powerful people, look forsimilarities and shared values and avoid focusing on differences.

Learn the Language and Symbols of the Organization

Each organization has its own culture and value system. New members mustunderstand this culture and be socialized into the organization if they are to build apower base. Being unaware of institutional taboos and sacred cows often results inembarrassment for the newcomer.


Learn How to Use the Organization’s Priorities

Every group has its own goals and priorities for achieving those goals.Those seeking tobuild a power base must be cognizant of organizational goals and use those prioritiesand goals to meet management needs. For example, a need for a new manager in a com-munity health service might be to develop educational programs on chemotherapybecause some of the new patient caseload includes this nursing function. If fiscal man-agement is a high priority, the manager needs to show superiors how the cost of theseeducational programs will be offset by additional revenues. If public relations withphysicians and patients are a priority, the manager would justify the same request interms of additional services to patients and physicians.

Increase Professional Skills and Knowledge

Because employees are expected to perform their jobs well, one’s performance mustbe extraordinary to enhance power. One method of being extraordinary is to increaseprofessional skills and knowledge until reaching an expert level. Having knowledgeand skill that others lack greatly augments a person’s power base. Excellence thatreflects knowledge and demonstrates skill enhances a nurse’s credibility and deter-mines how others view him or her.

Maintain a Broad Vision

Because people are assigned to a unit or department, they often develop a narrowview of the total organization. Power builders always look upward and outward.The successful manager recognizes not only how the individual unit fits within thelarger organization, but also how the institution as a whole fits into the scheme ofthe total community. People without vision rarely become very powerful.

Use Experts and Seek Counsel

Newcomers should seek out role models. By looking to others for advice and counsel,people demonstrate that they are willing to be team players, that they are cautiousand want expert opinion before proceeding, and that they are not rash newcomerswho think they have all the answers. Aligning oneself with appropriate veterans inthe organization is excellent for building power.

Be Flexible

Anyone wishing to acquire power should develop a reputation as someone who cancompromise. The rigid, uncompromising newcomer is viewed as insensitive to theorganization’s needs.

Develop Visibility and a Voice in the Organization

Newcomers must become active in committees or groups that are recognized by theorganization as having clout. When working in groups, the newcomer must not


monopolize committee time. Novice leaders and managers must develop observa-tional, listening, and verbal skills. Their spoken contributions to the committeeshould be valuable and articulated well.

Learn to Toot Your Own Horn

Accepting compliments is an art. One should be gracious but certainly not passivewhen praised for extraordinary effort. Additionally, people should let others knowwhen some special professional recognition has been achieved. This should be donein a manner that is not bragging but reflects the self-respect of one who is talentedand unique.

Maintain a Sense of Humor

Appropriate humor is very effective. The ability to laugh at oneself and not takeoneself too seriously is a most important power builder.

Empower Others

Leaders need to empower others, and followers must empower their leaders.When nurses empower each other, they gain referent power. Individual nurses andthe profession as a whole do not gain their share of power because they allow oth-ers to divide them and weaken their base (Huston & Marquis, 1988). Nurses canempower other nurses by sharing knowledge, maintaining cohesiveness, valuingthe profession, and supporting each other. Power building political strategies aresummarized in Display 13.3.


Power-Building Strategies Political StrategiesMaintain personal energy Develop information acquisition skillsPresent a powerful persona Communicate astutely Pay the entry fee Become proactive Determine the powerful Assume authority Learn the organizational culture Network Use organizational priorities Expand personal resources Increase skills and knowledge Maintain maneuverability Have a broad vision Remain sensitive to people, timing,Use experts and seek counsel and situations Be flexible Promote subordinates’ identities Be visible and have a voice Meet organizational needs Toot your own horn Expand personal wellnessMaintain a sense of humor Empower others

Leadership Strategies: Developing Power and Political Savvy

Display 13.3

THE POLITICS OF POWER

Earlier in this chapter, politics was defined as the effective use of power or the artof using power. Although there continues to be a lack of empirical research to assistnurses within organizations to improve their power position (Sieloff, 2003), thereare many strategies that are politically wise. For example, it is important for man-agers to understand politics within the context of their employing organization.After the employee has built a power base through hard work, increased personalpower, and knowledge of the organization, developing skills in the politics of poweris necessary. People often lose hard-earned power in an organization because theymake political mistakes. Even seasoned leaders occasionally blunder in this arena.

It is useless to argue the ethics or value of politics in an organization becausepolitics exists in every organization. Thus, nurses waste energy and remain power-less when they refuse to learn the art and skill of political maneuvers. Andrica(1999) states, “Though you may want to avoid office politics, sometimes you mustbecome involved, whether it be for the good of yourself, the organization, or a peer.And it is not necessarily a negative thing. Office politics can prove positive andbeneficial for those involved’’ (p. 156). Politics becomes divisive only whenever gos-sip, rumor, or unethical strategies occur.

Much attention is given to improving competence, but little time is spent inlearning the intricacies of political behavior. The most important strategy is tolearn to “read the environment’’ through observation, listening, reading, detach-ment, and analysis. Stahl (1999) maintains that the next millennium will see achange in organizational politics and that the new rules of engagement will be lessabout “who you know’’ and more about leadership with political savvy.


Building Power As the New NurseYou have been an RN for three years. Six months ago, you left your posi-tion as a day-charge nurse at one of the local hospitals to accept a posi-tion at the public health agency. You really miss your friends at the hospi-tal and find most of the public health nurses older and aloof. However,you love working with your patients and have decided this is where youwant to build a lifetime career. Although you believe you have somegood ideas, you are aware that because you are new, you will probablynot be able to act as change agent yet. Eventually, you would like to bepromoted to agency supervisor and become a powerful force for stimulat-ing growth within the agency. You decide that you can do a few things tobuild a power base. You spend a weekend plotting your political design.Assignment: Make a power-building plan. Give six to ten specific exam-ples of things you would do to build a power base in the new organiza-tion. Give rationales for each selection. (Do not merely select from thegeneral lists in the text. Outline specific actions you would take.) It mightbe helpful to consider your own community and personal strengths whensolving this learning exercise.


Although power is auniversally availableresource that does nothave a finite quality, itcan be lost as well asgained.

Because power implies interdependence, nurses must not only understand the orga-nizational structure in which they work, but also be able to function effectively withinthat structure, including dealing effectively with the institution’s inherent politics. Onlywhen managers understand power and politics will they be capable of recognizinglimitations and potential for change. Being in touch with one’s own power can befrightening. People may anticipate attacks from many fronts that will reduce theirpower. When these attacks occur, people who hold powerful positions may under-mine themselves by regressing rather than progressing and by being reactive ratherthan proactive.

The following political strategies will help the novice manager negate the negativeeffects of organizational politics.

• Become an expert handler of information and communication. Bewarethat facts can be presented seductively and out of context. The manager mustbe cautious in accepting facts as presented because information is oftenchanged to fit others’ needs. Managers must become adept at the art ofacquiring information and questioning others.

Decisions should be delayed until adequate and accurate information hasbeen gathered and reviewed. Managers who fail to do the necessary homeworkmay make decisions with damaging political consequences. Additionally, man-agers must not allow themselves to be trapped into discussing something aboutwhich they know very little. The politically astute manager says, “I don’t know’’when inadequate information is available.

This political astuteness in communication is often a difficult skill to master.Grave consequences can result from sharing the wrong information with thewrong people at the wrong time. Determining who should know, how muchthey should know, and when they should know requires great finesse.

One of the most politically serious errors one can make is lying to otherswithin the organization. Although withholding or refusing to divulge informa-tion are both good political strategies, lying is not. Lying destroys trust, andFitzpatrick (2001) says leaders must never underestimate the power of trust.

• Be a proactive decision maker. Nurses have had such a long history of beingreactive that they have had little time to learn how to be proactive. Althoughbeing reactive is better than being passive, being proactive means getting thejob done better, faster, and more efficiently. The proactive leader preparesfor the future instead of waiting for it to happen. He or she sees approach-ing change in the healthcare system and, instead of fighting those changes,prepares to meet them.

One way the nurse can become proactive is by assuming authority. Part of power is the image of power; a powerful political strategy also involvesimage. Instead of asking, “May I?’’ leaders assume that they may. When peo-ple ask permission, they are really asking someone to take responsibility forthem. If something is not expressly prohibited in the organization or in a jobdescription, the powerful leader assumes that it may be done.

Politically astute nurses have been known to create new positions or newroles within a position simply by gradually assuming that they could dothings that no one else was doing. In other words, they saw a need in the


organization and, instead of asking if they could do something, they starteddoing it. The organization, through default, allowed expansion of the role. Peo-ple do need to be aware, however, that if they assume authority and somethinggoes wrong, they will be held accountable, so this strategy is not without risk.

• Expand personal resources. Because organizations are dynamic and thefuture is impossible to predict, the proactive nurse prepares for the future byexpanding personal resources. Personal resources include economic stability,higher education, and a broadened skill base. This is often called the politicalstrategy of “having maneuverability’’—that is, the person avoids having lim-ited options. People who have “money in the bank and gas in the tank’’ havea political freedom of maneuverability that others do not.

People lose power if others within the organization know that they cannotafford to make a job change or do not have the necessary skills to do so.Those who become economically dependent on a position lose politicalclout. Likewise, the nurse who has not bothered to develop additional skillsor seek further education loses the political strength that comes from havingthe option of being able to find quality employment elsewhere.

• Develop political alliances and coalitions. Nurses often can increase theirpower and influence by forming alliances with other groups. People can formalliances with peers, sponsors, or subordinates. The alliances may be fromwithin their own group or from without.

One of the most effective methods of forming alliances is through net-working. Managers can sharpen their political skills by becoming involvedwith peers outside the organization. In this manner, the manager is able tokeep abreast of current happenings and to use others for advice and counsel.Although networking works among many groups, for the nurse–manager,few groups are as valuable as local and state nursing associations.

Networking—forming coalitions and alliances—also can be effective withinthe organization. This strategy is especially useful for some types of plannedchange. More power and political clout result from people working togetherrather than people acting alone. When a person is under political attack byothers in the organization, group power is very useful.

• Be sensitive to timing. Successful leaders are sensitive to both the appropri-ateness and timing of their actions. The person who presents a request toattend an expensive nursing conference on the same afternoon that his or hersupervisor just had extensive dental work is an example of someone withinsensitivity to timing.

Besides being able to choose the right moment, the effective managershould develop skill in other areas of timing. One of these areas is to knowwhen it is the appropriate time to do nothing. For example, in the case of aproblem employee who is three months from retirement, time itself wouldresolve the situation.

The sensitive manager also learns when the time has come to stoprequesting something, and that time should be before a superior has given afirm “no.’’ Once this firm “no’’ has been reached, continuing to press the issueis politically unwise.


• Promote subordinate identification. There are many ways a manager canpromote the identification of subordinates. A simple “thank you’’ for a finejob works especially well when spoken in front of someone else. By callingattention to the extra effort of your subordinates, you are saying in effect,“Look what a good job we are capable of doing.’’ Sending subordinates sin-cere notes of appreciation is another way of praising and promoting.Rewarding the excellent employee’s work is an effective political strategy.

• View personal and unit goals in terms of the organization. Even extraordi-nary and visible activities will not result in desired power unless those activi-ties are used to meet organizational goals. Hard work for purely personalgain will become a political liability.

Frequently novice managers think only in terms of their needs and theirproblems rather than seeing the large picture. Additionally, people often lookupward for solutions rather than attempting to find answers themselves.When problems are identified, it is more politically astute to take the problem


Turning Lemons into LemonadeThe following is based on a real event. The cast includes Sally Jones, thedirector of nursing; Jane Smith, the hospital administrator and CEO; and BobBlack, the assistant hospital administrator. Sally has been in her position atMemorial Hospital for two years. She has made many improvements in thenursing department and is generally respected by the hospital administrator,the nursing staff, and the physicians.

The present situation involves the newly hired Bob Black. Previously toosmall to have an assistant administrator, the hospital has grown, and thisposition was created. One of the departments assigned to Bob is the per-sonnel and payroll department. Until now, nursing, which comprises 45%of all personnel, has done its own recruiting, interviewing, and selecting.Since Bob has been hired, he has shown obvious signs that he would liketo increase his power and authority.

Now Bob has proposed that he hire an additional clerk who will domuch of the personnel work for the nursing department, although nurs-ing administration will be able to make the final selections in hiring. Bobproposes that his department should do the initial screening of appli-cants, seeking references, and so on.

Sally has grown increasingly frustrated in dealing with the encroach-ment of Bob. Having just received Bob’s latest proposal, she has requestedto meet with Jane Smith and Bob to discuss the plan.Assignment: What danger, if any, is there for Sally Jones in Bob Black’s pro-posal? Explain two political strategies you believe Sally could use in theupcoming meeting. Is it possible to facilitate a win–win solution to this con-flict? If so, how? If there is not a win–win solution, how much can Sally win?

Note: Attempt to solve this case before reading the solution presentedin the back of this book.


and a proposed solution upward rather than just presenting the problem tothe superior. Although the superior may not accept the solution, the effort toproblem solve will be appreciated.

• “Leave your ego at home in a jar.’’ Although politics can be negative (Andrica,1999), you should make an effort not to take political muggings personally,because you may well be a bystander hit in a crossfire. Likewise, be carefulabout accepting credit for all political successes, because you may just havebeen in the right place at the right time. Be prepared as a manager to makepolitical errors. The key to success is how quickly you rebound.

INTEGRATING LEADERSHIP ROLES AND MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONSWHEN USING AUTHORITY AND POWER IN ORGANIZATIONS

A manager’s ability to gain and wisely use power is critical to his or her success.Nurses will never be assured of adequate resources until they gain the power tomanipulate the needed resources legitimately. To do this, managers must be able tobridge the authority–power gap, build a personal power base, and minimize thenegative politics of the organization.

One of the most critical leadership roles in the use of power and authority is theempowerment of subordinates. The leader recognizes the dual pyramid of powerand acknowledges the power of others, including that of subordinates, peers, andhigher administrators.

The key to establishing and keeping authority and power in an organization isfor the leader–manager to be able to accomplish four separate tasks:

• a small authority–power gap must be maintained• subordinates should be empowered whenever possible• authority should be used in such a manner that subordinates view what

happens in the organization as necessary• when needed, political strategies must be used to maintain power and authority

Integrating the leadership role and the functions of management lessens the riskthat power will be misused. Power and authority will be used to increase respect forthe position and for nursing as a whole. The leader comfortable with power ensuresthat the goal of political maneuvers is cooperation, not personal gain. The success-ful manager who has integrated the role of leadership will not seek to have powerover others but instead will empower others.

It is imperative for leader–managers to become skillful in the art of politics and theuse of political strategy if they are to survive in the corporate world of the healthcareindustry. It is with the use of such strategies that organizational resources are obtainedand goals for nursing are achieved.

❊ Key Concepts

• Power and authority are necessary components of leadership and management.• A person’s response to authority is conditioned early through authority figures

and experiences in the family unit.


• The gap that sometimes exists between a position of authority and subordinateresponse is called the authority–power gap.

• The empowerment of staff is a hallmark of transformational leadership.Empowerment means to enable, develop, or allow.

• Power has both a positive and a negative face.• Traditionally, women have been socialized to view power differently than

men do. However, recent studies show that gender differences regardingpower are slowly changing.

• Reward power is obtained by the ability to grant rewards to others.• Coercive power is based on fear and punishment.• Legitimate power is the power inherent in one’s position.• Expert power is gained through knowledge or skill.• Referent power is obtained through association with others.• Charismatic power results from a dynamic and powerful persona.• Information power is gained when someone has information that another

needs.• Feminist power or self-power is gained through maturity, ego integration,

confidence, and security in relationships.• To acquire power in an organization, the novice manager should use appro-

priate power building tactics.• Power gained may be lost because one is politically naive or fails to use

appropriate political strategies.• Politics exist in every organization and nurse–managers must learn the art

and skill of politics and using political.

More Learning Exercises and Applications


Empowering Your StaffAfter five years as a public health nurse, you have just been appointedsupervisor of the western region of the county health department. Thereis one supervisor for each region, a nursing director, and an assistantdirector. You have eight nurses who report directly to you. Your organiza-tion seems to have few barriers to prevent staff empowerment but intalking with the staff that report to you, they frequently express feelingsof powerlessness in their ability to effect lasting change in their patientsor in changing policies within the organization. Your first plannedchange, therefore, is to develop strategies to empower them.Assignment: Devise a political strategy for successfully empowering thestaff that report directly to you. Consider the three elements necessary inthe empowerment process: professional traits of the staff, a supportiveenvironment, and effective leadership. Of these things, what is in yoursphere of control? Where is there danger of your plan being sabotaged?What change tactics can you use to increase the likelihood of success?



Friendships and TruthYou are a middle-level manager in a public health department. One ofyour closest friends, Janie, is a registered nurse under your span of con-trol. Today, Janie calls and tells you that she injured her back yesterdayduring a home visit after she slipped on a wet front porch. She said thatthe homeowners were unaware that she fell and that no one witnessedthe accident. She has just returned from visiting her doctor, who advisessix weeks of bed rest. She requests that you initiate the paperwork forworker’s compensation and disability, because she has no sick days left.

Shortly after your telephone conversation with Janie, you take a briefcoffee break in the lounge. You overhear a conversation between Jon andLacey, two additional staff members in your department. Jon says that heand Janie were water skiing last night, and she took a terrible fall andhurt her back. He planned to call her to see how she was feeling.

You initially feel hurt and betrayed by Janie because you believe shehas lied to you. You want to call Janie and confront her. You plan to denyher request for worker’s compensation and disability. You are angry thatshe has placed you in this position. You also are aware that provingJanie’s injury is not work-related may be difficult.Assignment: How should you proceed? What are the political ramifica-tions if this incident is not handled properly? How should you use yourpower and authority when dealing with this problem?



Decision Making: Conflict and DilemmaYou are the director of a small Native American health clinic. Other thanyourself and a part-time physician, your only professional staff are twoRNs. The remaining staff members are Native Americans and have beentrained by you.

Because nurse Bennett, a 26-year-old female BSN graduate, has had sev-eral years of experience working at a large southwestern communityhealth agency, she is familiar with many of the patients’ problems. She ishard working and extremely knowledgeable. Occasionally, her assertive-ness is mistaken for bossiness among the Native American workers. How-ever, everyone respects her judgment.

The other RN, nurse Mikiou, is a 34-year-old male Native American. Hestarted as a medic in the Persian Gulf War and attended several career-ladder external degree programs until he was able to take the RN exami-nation. He does not have a baccalaureate degree. His nursing knowledgeis occasionally limited, and he tends to be very casual about performinghis duties. However, he is competent and has never shown unsafe judg-ment. His humor and good nature often reduce tension in the clinic. TheNative American population is very proud of him, and he has a specialrelationship with them. However, he is not a particularly good role modelbecause his health habits leave much to be desired, and he is frequentlyabsent from work.

Nurse Bennett has come to find nurse Mikiou intolerable. She believesshe has tried working with him, but this is difficult because she doesn’trespect him. As the director of the clinic, you have tried many ways tosolve this problem. You feel especially fortunate to have nurse Bennett onyour staff. It is difficult to find many nurses of her quality willing to comeand live on a desolate Native American reservation. On the other hand, ifthe Native American health concept is really going to work, the NativeAmericans themselves must be educated and placed in the agencies sothat one day they can run their own clinics. It is very difficult to find edu-cated Native Americans who want to return to this reservation. Now youare faced with a management dilemma. Nurse Bennett has said eithernurse Mikiou must go, or she will go. She has asked you to decide.Assignment: List the factors bearing on this decision. What (if any) powerissues are involved? Which choice will be the least damaging? Justify yourdecision.



Power StruggleYou are team leader on a medical unit of a small community hospital. Yourshift is 3 PM to 11 PM. . When leaving the report room, John, the day-shiftteam leader, tells you that Mrs. Jackson, a terminally ill patient with cancer,has decided to check herself out of the hospital “against medical advice.’’John states that he has already contacted Mrs. Jackson’s doctor, whoexpressed his concern that the patient would have inadequate pain con-trol at home and undependable family support. He believes she will diewithin a few days if she leaves the hospital. He did, however, leave ordersfor home prescriptions and a follow-up appointment.

You immediately go into Mrs. Jackson’s room to assess the situation.She tells you that the doctor has told her that she will probably die withinsix weeks and that she wants to spend what time she has left at homewith her little dog, who has been her constant companion for many years.In addition, she has many things “to put in order.’’ She states that she isfully aware of her doctor’s concerns and that she was already informed bythe day-shift nurse that leaving “against medical advice’’ may result in theinsurance company refusing to pay for her current hospitalization. Shestates that she will be leaving in 15 minutes when her ride home arrives.

When you go to the nurse’s desk to get a copy of the home prescrip-tions and follow-up doctor’s appointment for the patient, the ward clerkstates, “The hospital policy says that patients who leave against medicaladvice have to contact the physician directly for prescriptions and anappointment, because they are not legally discharged. The hospital has noobligation to provide this service. She made the choice—now let her livewith it.’’ She refuses to give a copy of the orders to you and places thepatient’s chart in her lap. Short of physically removing the chart from theward clerk’s lap, it is clear that you have no immediate access to the orders.

You confront the charge nurse, who states that the hospital policy doesgive that responsibility to the patient. She is unsure what to do and haspaged the unit director, who appears to be out of the hospital temporarily.

You are outraged. You believe the patient has the “right’’ to her prescrip-tions because the doctor ordered them, assuming she would receive thembefore she left. You also know that if the medications are not dispensed bythe hospital, there is little likelihood that Mrs. Jackson will have theresources to have the prescriptions filled. Five minutes later, Mrs. Jacksonappears at the nurse’s station, accompanied by her friend. She states she isleaving and would like her discharge prescriptions.Assignment: The power struggle in this scenario involves you, the unitclerk, the charge nurse, and organizational politics. Does the unit clerk in this scenario have informal or formal power? What alternatives foraction do you have? What are the costs or consequences of each possiblealternative? What action would you take?


Web Links

Maxi:http://www.maximag.com/toc/toc.htmlAn on-line magazine that examines women’s issues. Articles and interviews related torelationships, feminist politics, and glass ceilings.

Women Working 2000 and Beyond:http://womenworking2000.comWeb site that springs from the television special, “Women Working 2000 and Beyond.’’Offers networking contacts, wisdom, and leadership.

Political Action Links for Nurses:http://www.academic.scranton.edu/faculty/zalonm1/political.htmlLinks to workplace government organizations in health care, sponsored by the Universityof Scranton.

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When a Subordinate Goes Over Your HeadYou are the day-shift charge nurse for the intensive care unit. One of yournurses, Carol, has just requested a week off to attend a conference. She iswilling to use her accrued vacation time for this and to pay the expensesherself. The conference is in one month, and you are a little irritated withher for not coming to you sooner. Carol’s request conflicts with a vacationthat you have given another nurse. This nurse requested her vacationthree months ago.

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