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Appendix
Figure S1 partial
132"Figure S11 partial 133" 134" 135" 136"
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Abies alba
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500
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Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
● ●
Abies homolepis
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1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
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Acer barbinerve
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500
1000
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This study
None
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Acer campestre
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
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Acer ginnala
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500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
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Acer negundo
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500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
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●●
Acer platanoides
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
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Acer pseudoplatanus
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500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
High
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Acer rubrum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
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Acer saccharinum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
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Acer saccharum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
High
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Acer tataricum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
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Aesculus flava
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
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Aesculus hippocastanum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
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Aesculus parviflora
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
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●●
Alnus incana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●●
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Alnus maximowiczii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
Alnus serrulata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
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●●
Amelanchier alnifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
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●
●
Amelanchier florida
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Amelanchier laevis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Amorpha fruticosa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●
●
●
Aronia arbutifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
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Aronia melanocarpa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Berberis dielsiana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Berberis thunbergii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
●●
●
Berberis vulgaris
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
None
●
●
●
Betula lenta
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
● ●
●
Betula nana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
●
Betula papyrifera
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
NL
NL NL
NL NL
NL
NL NL
v
v
v
v
v
v
Figure S1 continued
137"Figure S11 continued 138" 139" 140" 141"
●
● ●
Betula pendula
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
● ● ●
Betula populifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Buddleja albiflora
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Buddleja alternifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
NoneBuddleja davidii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Caragana pygmaea
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Carpinus betulus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Carpinus laxiflora
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Carpinus monbeigiana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●
●
Carya cordiformis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
Carya glabra
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Carya laciniosa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High●
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●
Carya ovata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●● ●
Castanea sativa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●●
Cedrus libani
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Celastrus orbiculatus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
●
●●
Celtis caucasica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Celtis laevigata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
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●
Celtis occidentalis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
● ●
Cephalanthus occidentalis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Cercidiphyllum japonicum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Cercidiphyllum magnificum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●●
Cercis canadensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
●
Cercis chinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Cladrastis lutea
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
Clethra alnifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
Comptonia peregrina
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Cornus alba
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Cornus amomum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
● ●●
Cornus kousa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
NL NL
●
● ●
Betula pendula
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
● ● ●
Betula populifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Buddleja albiflora
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Buddleja alternifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Buddleja davidii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Caragana pygmaea
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Carpinus betulus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Carpinus laxiflora
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Carpinus monbeigiana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●
●
Carya cordiformis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
Carya glabra
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Carya laciniosa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High●
●
●
Carya ovata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●● ●
Castanea sativa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●●
Cedrus libani
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Celastrus orbiculatus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
●
●●
Celtis caucasica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Celtis laevigata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
●
Celtis occidentalis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
● ●
Cephalanthus occidentalis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Cercidiphyllum japonicum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Cercidiphyllum magnificum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●●
Cercis canadensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
●
Cercis chinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Cladrastis lutea
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
Clethra alnifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
Comptonia peregrina
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Cornus alba
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Cornus amomum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
● ●●
Cornus kousa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
NL NL
v
v
v
v
Figure S1 continued
142"Figure S11 continued 143" 144" 145" 146"
●● ●
Cornus mas
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●●
●
Corylopsis sinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Corylopsis spicata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Corylus americana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
●● ●
Corylus avellana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Corylus heterophylla
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Corylus sieboldiana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Decaisnea fargesii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●●
●
Deutzia gracilis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Deutzia scabra
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●● ●
Elaeagnus umbellata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
None
● ●●
Elaeagnus ebbingei
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ● ●
Eleutherococcus senticosus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●●
Eleutherococcus setchuensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Eleutherococcus sieboldianus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Euonymus alatus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
● ●
●
Euonymus europaeus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
Euonymus latifolius
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●●
●
Fagus crenata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
●
Fagus engleriana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
Fagus grandifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Fagus orientalis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
●
Fagus sylvatica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●●
Forsythia ovata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Forsythia suspensa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
Fraxinus americana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
●●
●
Fraxinus chinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●
●●
Fraxinus excelsior
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●●
●
Fraxinus latifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate●
●
●
Fraxinus ornus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
NL NL
NL
NL
Figure S1 continued
147"Figure S11 continued 148" 149" 150" 151"
● ●●
Fraxinus pensylvanica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●●
●
Gaylussacia baccata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
● ●
Ginkgo biloba
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Hamamelis japonica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Hamamelis vernalis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●●
●
Hamamelis viginiana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●●
Heptacodium miconioides
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Hibiscus syriacus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Hydrangea arborescens
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Hydrangea involucrata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Hydrangea serrata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Juglans ailantifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●
●●
Juglans cinerea
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●●
●
Juglans regia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●
●
Kalmia angustifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
●
Kalmia latifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●● ●
Larix decidua
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●●
●
Larix gmelinii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Larix kaempferi
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●● ●
Ligustrum compactum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
None
●● ●
Ligustrum ibota
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
None
●
●
●
Ligustrum tschonoskii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
Lindera benzoin
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Liquidambar orientalis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Liquidambar styraciflua
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Liriodendron tulipifera
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
● ● ●
Lonicera alpigena
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●● ●
Lonicera caerulea
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●● ●
Lonicera maackii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
None
●● ●
Lonicera maximowiczii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
NL NL
NL NL
NL
Figure S1 continued
152"Figure S11 continued 153" 154" 155" 156" 157"
●● ●
Lonicera subsesillis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
None
●●
●
Malus domestica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
●●
●
Metasequoia glyptostroboides
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Myrica pensylvanica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●●
Nothofagus antarctica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
Nyssa sylvatica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●● ●
Oemleria cerasiformis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Orixa japonica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
● ●
●
Ostrya carpinifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Ostrya virginiana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
● ● ●
Paeonia rockii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Parrotia persica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Parrotiopsis jaquemontiana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Photinia villosa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Picea abies
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Pinus nigra
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●
●
●
Pinus strobus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●
●●
Pinus sylvestris
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●
●●
Pinus wallichiana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●
Populus grandidentata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
● ●●
Populus koreana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Populus tremula
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
High
● ● ●
Prinsepia sinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ● ●
Prinsepia uniflora
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Prunus avium
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●
● ●
Prunus cerasifera
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ● ●
Prunus padus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Prunus serotina
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●●
●
Prunus serrulata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Prunus tenella
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
NL NL
NL NL
Figure S1 continued
158"Figure S11 continued 159" 160" 161" 162" 163"
●
● ●
Pseudotsuga menziesii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●
●
●
Ptelea trifoliata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Pyrus elaeagnifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Pyrus pyrifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Pyrus ussuriensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
Quercus alba
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Quercus bicolor
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
High
●
●●
Quercus robur
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
Quercus rubra
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
High
●
●●
Quercus shumardii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Rhamnus alpina
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
● ●
Rhamnus cathartica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
●
Rhamnus frangula
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Rhododendron canadense
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Rhododendron dauricum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●● ●
Rhododendron mucronulatum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Rhus typhina
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Ribes alpinum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Ribes divaricatum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
● ● ●
Ribes glaciale
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Robinia pseudoacacia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
● ●●
Rosa hugonis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●●
Rosa majalis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Rosa multiflora
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
● ●●
Salix gracilistyla
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Salix repens
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●●
Sambucus nigra
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Sambucus pubens
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Sambucus tigranii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
Sassafras albidum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
NL NL
NL NL
NL
Figure S1 continued
164"Figure S11 continued 165" 166" 167" 168" 169"
●●
●
Sinowilsonia henryi
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
Smilax rotundifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Sorbus aria
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
● ●
Sorbus commixta
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Sorbus decora
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Spiraea canescens
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Spiraea chamaedryfolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Spiraea japonica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Spiraea latifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
● ●
●
Stachyurus praecox
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Stachyurus sinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Symphoricarpos albus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●
●
●
Syringa josikaea
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Syringa reticulata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●
●
Syringa villosa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Syringa vulgaris
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●
●
●
Tilia dasystyla
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
● ●●
Tilia japonica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Tilia platyphyllos
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Toona sinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Ulmus amerciana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
●
Ulmus laevis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
● ●
Vaccinium angustifolium
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
●
●
●
Vaccinium corymbosum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●●
●
Vaccinium pallidum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
● ●
Viburnum betulifolium
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
Viburnum buddleifolium
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●●
●
Viburnum carlesii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Viburnum opulus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Viburnum plicatum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
NL NL
NL
Figure S1 Results of twig cutting experiments to study the effect of chilling on forcing
requirements until leaf-out in 215 temperate woody species, conducted in Laube et al. (2014),
Polgar et al. (2014), and Zohner et al. (2016) (see Appendix Table S1 and S2). Graphs show
median growing degree days >0°C outdoors and in climate chamber (± SD) until leaf-out in
215 woody species at three different cutting dates (C1, C2, C3): Zohner et al. (2016), C1 = 21
Dec 2013, C2 = 10 Feb 2014, C3 = 21 March 2014; Laube et al. (2014), C1 = 14 Dec 2011,
C2 = 30 Jan 2012, C3 = 14 March 2012; Polgar et al. (2014), C1 = 8 Jan 2013, C2 = 14 Feb
2013, C3 = 20 March 2013). Lines in dark blue: species assigned to the category high chilling
requirements; blue: species assigned to the category intermediate chilling requirements; light
blue: species assigned to the category no chilling requirements (see Material and Methods for
classification rules). NL: no leaf-out within study period. Some species leafed out before the
last cutting date (C3), and in this case we show the degree days required until leaf-out in the
field for the same individuals.
170" 171"
Figure S11 | Chilling requirements of 215 temperate woody species. The importance of 172"chilling for subsequent bud development (none, intermediate, or high chilling requirements) 173"was inferred from twig cutting experiments conducted in Zohner & Renner 2016, Laube et al., 174"and Polgar et al. 2014 (see label below each graph). Graphs show forcing requirements 175"(median growing degree days >0°C outdoors and in climate chamber ± SD) until leaf-out in 176"215 woody species at three different cutting dates (Zohner & Renner 2016: C1 = 21 Dec 177"2013, C2 = 10 Feb 2014, C3 = 21 March 2014; Laube et al. 2014: C1 = 14 Dec 2011, C2 = 30 178"Jan 2012, C3 = 14 March 2012; Polgar et al. 2014; C1 = 9 Jan 2013, C2 = 17 Feb 2013, C3 = 179"22 March 2013). Lines in dark blue: species assigned to the category high chilling 180"requirements; blue: species assigned to the category intermediate chilling requirements; light 181"blue: species assigned to the category no chilling requirements. NL indicates that no leaf-out 182"occurred at the repective cutting date. Some species leafed out before the last cutting date 183"(C3), and in this case we show the degree days required until leaf-out in the field for the same 184"individuals. 185" 186" 187" 188" 189" 190" 191" 192" 193" 194" 195" 196" 197" 198" 199" 200"
●●
●
Viburnum recognitum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Vitis aestivalis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●●
Weigela coraeensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●
●
Weigela florida
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Weigela maximowiczii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Spiraea canescens
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Spiraea chamaedryfolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Spiraea japonica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Spiraea latifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
● ●
●
Stachyurus praecox
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Stachyurus sinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Symphoricarpos albus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●
●
●
Syringa josikaea
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Syringa reticulata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●
●
Syringa villosa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Syringa vulgaris
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●
●
●
Tilia dasystyla
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
● ●●
Tilia japonica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Tilia platyphyllos
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Toona sinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Ulmus amerciana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
●
Ulmus laevis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
● ●
Vaccinium angustifolium
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
●
●
●
Vaccinium corymbosum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●●
●
Vaccinium pallidum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
● ●
Viburnum betulifolium
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
Viburnum buddleifolium
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●●
●
Viburnum carlesii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Viburnum opulus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Viburnum plicatum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●●
●
Viburnum recognitum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●
●
Vitis aestivalis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
●●
Weigela coraeensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●
●
Weigela florida
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Weigela maximowiczii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Spiraea canescens
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Spiraea chamaedryfolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Spiraea japonica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Spiraea latifolia
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
● ●
●
Stachyurus praecox
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Stachyurus sinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
● ●
Symphoricarpos albus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
Intermediate
●
●
●
Syringa josikaea
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Syringa reticulata
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
● ●
●
Syringa villosa
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●●
●
Syringa vulgaris
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Laube et al. 2014
None
●
●
●
Tilia dasystyla
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
● ●●
Tilia japonica
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●●
Tilia platyphyllos
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Toona sinensis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
●
●
Ulmus amerciana
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
●
●
Ulmus laevis
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●
● ●
Vaccinium angustifolium
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
Intermediate
●
●
●
Vaccinium corymbosum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●●
●
Vaccinium pallidum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Polgar 2014
High
●
● ●
Viburnum betulifolium
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●
Viburnum buddleifolium
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
High
●●
●
Viburnum carlesii
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
None
●
● ●
Viburnum opulus
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
●
●●
Viburnum plicatum
0
500
1000
1500
2000
This study
Intermediate
C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
Figure S2 Phylogeny of 374 temperate woody species with mean leaf-out dates observed in
the Munich Botanical Garden (between 2012 and 2015) indicated by colours and the
outermost bars. Pagel’s λ = 0.81, P < 0.001; Blomberg’s K = 0.06, P < 0.001.
10" 11"
12"Extended Data Figure 2 | Phylogeny of 374 woody temperate species with average leaf-13"out dates in Munich (2012 to 2015) indicated by colours and the outermost bars. The tree 14"was built with MEGAPTERA (46) and BEAST (47) and is based on sequence information 15"from four plastid loci (atpB, ndhF, matK, rbcL). Pagel’s λ = 0.81, P < 0.001; Blomberg’s K = 16"0.06, P < 0.001. 17" 18"
19"
Taxus baccata Sequoiadendron giganteum Metasequoia glyptostroboides Juniperus sabina Juniperus communis Thuja plicata Larix kaempferi Larix decidua Larix gmelinii Picea glehnii Picea omorika Picea asperata Picea abies Pinus armandii Pinus ponderosa Pinus banksiana Cedrus libani Abies alba Tsuga canadensis
Ginkgo biloba Decaisnea fargesii Akebia quinata
Berberis thunbergii
Berberis vulgaris Berberis amurensis
Berberis vernae Berberis concinna
Berberis actinacantha
Berberis koreana
Clematis ligusticifolia
Menispermum dauricum
Philadelphus sericanthus
Philadelphus satsumi
Philadelphus pekinensis
Philadelphus subcanus
Philadelphus coronarius
Philadelphus lewisii
Philadelphus pubesce
ns
Hydrangea macrophylla
Hydrangea serra
ta
Hydrangea anomala
Hydrangea involucra
ta
Hydrangea heteromalla
Hydran
gea p
anicu
lata
Hydran
gea a
rbores
cens
Deutzia
scab
ra
Deutzia
corym
bosa
Deutzia
grac
ilis
Davidia
invo
lucrat
a
Nys
sa sy
lvatic
a
Corn
us al
ternif
olia
Corn
us co
ntrov
ersa
Corn
us fo
emina
Corn
us ra
cemos
a
Corn
us se
ricea
Cor
nus a
lba
Cor
nus b
retsc
hneid
eri
Cor
nus s
angu
inea
Cor
nus w
alter
i
Cor
nus m
as
Cor
nus o
fficina
lis
Cor
nus k
ousa
Cor
nus f
lorida
Vac
cinium
angu
stifol
ium
Vac
cinium
ulig
inosu
m
Rho
dode
ndro
n ye
doen
se
Rho
dode
ndro
n ca
nade
nse
Rho
dode
ndro
n m
ucro
nulat
um
Rho
dode
ndro
n sc
hlipp
enba
chii
Enk
ianth
us ca
mpa
nulat
us
Ste
warti
a ps
eudo
cam
ellia
Ste
warti
a m
onad
elpha
Dios
pyro
s virg
inian
a
Per
iploc
a gr
aeca
Cep
hala
nthu
s oc
ciden
talis
Abe
lioph
yllum
dist
ichum
For
syth
ia s
uspe
nsa
For
syth
ia o
vata
Syr
inga
villo
sa
Syr
inga
pub
esce
ns
Syr
inga
pat
ula
Syr
inga
am
uren
sis
Syr
inga
retic
ulat
a
Lig
ustru
m v
ulga
re
Syr
inga
vul
garis
Syr
inga
obl
ata
Jas
min
um n
udiflo
rum
Fra
xinus
exc
elsio
r
Fra
xinus
ang
ustif
olia
Fra
xinus
chi
nens
is F
raxin
us o
rnus
Fra
xinus
latif
olia
Fra
xinus
tom
ento
sa
Fraxinus americana
Fraxinus longicuspis Buddleja alternifolia
Buddleja davidii Catalpa fargesii
Eucomm
ia ulmoides
Viburnum lentago
Viburnum burejaeticum
Viburnum carlesii
Viburnum prunifolium
Viburnum nudum
Viburnum farreri
Viburnum plicatum
Viburnum m
olle
Viburnum setigerum
Viburnum dentatum
Viburnum betulifolium
Viburnum erubescens
Viburnum lantana
Viburnum opulus
Viburnum buddleifolium
Sambucus pubens
Sambucus racem
osa
Sambucus nigra
Weigela praecox
Weigela florida
Symphoricarpos rotundifolius
Symphoricarpos oreophilus
Lonicera tangutica
Lonicera periclymenum
Lonicera maackii
Lonicera xylosteum
Lonicera caerulea
Lonicera maximowiczii
Lonicera webbiana
Heptacodium miconioides
Abelia mosanensis
Kolkwitzia amabilis
Eleutherococcus senticosus
Eleutherococcus sieboldianus
Kalopanax septemlobus
Staphylea colchica
Staphylea pinnata
Staphylea trifoliata
Stachyurus chinensis
Stachyurus praecox
Daphne laureola
Hibiscus syriacus
Tilia platyphyllos
Toona sinensis
Orixa japonica
Phellodendron amurense
Tetradium daniellii
Zanthoxylum simulans
Ptelea trifoliata
Poncirus trifoliata
Picrasma quassioides
Aesculus parviflora
Aesculus glabra
Aesculus flava
Aesculus hippocastanum
Acer saccharinum Acer rubrum
Acer shirasawanum
Acer palmatum Acer negundo
Acer diabolicum Acer tataricum
Acer tegmentosum Acer saccharum
Acer griseum
Acer pensylvanicum Acer crataegifolium Acer davidii Acer campestre
Acer platanoides Acer henryi Acer barbinerve Euonymus macropterus
Euonymus oxyphyllus Euonymus latifolius Euonymus fortunei Euonymus verrucosus Euonymus alatus Euonymus europaeus Euonymus hamiltonianus Idesia polycarpa Salix gracilistyla Salix magnifica Salix caprea Salix repens
Salix rosmarinifolia Salix alba
Populus koreana Flueggea suffruticosa
Rhamnus frangula Rhamnus cathartica
Broussonetia papyrifera
Celtis occidentalis
Celtis laevigata
Ulmus laevis
Ulmus americana
Ulmus glabra
Zelkova serrata
Zelkova schneideriana
Elaeagnus pungens
Elaeagnus umbellata
Elaeagnus ebbingei
Hippophae rhamnoides
Shepherdia argentea
Prunus serrulata
Prunus subhirtella
Prunus padus
Prunus virginiana
Prunus serotina
Prunus grayana
Prunus angustifolia
Prunus tenella
Prunus cerasifera
Prunus spinosa
Malus sieboldii
Malus halliana
Malus hupehensis
Malus prattii
Malus floribunda
Malus spectabilis
Malus prunifolia
Malus baccata
Malus fusca
Malus orientalis
Malus ioensis
Sorbus decora
Sorbus aucuparia
Cydonia oblonga
Pyracantha co
ccinea
Crataegus monogyna
Crataegus laevi
gata
Cratae
gus p
ersimilis
Cratae
gus m
ollis
Cratae
gus s
ubmolli
s
Cratae
gus c
hryso
carpa
Cratae
gus c
rus−g
alli
Mespilu
s germ
anica
Photin
ia vill
osa
Amelanc
hier a
lnifol
ia
Amelanc
hier la
evis
Chaen
omele
s cath
ayen
sis
Chaen
omele
s spe
ciosa
Chaen
omele
s jap
onica
Aron
ia mela
noca
rpa
Pyru
s call
erya
na
Pyru
s pyri
folia
Pyru
s uss
urien
sis
Pyru
s elae
agnif
olia
Coton
easte
r acu
tifoliu
s
Coton
easte
r nige
r
Coton
easte
r fov
eolat
us
Coton
easte
r fra
nche
tii
Coto
neas
ter m
ultiflo
rus
Coto
neas
ter d
ivaric
atus
Coto
neas
ter d
ielsia
nus
Coto
neas
ter a
cum
inatu
s
Coto
neas
ter h
orizo
ntali
s
Coto
neas
ter a
dpre
ssus
Coto
neas
ter m
oupin
ensis
Coto
neas
ter s
imon
sii
Coto
neas
ter h
arry
smith
ii
Oem
leria
cera
sifor
mis
Exoc
hord
a ra
cem
osa
Prin
sepi
a un
iflora
Pr
inse
pia
sinen
sis
Sorb
aria
sor
bifo
lia
Sorb
aria
arb
orea
Ne
illia
thib
etica
Ke
rria
japo
nica
Sp
iraea
sal
icifo
lia
Spira
ea m
iyabe
i Sp
iraea
cha
mae
dryf
olia
Sp
iraea
trich
ocar
pa
Rosa
alb
a Ro
sa b
land
a Ro
sa s
erice
a Ro
sa m
ultif
lora
Ro
sa c
entif
olia
Ro
sa w
illmot
tiae
Rosa
car
olin
a Ro
sa ru
gosa
Rosa spinosissima
Rosa acicularis Rubus allegheniensis Rubus parvifolius Alnus incana Alnus glutinosa Alnus firm
a Betula pendula Betula nana Betula dahurica Betula m
aximowicziana
Betula ermanii
Betula lenta Betula populifolia
Corylus avellana Corylus heterophylla
Corylus sieboldiana Corylus colurna
Corylus americana
Ostrya carpinifolia Ostrya virginiana
Carpinus betulus Carpinus m
onbeigiana
Carpinus laxiflora Carya ovata
Carya laciniosa Carya cordiform
is
Juglans nigra Juglans regia
Juglans ailanthifolia
Juglans mandshurica
Juglans microcarpa
Quercus rubra
Quercus bicolor
Quercus alba
Quercus macrocarpa
Quercus robur
Quercus mongolica
Quercus variabilis
Quercus cerris
Castanea sativa
Fagus engleriana
Fagus crenata
Fagus sylvatica
Fagus orientalis
Nothofagus antarctica
Cercis canadensis
Cercis chinensis
Cladrastis lutea
Cytisophyllum sessilifolium
Petteria ramentacea
Spartium junceum
Robinia pseudoacacia
Caragana pygmaea
Caragana aurantiaca
Amorpha fruticosa
Gymnocladus dioicus
Gleditsia caspica
Gleditsia sinensis
Gleditsia japonica
Paeonia rockii
Ribes glaciale
Ribes alpinum
Ribes himalense
Ribes uva−crispa
Liquidambar orientalis
Liquidambar styraciflua
Cercidiphyllum magnificum
Cercidiphyllum japonicum
Sinowilsonia henryi
Parrotia persica
Hamamelis virginiana
Hamamelis mollis
Hamamelis vernalis
Hamamelis japonica
Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana
Corylopsis spicata
Corylopsis sinensis
Asimina triloba
Schisandra chinensis
Liriodendron tulipifera
Magnolia macrophylla
Magnolia denudata
Magnolia salicifolia
Magnolia zenii
Magnolia kobus
Magnolia tripetala
Magnolia sieboldii
Magnolia acuminata
Aristolochia macrophylla
Sassafras albidum Lindera benzoin Calycanthus floridus Chimonanthus praecox
24 Feb
5 May
Leaf-out date 24 Feb 31 March 5 May
0
Fagales
Faba
les
Saxi
fraga
les
Mag
nolii
ds
Gym
nosperms
Ranunculales
Cornales
Ericales
Gentianales
Lamiales
Dipsacales
Crossoso
matales M
alvale
s
Sapi
ndal
es
Cel
astra
les
Mal
pgig
hial
es
Rosales
Figure S3 Phylogeny of 180 temperate woody species with their chilling requirements
indicated by the colours.
20"
21"
22"
23"
24"
25"
26"
27"
28"
29"
30"
31"
32"
33"
34"
35"
36"
37"
38"
39"
40"
41"
42"
Extended Data Figure 3 | Phylogeny of 180 woody temperate species with their chilling 43"requirements indicated by the colours. The tree was built with MEGAPTERA (46) and 44"BEAST (47) and is based on sequence information from four plastid loci (atpB, matK, ndhF, 45"rbcL). 46"
Sassafras_albidumLindera_benzoin
Liriodendron_tulipifera
Stachyurus_praecoxStachyurus_chinensisTilia_platyphyllosHibiscus_syriacus
Toona_sinensisOrixa_japonicaPtelea_trifoliata
Rhus_typhina
Acer_campestreAcer_barbinerveAcer_rubrumAcer_saccharinum
Acer_pseudoplatanusAcer_negundo
Aesculus_hippocastanumAesculus_flava
Aesculus_parviflora
Oemleria_cerasiformisPrinsepia_sinensisPrinsepia_uniflora
Prunus_serotinaPrunus_padusPrunus_tenellaPrunus_cerasiferaPrunus_serrulataPrunus_avium
Spiraea_chamaedryfolia
Pyrus_ussuriensisPyrus_pyrifolia
Pyrus_elaeagnifolia
Amelanchier_alnifoliaAmelanchier_laevisAronia_melanocarpa
Sorbus_decoraSorbus_aria
Photinia_villosa
Rosa_multiflora
Elaeagnus_umbellataElaeagnus_ebbingei
Rhamnus_catharticaRhamnus_frangula
Rhamnus_alpina
Ulmus_laevisUlmus_americanaCeltis_occidentalisCeltis_laevigata
Nothofagus_antarctica
Myrica_pensylvanicaComptonia_peregrinaJuglans_cinereaJuglans_regia
Carya_glabraCarya_cordiformisCarya_ovata
Carya_laciniosa
Betula_populifoliaBetula_lentaBetula_papyrifera
Betula_pendulaBetula_nana
Alnus_serrulataAlnus_incana
Carpinus_monbeigianaCarpinus_laxifloraCarpinus_betulus
Ostrya_virginianaOstrya_carpinifolia
Corylus_sieboldianaCorylus_heterophylla
Corylus_avellanaCorylus_americana
Fagus_grandifolia
Fagus_englerianaFagus_crenata
Fagus_orientalisFagus_sylvatica
Quercus_bicolorQuercus_alba
Castanea_sativa
Quercus_rubraQuercus_robur
Amorpha_fruticosaRobinia_pseudoacaciaCaragana_pygmaea
Cladrastis_lutea
Cercis_canadensisCercis_chinensis
Celastrus_orbiculatusEuonymus_europaeusEuonymus_alatusEuonymus_latifoliusSalix_gracilistylaSalix_repens
Populus_grandidentataPopulus_tremula
Populus_koreana
Liquidambar_orientalisLiquidambar_styracifluaCercidiphyllum_japonicumCercidiphyllum_magnificum
Hamamelis_vernalisHamamelis_japonica
Hamamelis_virginianaParrotia_persicaSinowilsonia_henryi
Corylopsis_sinensisCorylopsis_spicata
Ribes_alpinumRibes_glaciale
Paeonia_rockii
Cornus_masCornus_amomumCornus_alba
Cornus_kousa
Hydrangea_involucrataHydrangea_arborescens
Hydrangea_serrata
Deutzia_scabraDeutzia_gracilis
Nyssa_sylvatica
Lonicera_caeruleaLonicera_maackii
Lonicera_maximowicziiSymphoricarpos_albusHeptacodium_miconioidesWeigela_florida
Viburnum_carlesiiEleutherococcus_sieboldianusEleutherococcus_senticosusSambucus_nigraSambucus_racemosa
Viburnum_plicatum
Viburnum_buddleifoliumViburnum_betulifoliumViburnum_opulus
Cephalanthus_occidentalis
Buddleja_davidiiBuddleja_alternifolia
Buddleja_albiflora
Ligustrum_compactum
Syringa_villosaSyringa_reticulata
Syringa_vulgaris
Forsythia_suspensaForsythia_ovata
Fraxinus_chinensisFraxinus_ornus
Fraxinus_excelsior
Fraxinus_latifoliaFraxinus_americanaFraxinus_pennsylvanica
Clethra_alnifolia
Rhododendron_canadenseRhododendron_mucronulatumKalmia_latifoliaKalmia_angustifolia
Vaccinium_angustifoliumGaylussacia_baccata
Vaccinium_corymbosum
Berberis_thunbergiiBerberis_vulgaris
Decaisnea_fargesiiSmilax_rotundifolia
Ginkgo_biloba
Pinus_wallichianaPinus_strobusPinus_nigraPinus_sylvestris
Picea_abies
Larix_gmeliniiLarix_kaempferiLarix_decidua
Pseudotsuga_menziesii
Cedrus_libaniAbies_albaAbies_homolepis
Metasequoia_glyptostroboides
Chilling requirements High
Intermediate
None
200 mya 100 mya 0
Fagales Rosales Fabales
Malpighiales Celastrales Sapindales Malvales Crossosomatales Saxifragales Lamiales Dipsacales Cornales Ericales Ranunculales Magnoliids Coniferales
Figure S4 PHYLOMATIC tree modified from Panchen et al. (2014) containing 1630 species.
4.0
Viburnum_dilatatum
Rhamnus_pentapomica
Oxydendrum_arboreum
Ligustrum_ovalifolium
Lonicera_elisae
Cotoneaster_nummularius
Euonymus_sieboldianus
Potentilla_phyllocalyx
Abies_veitchii
Rosa_caesia
Prunus_ramburii
Viburnum_m
olle
Castanea_cre
nata
Celtis_bungeana
Paeonia
_rockii
Ilex_ma
ximowi
cziana
Rubus_allegheniensis
Acer_micranthum
Berberis_sp
haerocarpa
Lonicera_demissa
Cytisus_supinus
Quercus_ro
tundifolia
Syringa_oblata
Betula_ermanii
Kalmia_angustifolia
Pieris_floribunda
Populus_tomentosa
Berberis_wils
onae
Rosa_palustris
Betula_pendula
Taxodium_distichum
Acer_velutinum
Sorbaria_kirilowii
Berberis_
chinensis
Crataegus_monogyna
Rhododendron_obtusum
Lonicera_hirsuta
Firmia
na_sim
plex
Crataegus_harbisonii
Styphnolobium_japonica
Ribes_
cynosb
ati
Fraxinus_mandshurica
Berberis_d
ielsiana
Andromeda_glaucophylla
Diospyros_cathayensis
Euonymus_maackii
Sorbus_yuana
Liquidam
bar_aca
lycina
Alnus_japonica
Rosa_blanda
Cornus_ebulos
Salix_pentandra
Enkianthus_campanulatus
Spiraea_fritschiana
Cephalotaxus_diveri
Berberis_po
iretii
Abies_cilicica
Malus_malifolia
Diospyros_virginiana
Philadelphus_pekinensis
Deutzia_myriantha
Caragana_pygmaea
Chosenia_arbutifolia
Rhododendron_caroliniuanum
Crataegus_poliophylla
Quercus
_fabri
Cotoneaster_franchetii
Ribes_
americ
anum
Berberis_
amurens
is
Crataegus_lucorum
Picea_sitchensis
Tilia_t
oment
osa
Cotoneaster_adpressus
Eucommia_ulmoides
Rosa_oxyodon
Sorbus_decora
Malus_sylvestris
Stachy
urus_p
raecox
Quercus_
marilandic
a
Celtis_jessoensis
Syringa_pubescens
Cornus_rugosa
Crataegus_persimilis
Berberis_
candidula
Ilex_op
aca
Euonymus_macropterus
Elaeagnus_angustifolia
Viburnum_hupehense
Syringa_josikaea
Rhododendron_alabam
ense
Picea_obovata
Callicarpa_americana
Ulmus_laciniata
Physocarpus_opulifolius
Pyrus_nipponica
Juglans_regia
Ulmus_pumila
Paliurus_spinachristi
Quercus
_falcata
Rhus_coriaria
Pistacia_terebinthus
Sorbus_pohuashanensis
Picea_crassifolia
Buxus_m
icrophyl
la
Celtis_occidentalis
Pseudolarix_amabilis
Pinus_banksiana
Betula_grossa
Hypericum_buckleyi
Malus_sieversii
Carpinus_fargesiana
Prunus_tomentosa
Sinowils
onia_he
nryi
Fallopia
_aubert
ii
Weigela_praecox
Sinojackia_sinensis
Fraxinus_baroniana
Idesia_polycarpa
Deutzia_am
urensis
Rhododendron_maximum
Ribes_
aureum
Euonymus_fortunei
Hydrangea_anom
ala
Malus_tschonoskii
Rhus_chinensis
Ligustrum_vulgare
Quercus
_cerris
Clematis_vitalba
Aescu
lus_turbinata
Cotoneaster_mongolicus
Gleditsia_caspica
Ilex_pe
rnyi
Carpinus_laxiflora
Morus_rubra
Pinus_henryi
Pistacia_chinensis
Ptelea_trifoliata
Lonicera_xylosteum
Quercus_
libani
Rhus_glabra
Ulmus_thomasii
Leitneria_
floridana
Carya_glabra
Picea_meyerii
Juniperus_virginiana
Betula_insignis
Aronia_melanocarpa
Berberis_ju
lianae
Prunus_lanata
Forsythia_viridissima
Crataegus_dahurica
Rhododendron_prinophyllum
Staphy
lea_ho
locarpa
Dirca_o
ccident
alis
Cotoneaster_dielsianus
Berberis_
dictyophy
lla
Pyrus_betulifolia
Cotoneaster_microphyllus
Vitis_betulifolia
Eleutherococcus_seoulensis
Corylus_chinensis
Lonicera_orientalis
Vitis_piasez
kii
Syringa_persica
Cytisus_scoparius
Tilia_m
andshu
rica
Ribes_
maxim
owiczi
i
Rosa_inodora
Rosa_henryi
Buddleja_davidii
Lindera_neesiana
Campsis_radicans
Lonicera_ferdinandi
Weigela_subsessilis
Rubus_phoenicolasius
Ligustrum_compactum
Pyxidanthera_barbulata
Cocculus_trilobus
Crataegus_chrysocarpa
Rhododendron_viscosum
Rosa_glauca
Maackia_floribunda
Maackia_amurensis
Forestiera_neomexicana
Gleditsia_aquatica
Acer_elegantulum
Neillia_affinis
Flueggea_suffruticosa
Ribes_
sachalinense
Berberis_vire
scens
Clematis_apii
folia
Picea_likiangensis
Exochorda_racemosa
Rosa_pendulina
Vaccinium_vitis-idaea
Crataegus_crus-galli
Ulmus_crassifolia
Malus_toringoides
Neillia_thibetica
Cephalotaxus_harringtonia
Rhododendron_luteum
Lonicera_myrtillus
Acer_wuyuanense
Salix_repens
Vaccinium_m
acrocarpon
Sorbus_aucuparia
Rhamnus_davurica
Symphoricarpos_occidentalis
Acer_olivaceum
Weigela_coraeensis
Sorbus_commixta
Sorbus_wilfordii
Crataegus_paucispina
Hydrangea_macrophylla
Malus_robusta
Populus_koreana
Exochorda_serratifolia
Rosa_xanthina
Weigela_hortensis
Quercus_
ilicifolia
Cyclocarya_paliurus
Cytisophyllum_sessilifolium
Syringa_tomentella
Aralia_spinosaLeptodermis_oblonga
Stranvaesia_davidiana
Acer_platanoides
Ilex_ma
crocarpa
Viburnum_bitchiuense
Sophora_davidii
Jasminum_nudiflorum
Rhododendron_minus
Spiraea_tomentosa
Pyrus_bretschneideri
Fraxinus_crimensis
Fagus_engleri
ana
Spiraea_latifolia
Berberis_
angulosa
Syringa_vulgaris
Hypericum_frondosum
Ilex_ve
rticillata
Rosa_macrophylla
Spiraea_crenata
Clematis_ligus
ticifolia
Mespilus_germanica
Salix_candida
Salix_caprea
Orixa_
japonica
Lonicera_bracteolaris
Philadelphus_incanus
Sarcococ
ca_humil
is
Cytisus_villosus
Partheno
cissus
_inserta
Fraxinus_pennsylvanica
Ilex_sh
ennong
jiaensis
Ulmus_davidiana
Betula_turkestanica
Zelkova_schneiderianaBerbe
ris_hispan
ica
Pinus_monticola
Fraxinus_chinensis
Betula_uber
Taxus_mairei
Deutzia_carnea
Dirca_p
alustris
Celtis_sinensis
Carpinus_orientalis
Thuja_plicata
Salix_aurita
Halesia_diptera
Calluna_vulgaris
Rhododendron_auriculatum
Rhododendron_searsiae
Philadelphus_subcanus
Lonicera_gracilipes
Broussonetia_kazinoki
Malus_prattii
Abelia_zanderi
Halesia_carolina
Quercus_
imbricaria
Betula_tatewakiana
Cotoneaster_acutifolius
Larix_kaempferi
Sorbaria_arborea
Fagus_orienta
lis
Corylus_cornuta
Rhamnus_cathartica
Cercis_chinensis
Weigela_m
aximowiczii
Pinus_ponderosa
Spiraea_japonica
Crataegus_nitida
Spiraea_chinensis
Clematis_viticella
Cornus_m
as
Rhododendron_catawbiense
Clethra_alnifolia
Ligustrum_tschonoskii
Taxus_floridana
Lonicera_maxim
owiczii
Ribes_
succiru
brum
Tilia_m
ongolic
a
Viburnum_m
elanocarpum
Actinidia_arguta
Decumaria_barbara
Heptacodium_miconioides
Pinus_sibirica
Viburnum_cassinoides
Cotoneaster_racemiflorus
Rhododendron_calendulaceum
Nyssa_aquatica
Forsythia_girrauldiana
Daphne
_girald
ii
Elaeagnus_umbellata
Rosa_pteragonisExochorda_tianschanica
Asimina_triloba
Eleutherococcus_sessiliflorus
Abies_holophylla
Abies_sibirica
Euonymus_oxyphyllus
Fraxinus_americana
Spiraea_myrtilloides
Lonicera_chaetocarpaDipelta_floribunda
Lonicera_graebneri
Helw
ingia_japonica
Berberis_
concinna
Cistus_laurif
olius
Betula_platyphylla
Indigofera_decora
Amelanchier_florida
Gardenia_jasminoides
Viburnum_lanatoides
Fraxinus_nigra
Lonicera_iberica
Carya_ovalis
Crataegus_fastosa
Rhododendron_japonicum
Sinojackia_xylocarpa
Rosa_virginiana
Celastrus_rosthornianus
Crataegus_uniflora
Rosa_gallica
Quercus_
hartwissia
na
Rosa_schrenkiana
Rosa_roxburghii
Fagus_grandif
olia
Fraxinus_excelsior
Aesculus_flava
Pinus_mugo
Carpinus_monbeigiana
Populus_tremula
Pinus_lambertiana
Itea_virginica
Lembotropis_nigricans
Rhododendron_praevernum
Picea_asperata
Elaeagnus_ebbingei
Aescu
lus_hippocastanum
Parrotio
psis_jac
quemon
tiana
Crataegus_succulenta
Cedrus_atlantica
Deutzia_grandiflora
Pinus_bungeana
Crataegus_mollis
Symphoricarpos_hesperius
Pinus_cembra
Picea_glehnii
Berberis_
aggregat
a
Salix_purpurea
Crataegus_flavida
Cotinus_coggygria
Caragana_frutex
Picea_koyamai
Lonicera_reticulata
Morus_alba
Celastrus_orbiculatus
Salix_
pierotti
Berberis_ko
reana
Magnolia_sieboldii
Lonicera_fragrantissima
Tilia_h
eterop
hylla
Betula_procurva
Lonicera_lanata
Fallugia_paradoxa
Corylus_sieboldiana
Ephedra_minuta
Vitis_ripa
ria
Albizia_julibrissin
Betula_chichibuensi
s
Fraxinus_tomentosa
Lycium_chinense
Populus_bolleana
Acer_macrophyllum
Euonymus_lanceifolius
Cotoneaster_procumbens
Abies_pinsapo
Colutea_persica
Fagus_sylvatic
a
Salix_nigra
Rosa_setigera
Chionanthus_retusus
Prunus_pumila
Viburnum_flavescens
Salix_aegyptica
Cornus_sericea
Cornus_poliophylla
Acer_griseum
Crataegus_praecoqua
Pieris_japonica
Crataegus_phaenopyrum
Amelanchier_ovalis
Ligustrum_japonicum
Picea_omorika
Corem
a_conradii
Epigaea_repens
Vaccinium_stamineum
Berberis_
ottawensis
Rosa_transmorrisonensis
Sorbus_sitchensis
Tsuga_canadensis
Larix_gmelinii
Cotoneaster_salicifolius
Callicarpa_kwantungensis
Forsythia_ovata
Populus_canadensis
Lindera_praecox
Viburnum_burejaeticum
Quercus_sh
umardii
Viburnum_rufidulum
Liquidam
bar_orie
ntalis
Rhododendron_arborescens
Clethra_m
onostachya
Acer_flabellatum
Carpinus_betulus
Ribes_
sanguineu
m
Sorbus_alnifolia
Acer_spicatum
Crataegus_pinnatifida
Berberis_th
unbergii
Viburnum_utile
Crataegus_coccinoides
Magnolia_zenii
Cotoneaster_moupinensis
Pyrus_calleryana
Prunus_ssiori
Euonymus_alatus
Clematis_obscu
ra
Magnolia_virginiana
Crataegus_kansuensis
Clerodendrum_trichotomum
Cornus_drum
mondii
Rosa_nutkana
Cotoneaster_perpusillus
Symplocos_paniculata
Salix_glauca
Myrica_heterophylla
Disanth
us_cerc
idifolius
Berchemia_scandens
Philadelphus_insignis
Acer_longipes
Hamame
lis_ova
lis
Lonicera_tangutica
Pinus_sylvestris
Fraxinus_sieboldiana
Quercus_ru
bra Picea_abies
Cornus_paucinervis
Euonymus_latifolius
Cyrilla_racem
iflora
Leiophyllum_buxifolium
Spiraea_nipponica
Prunus_angustifolia
Akebia_quinata
Pyrus_amygdaliform
is
Celtis_tournefortii
Philadelphus_inodorus
Spiraea_henryii
Lonicera_canadensis
Rosa_rugosa
Menispermum_da
uricum
Acer_erianthum
Prunus_armeniaca
Aralia_elata
Acer_miyabei
Spiraea_lenneana
Chaenomeles_sinensis
Clematis_japo
nica
Jamesia_americana
Malus_sargentii
Poliothyrsis_sinensis
Viburnum_erubescens
Viburnum_w
rightii
Cotinus_obovatus
Acer_pseudosieboldianum
Malus_ioensis
Styrax_confusus
Euonymus_sachalinensis
Philadelphus_keteleerei
Euonymus_prezwalskii
Prunus_alabamensis
Tilia_japo
nica
Sambucus_racem
osa
Viburnum_prunifolium
Malus_sikkimensis
Aesculus_chinensis
Rhododendron_periclymenoides
Malus_prunifolia
Acer_crataegifolium
Crataegus_pringlei
Sassafras_albidum
Berberis_tis
chleri
Rosa_am
blyotis
Viburnum_plicatum
Betula_pubescens
Rosa_nitidula
Ziziphus_jujuba
Cotoneaster_hebephyllus
Prunus_pennsylvanica
Rhamnus_alaternus
Philadelphus_schrenkii
Aesculus_pavia
Carpinus_tschonoskii
Vaccinium_m
yrtilloides
Staphylea_bumalda
Alnus_firma
Potentilla_tridentata
Juglans_microcarpa
Rosa_serafinii
Callicarpa_cathayana
Jasminum_keskyi
Quercus
_castane
ifolia
Spiraea_bella
Physocarpus_bracteatus
Rhododendron_kaem
pferi
Cephalanthus_occidentalis
Philadelphus_edsonii
Tamarix
_chinen
sis
Torreya_grandis
Cotoneaster_dammeri
Magnolia_liliiflora
Deutzia_coreana
Fraxinus_longicuspis
Corylus_avellana
Euptelea_polyandra
Pinus_strobus
Acer_rufinerve
Hydrangea_radiata
Tsuga_diversifolia
Lyonia_ligustrina
Euonymus_carnosus
Diervilla_sessilifolia
Prunus_cyclamina
Boehmeria_biloba
Populus_alba
Corylus_ferox
Gym
nocladus_chinensis
Gaultheria_procum
bens
Malus_coronaria
Quercus_
macrocarp
a
Clethra_barbinervis
Prunus_hortulana
Myrica_gale
Sorbaria_sorbifolia
Ostrya_japonica
Ribes_
uva-cri
spa
Cercis_griffithii
Populus_trichocarpa
Indigofera_amblyantha
Ligustrum_massalongianum
Juniperus_sabina
Lindera_erythrocarpa
Pyrus_elaeagnifolia
Quercus_ro
bur
Viburnum_erosum
Cercis_canadensis
Sorbaria_stellipila
Franklinia_alatamaha
Pinus_armandii
Quercus_
lyrata
Prunus_serrulata
Aristolochia_manshuriensis
Prunus_mahaleb
Ilex_aq
uifolium
Syringa_komarowii
Fagus_crenata
Physocarpus_amurensis
Euonymus_oresbius
Chaenomeles_japonica
Photinia_villosa
Salix_apoda
Philadelphus_tenuifolius
Ribes_
odoratu
m
Carpinus_turczaninowii
Carya_laciniosa
Paulownia_tomentosa
Zanthoxy
lum_bungeanum
Tapiscia_sinen
sis
Cupressus_arizonica
Picea_wilsonii
Leucothoe_fontanesiana
Acer_caudatum
Deutzia_mollis
Rhamnus_utilis
Ulmus_chenmoui
Viburnum_dentatumActinidia_coriacea
Prunus_incana
Hydrangea_acum
inata
Cornus_florida
Pinus_nigra
Rhododendron_canadense
Rosa_luciae
Calycanthus_chinensis
Ledum_palustre
Hydrangea_serrata
Rosa_iberica
Cotoneaster_reticulatus
Corylus_fargesii
Crataegus_laevigata
Spiraea_douglasii
Lonicera_morrowii
Platanus
_occiden
talis
Berberis_nu
mmularia
Pyrus_caucasica
Lespedeza_bicolor
Mahonia_repe
ns
Aescu
lus_wangii
Magnolia_stellata
Leucothoe_recurva
Magnolia_salicifolia
Ribes_
triste
Salix_integra
Parrotia
_subae
qualis
Neillia_sinensis
Cornus_am
omum
Deutzia_corymbosa
Berberis_m
andhurica
Ilex_mu
cronata
Betula_litwinowii
Physocarpus_capitatus
Viburnum_schensianum
Trachelospermum_asiaticum
Pinus_resinosa
Viburnum_nudum
Tilia_a
muren
sis
Malus_sieboldiiQuer
cus_mong
olica
Berberis_vir
getorum
Lonicera_gynochlamydea
Ulmus_parvifolia
Cercid
iphyllu
m_japonicum
Berberis_
crataegina
Hydrangea_paniculata
Magnolia_fraseri
Berberis_sib
irica
Fagus_lucida
Fraxinus_latifolia
Ribes_
fascicu
latum
Berberis_
asiatica
Quercus_p
etraea
Buxus_s
inica
Stephanandra_tanakae
Neillia_ribesioides
Acer_diabolicum
Castanea_sat
iva
Fraxinus_potamophila
Rhodotypos_scandens
Euonymus_nanus
Abies_concolor
Vaccinium_arctostaphylos
Deutzia_maliflora
Wisteria_sinensis
Crataegus_heldreichii
Cornus_controversa
Quercus_va
riabilis
Cotoneaster_watereri
Magnolia_amoena
Symphoricarpos_albus
Celastrus_angulatus
Picea_engelmanii
Rosa_pisocarpa
Betula_albosinens
is
Salix_
viminalis
Rhododendron_sm
irnow
ii
Sorbus_aria
Gym
nocladus_dioicus
Maclura_pomifera
Rhus_copallina
Rosa_arkansana
Juniperus_squamata
Crataegus_almaatensis
Zanthoxy
lum_piperitu
m
Betula_humilis
Lonicera_purpurascens
Acer_triflorum
Rhamnus_purshiana
Cephalotaxus_fortunei
Hydrangea_arborescens
Ulmus_alata
Torreya_nucifera
Viburnum_bracteatum
Quercus_pr
inus
Deutzia_gracilis
Rosa_albertii
Alnus_maximowi
czii
Alnus_hirsuta
Spiraea_pumila
Acer_tegmentosum
Erica_spiculifolia
Viburnum_setigerum
Myripnois_dioica
Cercid
iphyllu
m_magnificu
m
Corylop
sis_got
oana
Pyrus_ussuriensis
Salix_rorida
Toona_sinensis
Hovenia_dulcis
Rosa_moyesii
Rosa_scabriuscala
Berberis_
chitria
Mahonia_aqu
ifolium
Quercus_pu
bescens
Magnolia_bohuashensi
s
Rhododendron_fortu
nei
Prunus_subhirtella
Quercus
_coccine
a
Spiraea_mollifolia
Cotoneaster_lucidus
Colutea_orientalis
Quercus
_bicolor
Salix_udensis
Pyrus_cossonii
Berberis_
pekinensis
Spiraea_inflexa
Salix_bebbiana
Cornus_w
alteri
Carpinus_cordata
Euonymus_pauciflorus
Amelanchier_alnifolia
Castanea_pu
mila
Hypericum_kalm
ianum
Viburnum_buddleifolium
Potentilla_fruticosa
Rubus_biflorus
Abies_lasiocarpa
Salix_myrsinifolia
Aristolochia_macrophylla
Malus_fusca
Viburnum_acerifolium
Acer_palmatum
Larix_principisrupprechtii
Quercus_vir
giniana
Lonicera_conjugialis
Thuja_occidentalis
Crataegus_irrasa
Rosa_tomentella
Betula_globispicata
Cudrania_tricuspidata
Amelanchier_interior
Abies_koreana
Zanthoxy
lum_simulans
Chionanthus_virginicus
Viburnum_rhytidophyllum
Pinus_flexilis
Ilex_rug
osa
Betula_populifolia
Rhus_trilobata
Wisteria_frutescens
Berberis_
mentoren
sis
Philadelphus_purpurascens
Cotoneaster_multiflorus
Styrax_japonicus
Decaisnea_fargesii
Enkianthus_chinesis
Cotoneaster_wardii
Prunus_nipponica
Eusca
phis_japonica
Pterocarya_rhoifolia
Fother
gilla_ma
jor
Acer_monspessulanum
Carya_myristiciformis
Broussonetia_papyrifera
Cedrus_deodora
Lonicera_sovetkiniae
Rosa_gymnocarpa
Sorbus_rufoferruginea
Buddleja_albiflora
Crataegus_pratensis
Malus_zumi
Crataegus_sanguinea
Hamame
lis_mol
lis
Acer_heldreichii
Larix_laricina
Spiraea_betulifolia
Hippophae_rhamnoides
Erica_vagans
Philadelphus_delavayi
Rosa_bella
Zelkova_sinica
Pterostyrax_hispidus
Berberis_
canadens
is
Magnolia_kobus
Betula_nana
Aesculus_sylvatica
Salix_miyabeana
Chamaecyparis_pisifera
Spiraea_arguta
Philadelphus_sericanthus
Neillia_uekii R
osa_caroliniana
Rosa_stylosa
Cotoneaster_tenuipes
Prunus_apetala
Spiraea_canescens
Betula_luminifera
Picea_pungens
Sorbus_prattii
Exochorda_giraldii
Caragana_franchetiana
Berberis_
francisci-f
erdinandi
Rosa_spinosissima
Lindera_umbellata
Rhus_typhina
Spiraea_trilobata
Neviusia_alabam
ensis
Forsythia_suspensa
Tilia_c
ordata
Sinocalycanthus_chinensis
Gleditsia_ferox
Magnolia_denudata
Corylop
sis_spic
ata
Malus_hupehensis
Deutzia_rosea
Taxus_baccata
Lonicera_pyrenaica
Ulmus_glabra
Crataegus_brainerdii
Symphoricarpos_rotundifolius
Cotoneaster_falconeri
Rosa_macrocarpa
Rubus_idaeus
Gleditsia_triacanthos
Rhododendron_cam
panulatum
Nem
opanthes_mucronata
Rhamnus_macrocarpa
Prunus_cerasifera
Actinidia_macrosperm
a
Quercus_se
rrata
Quercus_
muehlenbe
rgii
Larix_occidentalis
Cotoneaster_divaricatus
Cornus_alternifolia
Spiraea_trichocarpa
Buddleja_japonica
Viburnum_betulifolium
Amelanchier_canadensis
Lonicera_notha
Microbiota_decussata
Salix_matsudona
Magnolia_cylindrica
Crataegus_holmesiana
Acer_campestre
Betula_alleghanien
sis
Exochorda_albertii
Pyrus_pyrifolia
Viburnum_recognitum
Betula_raddeana
Pinus_contorta
Pinus_pumila
Cladrastis_lutea
Adenocarpus_complicatus
Hamame
lis_japo
nica
Cornus_racem
osa
Liquidam
bar_styr
aciflua
Paeonia
_suffrut
icosa
Elaeagnus_lanceolata
Amorpha_fruticosa
Cotoneaster_foveolatus
Quercus_ve
lutina
Caragana_decorticans
Abies_fargesii
Juglans_major
Rhus_aromatica
Grewia
_biloba
Juglans_nigra
Acer_caudatifolium
Cotoneaster_harrysmithii
Ilex_mo
ntana
Ligustrum_quihoui
Malus_orientalis
Corylop
sis_sine
nsis
Acer_negundo
Actinidia_polygama
Cotoneaster_insignis
Acer_nigrum
Amygdalus_triloba
Sorbus_tamam
schjanae
Cercis_racemosa
Pinus_peuce
Philadelphus_zhejiangensis
Catalpa_ovata
Robinia_viscosa
Ehretia_ovalifolia
Picea_koraiensis
Betula_lenta
Daphne
_cneor
um
Abies_nephrolepis
Catalpa_fargesii
Cham
aebatiaria_millefolium
Stachy
urus_c
hinensis
Caragana_rosea
Acer_sinense
Spiraea_salicifolia
Genista_tinctoria
Rhododendron_micranthus
Ilex_pe
dunculo
sa
Liriodendron_chinens
is
Catalpa_bignonioides
Tilia_insu
laris
Cornus_officinalis
Salix_humilis
Ilex_far
gesii
Ligustrum_acutissimum
Lonicera_caprifolium
Lonicera_ramosissim
a
Chaenomeles_speciosa
Magnolia_sargentiana
Poncirus_trifoliata
Rhododendron_micranthemum
Rhamnus_frangula
Lonicera_tatarica
Corylop
sis_glab
rescen
s
Elaeagnus_pungens
Rubus_crataegifolius
Forsythia_japonica
Dasiphora_floribunda
Celtis_caucasica
Hamame
lis_vern
alis
Lonicera_alpigena
Spiraea_chamaedryfolia
Lonicera_caerulea
Sorbus_hemsleyi
Euonymus_bungeanus
Nothofagus_antarctica
Cercis_gigantea
Vaccinium_pallidum
Carya_illinoinensis
Cham
aedaphne_calyculata
Spiraea_billiardii
Malus_halliana
Chamaecyparis_obtusaPlatycladus_orientalis
Quercus
_betulina
Crataegus_pseudoambigua
Cotoneaster_glabratus
Malus_bretschneideri
Eleutherococcus_sieboldianus
Celtis_australis
Lonicera_etrusca
Rosa_zalana
Rubus_parvifolius
Caragana_arborescens
Ulmus_laevis
Lonicera_webbiana
Philadelphus_hirsustus
Ilex_co
llina
Prinsepia_unifloraRosa_mollis
Rubus_corchorifolius
Spiraea_pubescens
Picea_torano
Zenobia_pulverulenta
Prunus_sargentii
Juglans_macrocarpa
Quercus_
michauxii
Rosa_majalis
Malus_mandshurica
Spiraea_fastigiata
Cornus_kousa
Daphne
_tangu
tica
Cotoneaster_roseus
Aescu
lus_parviflora
Malus_honanensis
Picea_jezoensis
Viburnum_m
ongolicum
Alnus_viridis
Prunus_munsoniana
Rosa_villosa
Quercus_p
alustris
Rhododendron_hippophaeoides
Juniperus_rigida
Prunus_spinosa
Aronia_prunifolia
Kalopanax_septemlobus
Rosa_om
eiensis
Viburnum_lantana
Carpinus_coreana
Caragana_m
icrophylla
Ginkgo_biloba
Crataegus_korolkowii
Vitis_coigne
tiae
Spiraea_veitchii
Tetradium_ruticarpu
m
Alnus_glutinosa
Amorpha_ouachitensis
Picea_orientalis
Diospyros_lotus
Leucothoe_axillaris
Berberis_ve
rnae
Callicarpa_japonica
Quercus
_arkansa
na
Ulmus_americana
Ulmus_castaneifolia
Lavandula_angustifolia
Viburnum_lobophyllum
Malus_spectabilis
Crataegus_keepii
Populus_tremuloides
Caryopteris_clandonensis
Juniperus_communis
Lonicera_maackii
Robinia_pseudoacacia
Philadelphus_coronarius
Salix_daphnoides
Tetradium_daniellii
Campsis_grandifolia
Syringa_chinensis
Acer_barbinerve
Viburnum_bodnantense
Populus_nigra
Sequoiadendron_giganteum
Gleditsia_m
acrocarpa
Stew
artia_sinensis
Abelia_chinensis
Celtis_choseniana
Cornus_australis
Acer_henryi
Abelia_mosanensis
Daphne
_laureo
la
Rubus_m
esogaeus
Sapindus_drumm
ondii
Crataegus_laurentiana
Spiraea_conspicua
Wisteria_venusta
Platycarya_strobilacea
Magnolia_macrophylla
Colutea_buhsei
Prunus_tenella
Betula_fruticosa
Caragana_aurantiaca
Picrasma_qu
assioid
es
Bupleurum_spinosum
Prunus_avium
Rosa_acicularis
Hedera_colchica
Sorbus_scopulina
Callicarpa_dichotoma
Baccharis_halimifolia
Fraxinus_syriaca
Abies_homolepis
Viburnum_rafinesqueanum
Acer_oliverianum
Amorpha_nana
Clematis_hexa
petala
Pinus_pungens
Crataegus_lanuginosa
Cotoneaster_frigidus
Lindera_obtusiloba
Partheno
cissus
_henryana
Buddleja_alternifolia
Hibiscus_
syriacus
Maddenia_hypoleuca
Viburnum_opulus
Acer_buergerianum
Viburnum_carlesii
Rosa_arvensis
Carya_ovata
Euonymus_hamiltonianus
Philadelphus_pubescens
Hydrangea_bretschneideri
Cotoneaster_ambiguus
Weigela_florida
Clethra_acum
inata
Spiraea_wilsonii
Quercus_
macrolepi
s
Spiraea_alba
Robinia_kelseyi
Alnus_mandshur
ica
Fontanesia_fortunei
Lagerstroemia
_limii
Aesculus_glabra
Quercus
_glandul
ifera
Acer_ginnala
Metasequoia_glyptostroboides
Prunus_salicina
Crataegus_submollis
Phello
dendron_c
hinens
e
Salix_petiolaris
Schisandra_chinensis
Rosa_pulverulenta
Berberis_ja
eschkeana
Chamaecyparis_thyoides
Juniperus_pinchotii
Salix_glabra
Rhododendron_fargesii
Lonicera_periclymenum
Cydonia_oblonga
Ostrya_carpinifolia
Betula_maximowicziana
Amelanchier_pumila
Betula_chinensis
Petteria_ramentacea
Cephalotaxus_sinensis
Vitex_negundo
Deutzia_discolor
Tilia_p
aucicos
tata
Caragana_boisii
Tsuga_chinensis
Euptelea_pleiosperm
a
Clematis_maxim
owicziana
Cam
ellia_japonica
Spiraea_conferta
Rhododendron_kiyosumense
Sambucus_pubens
Betula_papyrifera
Clematis_alpi
na
Hamame
lis_virg
iniana
Leucothoe_racemosa
Elaeagnus_multiflora
Diervilla_rivularis
Hydrangea_quercifolia
Cotoneaster_submultiflorus
Prunus_mum
e
Tilia_b
egonifo
lia
Carpinus_caroliniana
Syringa_reticulata
Crataegus_viridis
Viburnum_sargentii
Philadelphus_satsumanus
Morus_bombycis
Corylus_heterophylla
Salix_magnifica
Rosa_rubiginosa
Populus_deltoides
Abies_cephalonica
Weigela_japonica
Sciadopitys_verticillata
Rosa_davurica
Nyssa_sylvatica
Salix_gracilistyla
Acer_davidii
Weigela_decora
Populus_maximowiczii
Ostrya_rehderiana
Celastrus_scandens
Malus_pumila
Prunus_glandulosa
Pinus_tabuliformis
Euonymus_japonicus
Stephanandra_incisa
Deutzia_rubens
Spiraea_virginiana
Salix_
triandra
Ulmus_lamellosa
Amelanchier_stolonifera
Liriodendron_tulipifera
Akebia_trifoliata
Picea_alba
Rosa_britzensis
Cornus_macrophylla
Cornus_bretschneideri
Prunus_brigantina
Zelkova_serrata
Sorbus_domestica
Abelia_biflora
Prunus_laurocerasus
Gleditsia_sinensis
Acer_sterculiaceum
Rhododendron_atlanticum
Crataegus_compacta
Quercus
_accutiss
ima
Picea_jenuensis
Sorbus_latifolia
Lonicera_japonica
Tilia_laet
eviren
s
Euonymus_verrucosus
Cedrela_sinensis
Melia_
azedarach
Xanthoceras_sorbifolium
Pinus_koraiensis
Pueraria_lobata
Styrax_obassia
Betula_davurica
Elsholtzia_stauntonii
Amelanchier_arborea
Clematis_orient
alis
Calycanthus_floridus
Spiraea_miyabei
Rosa_primula
Periploca_graeca
Rubus_lasiostylus
Trochode
ndron_ar
alioides
Pinus_taiwanensis
Abies_fabri
Malus_baccata
Malus_brevipes
Quercus
_frainetto
Rubus_thibetanus
Gaylussacia_brachycera
Abies_sachalinensis
Lonicera_korolkowii
Magnolia_acuminata
Prunus_serotina
Ligustrum_ibota
Ilex_cil
iospinos
a
Eleutherococcus_henryi
Juglans_ailanthifolia
Viburnum_koreanum
Lonicera_salicifolia
Quercus
_faginea
Prunus_incisa
Rosa_jakutica
Vaccinium_corym
bosum
Vitis_aes
tivalis
Sorbus_hupehensis
Euonymus_europaeus
Abies_alba
Viburnum_sieboldii
Dipelta_yunnanensis
Ligustrum_salicinum
Corylus_colurna
Jasminum_fruticans
Prunus_grayana
Lonicera_standishiiAcer_carpinifolium
Prunus_virginiana
Fagus_japonic
a
Lonicera_pekinensis
Prunus_padus
Deutzia_ningpoensis
Pinus_rigida
Celtis_laevigata
Ulmus_rubra
Malus_hartwigii
Carpinus_japonica
Ailanthus
_altiss
ima
Ribes_
alpinum
Symphoricarpos_oreophilus
Enkianthus_perulatus
Phello
dendron_a
murense
Partheno
cissus
_quinquefolia
Fraxinus_angustifolia
Salix_alba
Acer_pseudoplatanus
Pinus_densiflora
Kalmia_latifolia
Acer_caesium
Cotoneaster_obscurus
Rosa_alba
Catalpa_bungei
Philadelphus_lewisii
Euonymus_phellomanus
Eleutherococcus_senticosus
Amelanchier_laevis
Crataegus_exclusa
Rosa_willmottiae
Wisteria_floribunda
Chimonanthus_yunnanensis
Larix_decidua
Syringa_sweginzowii
Photinia_beauverdiana
Rhododendron_degronianum
Rhododendron_brachycarpum
Crataegus_macauleya
Crataegus_pennsylvanica
Acer_stenolobum
Rhododendron_cumberlandense
Daphne
_genkw
a
Lindera_benzoin
Acer_tataricum
Rhododendron_occidentale
Pinus_thunbergeri
Deutzia_parviflora
Crataegus_pedicellata
Halesia_tetraptera
Fraxinus_bungeana
Catalpa_speciosa
Rosa_californica
Crataegus_macrosperma
Forsythia_mandshurica
Acer_hyrcanum
Amorpha_canescens
Clematis_colu
mbiana
Rhododendron_ledebourii
Ribes_
diacan
thum
Pyrus_communis
Acer_shirasawanum
Ilex_serr
ata
Pinus_aristata
Malus_toringo
Lonicera_sempervirens
Cornus_sanguinea
Viburnum_rudifolium
Prunus_maxim
owiczii
Lagerstroemia
_indica
Buxus_s
empervir
ens
Bignonia_capreolata
Actinidia_kolomikta
Eleutherococcus_setchuenensis
Crataegus_maximowiczii
Spiraea_nervosa
Aristolochia_tomentosa
Rosa_micrantha
Humulus_lupulus
Viburnum_lentago
Amelanchier_nantucketensis
Acer_stachyophyllum
Castanea_mo
llisima
Salix_
rosmarinifolia
Sorbus_wilsoniana
Tilia_p
latyphy
llos
Betula_mandshurica
Malus_floribunda
Celtis_tenuifolia
Salix_sch
werinii
Betula_utilis
Rhododendron_vaseyii
Populus_beijingensis
Syringa_pekinensis
Laburnum_anagyroides
Acer_mandshuricum
Ulmus_macrocarpa
Stew
artia_rostrata
Rhamnus_pallasii
Cotoneaster_splendens
Quercus_
laevis
Sambucus_canadensis
Lonicera_henryi
Paeonia
_ostii
Staphy
lea_pinna
ta
Quercus
_ellipsoi
dalis
Andromeda_polifolia
Betula_jacquemontii
Malus_kansuensis
Acer_saccharum
Crataegus_songorica
Kolkwitzia_amabilis
Crataegus_wilsonii
Betula_costata
Symphoricarpos_orbiculatus
Prunus_prostrata
Carya_texana
Rosa_woodsii
Abies_balsamea
Shepherdia_argentea
Pyracantha_coccinea
Alnus_kamschat
ica
Juglans_cinerea
Corylop
sis_gla
ndulifera
Crataegus_oxyacantha
Calycanthus_sinensis
Aristolochia_contorta
Juglans_cathayensis
Juglans_mandshurica
Phello
dendro
n_piriform
e
Taiwania_cryptomeroides
Malvaviscus
_arbor
eus
Berberis_vulg
aris
Malus_platycarpa
Davidia_involucrata
Ilex_gla
bra
Enkianthus_deflexus
Tilia_k
iusiana
Paeonia
_ludlowi
i
Vaccinium_uliginosum
Holodiscus_discolor
Taxus_cuspidata
Staphy
lea_trifolia
Philadelphus_satsumi
Acer_rubrum
Fraxinus_insularis
Deutzia_elegantissima
Cotoneaster_atropurpureus
Spiraea_martinii
Populus_ussuriensis
Corylus_jaquemontii
Viburnum_farreri
Gleditsia_japonica
Xanthorhiza_simp
licissima
Euonymus_fimbriatus
Fraxinus_ornus
Acer_opalus
Pinus_virginiana
Actinidia_eriantha
Callicarpa_mollis
Rosa_hugonis
Lonicera_quinquelocularis
Sorbaria_tomentosa
Magnolia_tripetala
Rhododendron_dauricum
Ulmus_minor
Tripterygium
_wilfordii
Quercus_py
renaica
Pteroceltis_tatarinowii
Crataegus_douglasii
Acer_pensylvanicum
Philadelphus_triflorus
Spiraea_media
Juniperus_chinensis
Populus_candicans
Rosa_prattii
Celtis_spinosa
Rhododendron_yedoense
Lonicera_chrysantha
Cedrus_libani
Euonymus_grandiflorus
Betula_nigra
Diervilla_lonicera
Euonymus_yedoensis
Erica_carnea
Fother
gilla_ga
rdenii
Berberis_
actinacan
tha
Cotoneaster_scandinavicus
Andrachne_colchica
Buddleja_lindleyana
Platanus_
orientalis
Betula_schmidtii
Carya_cordiformis
Decumaria_sinensisDe
utzia_scabra
Parrotia
_persic
a
Cotoneaster_niger
Rhododendron_schlippenbachii
Hydrangea_involucrata
Pinus_jeffreyi
Rhododendron_makinoi
Celtis_iguanaea
Pyrus_nivalis
Adina_rubella
Cotoneaster_simonsii
Arctostaphylos_uvaursi
Rhamnus_alpina
Prunus_allegheniensis
Salix_lapponum
Crataegus_hillii
Picea_glauca
Syringa_patula
Cotoneaster_melanocarpus
Aucuba_japonica
Platanus
_acerifoli
a
Vaccinium_angustifolium
Acer_truncatum
Erica_darleyensis
Zelkova_abelicea
Cladrastis_platycarpa
Tilia_d
asystyla
Rhododendron_prunifolium
Acer_sieboldianum
Berberis_
aetnensi
s
Abies_firma
Spiraea_prunifolia
Sambucus_tigranii
Cotoneaster_tomentosus
Acer_ukurunduense
Staphy
lea_co
lchica
Pinus_wallichiana
Cotoneaster_sikangensis
Myrica_pennsylvanica
Clethra_fargesii
Betula_costa
Forestiera_acuminata
Lonicera_ruprechtiana
Hydrangea_cinerea
Acer_tschonoskii
Spiraea_sargentiana
Pyrus_phaeocarpa
Syringa_meyeri
Sambucus_nigra
Chimonanthus_praecox
Berberis_th
ibetica
Cotoneaster_horizontalis
Vitis_vinifer
a
Quercus_sa
licina
Callicarpa_bodinieri
Juniperus_procumbens
Rostrinucula_dependens
Rubus_cockburnianus
Rosa_nitida
Sorbus_forestii
Platanus_
hispanic
a
Styrax_americana
Rosa_wichuraiana
Ostrya_virginiana
Cornus_pumila
Viburnum_trilobum
Tsuga_caroliniana
Salix_babylonica
Rhododendron_greenlandieum
Deutzia_glabrata
Crataegus_coleae
Juniperus_horizontalis
Alnus_incana
Tilia_a
merica
na
Betula_dahurica
Magnolia_grandiflora
Zanthoxy
lum_americanum
Berberis_ja
mesiana
Koelreuteria_paniculata
Betula_celtiberica
Hedera_helix
Berberis_ko
ehneana
Cotoneaster_zabelii
Crataegus_erythropoda
Salix_
waldsteiniana
Quercus
_aliena
Ternstroem
ia_gym
nanthera
Alnus_sieboldian
a
Kalmia_cuneata
Rosa_eglanteria
Deutzia_schneideriana
Rosa_corymbifera
Hippocrepis_em
urus
Rosa_centifolia
Ribes_
divaric
atum
Crataegus_vulsa
Fraxinus_quadrangulata
Ilex_de
cidua
Wikstro
emia_t
richoto
ma
Ampelops
is_megaloph
ylla
Cryptomeria_japonica
Empetrum
_nigrum
Corylus_americana
Rosa_sericea
Rosa_sweginzowii
Rosa_multiflora
Rosa_carolina
Cercis_siliquastrum
Daphne
_meze
reum
Crataegus_punctata
Lonicera_subsessilis
Spartium_junceum
Betula_pumila
Stew
artia_m
onadelpha
Acer_mono
Rosa_sherardii
Actinidia_chinensis
Kerria_japonica
Castanea_de
ntata
Prinsepia_sinensis
Fraxinus_xanthoxyloides
Clematis_monta
na
Acer_cissifolium
Acer_japonicum
Diospyros_kaki
Crataegus_cuneiformis
Chaenomeles_cathayensis
Persea_borbonia
Quercus
_dentata
Quercus_p
hellos
Alnus_serrulata
Cephalotaxus_koreanea
Indigofera_kirilowii
Skimm
ia_japonica
Cotoneaster_taoensis
Caragana_brevispina
Adenorachis_arbutifolia
Staphy
lea_trifoliata
Vaccinium_oldhamii
Oem
leria_cerasiformis
Cotoneaster_armenus
Ephedra_intermedia
Hydrangea_heteromalla
Syringa_amurensis
Rosa_cinnam
omea
Hamame
lis_inte
rmedia
Kalmia_buxifolia
Rhododendron_austrinum
Acer_saccharinum
Stephanandra_chinensis
Prunus_maackii
Stew
artia_pseudocam
ellia
Rhododendron_sichotense
Spiraea_longigemmis
Acer_maximowiczianum
Clematis_macr
opetala
Salix_discolor
Abeliophyllum_distichum
Coriaria_japonica
Cornus_alba
Lonicera_purpusii
Menispermum_can
adense
Lonicera_floribunda
Malus_argentea
Ilex_am
elanchie
r
Ribes_
glacial
e
Sorbus_koheneana
Betula_caerulea
Cotoneaster_apiculatus
Morus_australis
Quercus
_alba
Prunus_maritim
a
Ligustrum_obtusifolium
Ribes_
himalense
Gleditsia_m
acracantha
Tetrapanax_papyrifer
Spiraea_cantoniensis
Larix_sibirica
Vitex_rotundifolia
Acer_argutum
Elaeagnus_mollis
Crataegus_compta
Sibiraea_laevigata
Rosa_dumalis
Syringa_robusta
Acer_cappadocicum
Syringa_villosa
Osmanthus_americanus
Cornus_foem
ina
Hemiptelea_davidii
Viburnum_veitchii
Pseudotsuga_menziesii
Lycium_barbarum
Cotoneaster_acuminatus
Rhododendron_mucronulatum
Salix_caspica
Pinus_parviflora
Laburnum
_alpinum
Rosa_canina
Figure S5 The effect of growth habit and leaf persistence on species-specific chilling
requirements and leaf-out times. a, b, Coefficient values (means and 95% CIs) for the effect
of growth habit (shrubs vs. trees) and leaf persistence (deciduous vs. evergreen species) on
species-specific (a) chilling requirements and (b) leaf-out dates (Munich data) estimated from
HB models including phylogenetic autocorrelation. Chilling data (a): 108 shrubs and 107
trees, 202 deciduous and 13 evergreen species; Leaf-out data (b): 295 shrubs and 203 trees,
470 deciduous and 28 evergreen species. Values reflect standardized data and can be
interpreted as relative effect sizes. c, d, Median forcing requirements until leaf-out
(accumulated degree days >0°C outdoors and in a climate chamber) ± 95% CI (c) and median
days until leaf-out in a climate chamber ± 95% CI (d) under three chilling treatments for trees
(red curve, n = 107 species) and shrubs (blue curve, n = 108 species).
Extended Data Figure 9 | Days to leaf-out for North American (NA), European (EU), 154"and eastern Asian (EA) species under three different chilling levels. a, Median days until 155"leaf-out in a climate chamber ± 95% CI under different chilling levels for NA (N = 72 156"species), EU (N = 48), and EA (N = 88) species. b–d, Leaf-out probability curves for NA, 157"EU, and EA species calculated as the number of days required in climate chamber until 158"budburst under different chilling treatments: (b) long chilling, (c) intermediate chilling, and 159"(d) short chilling. Dashed lines indicate median forcing requirements for NA, EU, and EA 160"species. 161" 162" 163" 164" 165"
166"
167" 168" 169"Extended Data Figure x | The effect of growth habit and leaf persistence on species’ leaf-170"out strategies. a, Coefficient values (effective posterior means and 95% credible intervals) 171"for differences in chilling requirements between trees and shrubs (growth habit) and 172"evergreen and deciduous species (leaf persistence). Sample sizes: Growth habit: 108 shrubs 173"and 107 trees, leaf persistence: 202 deciduous and 13 evergreen species. b, Coefficient values 174"
●
●
−4
−2
0
2
4
Growth habit Leaf persistenceVariable
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
●
●
−0.4
−0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
Growth habit Leaf persistenceVariable
Coef
ficie
nt e
stim
ate
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
300
500
700
900
Chilling
GD
D (>
0°C
)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
010
2030
4050
Chilling
Day
s to
leaf
-out
a b c d
Long (C3) Intermediate (C2) Short (C1)
Chilling Long (C3) Intermediate (C2) Short (C1)
Chilling
Growth habit: Shrubs Trees
Chilling requirements Leaf-out times
Figure S6 Linear regression between spring temperature variability (STV) and winter
temperature variability (WTV), using the median (0.5 quantile) STV and WTV in a species’
native range for 1198 of our study species.
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
phenology$SD_min_spring_median
phenology$SD
_min_m
edian
r = 0.85 p < 0.001
Median STV
Med
ian
WTV
Figure S7 The STV experienced by species native to North America (NA, n = 317), Europe
(EU, n = 202), or East Asia (EA, n = 619) when controlling for MAT and TS. Boxplots show
species’ median (0.5 quantiles) STV when they are grouped according to the median MAT
(<5°C / 5°C–10°C / 10°C–15°C / >15°C) and TS (<31.5°C / ≥31.5°C) they experience in their
native ranges. Box width proportional to sample size.
205"Extended Data Figure xxx | The STV experienced by species native to North America 206"
(NA, N = 317), Europe (EU, n= 202), or East Asia (EA, n = 619) when controlling for 207"
MAT and TS. Boxplots show median (50% quantiles) of species’ spring temperature 208"
variability (STV) when species are grouped according to the median MAT (<5°C, 5°C–10°C, 209"
10°C–15°C, >15°C) and TS (<31.5°C, ≥31.5°C) they experience in their native ranges. STV 210"
as standard deviation of minimum spring temperatures from 1901 to 2013, MAT in °C 211"
196" 197"
Extended Data Figure xxx | The STV experienced by species native to North America 198"
(NA, N = 317), Europe (EU, n= 202), or East Asia (EA, n = 619) when controlling for 199"
MAT and TS. Boxplots show median (50% quantiles) of species’ spring temperature 200"
variability (STV) when species are grouped according to the median MAT (<5°C, 5°C–10°C, 201"
10°C–15°C, >15°C) and TS (<31.5°C, ≥31.5°C) they experience in their native ranges. STV 202"
NAmerica EU EA
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
NAmerica EU EA
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
NAmerica EU EA
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
NAmerica EU EA
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
NAmerica EU EA
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
NAmerica EU EA
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
NAmerica EU EA
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
NAmerica EU EA
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
TS <31.5°C ≥ 31.5°C
<5°C 5°C – 10°C 10°C – 15° >15°C
NA EU EA NA EU EA
Sprin
g te
mpe
ratu
re v
aria
bilit
y (S
TV)
MAT (°C) "
n = 21 n = 62
n = 198 n = 208
n = 194 n = 303
n = 154 n = 58
C
Figure S8 Contrasting leaf-out strategies in North America (NA), Europe (EU), and East Asia
(EA). a, Effect of continental origin on species-specific chilling requirements. Number of
species with available data shown in brackets. b, c, Coefficient values (means and 95% CIs)
for differences in (b) chilling requirements and (c) Munich leaf-out times between NA, EU,
and EA species estimated from HB models including phylogenetic autocorrelation. To control
for species’ life history strategy and native climate (MAT), both models (b and c) additionally
include fixed effects for growth habit (shrubs vs. trees), leaf persistence (evergreens vs.
deciduous species), and median MAT in their native ranges. Values reflect standardized data
and can be interpreted as relative effect sizes. Sample sizes: (b) n = 66 NA, 43 EU, and 68 EA
species; (c) n = 100 ENA, 74 EU, and 173 EA species.
64" 65" 66" 67" 68" 69" 70" 71" 72" 73" 74" 75" 76" 77" 78" 79" 80" 81" 82" 83"Extended Data Figure 4 | Effect of continental origin on species-specific chilling 84"requirements and leaf-out times. a, Number of species with available data shown in 85"brackets. See Fig. S11 for species-specific results of twig-cutting experiment 86" 87"Extended Data Figure 5 | Contrasting leaf-out strategies in North America (NA), Europe 88"(EU), and eastern Asia (EA) estimated from phylogenetic models. a, Estimated coefficient 89"values (effective posterior means and 95% credible intervals) for differences in chilling 90"
47"
48" 49" 50"Extended Data Figure 4 | Effect of continental origin on species-specific chilling 51"requirements and leaf-out times. a, Number of species with available data shown in 52"brackets. See Fig. S11 for species-specific results of twig-cutting experiment 53" 54" 55" 56" 57" 58" 59" 60" 61" 62" 63" 64" 65" 66" 67" 68" 69" 70" 71" 72" 73" 74"Extended Data Figure 5 | Contrasting leaf-out strategies in North America (NA), Europe 75"
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
AM EU AS
Chi
lling
requ
irem
ents
per
con
tinen
t (%
)
Group
A
B
C
-4
-2
0
2
4
NA EU ASLocation
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
NA EU EA
a b
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
AM EU AS
Chi
lling
requ
irem
ents
per
con
tinen
t (%
)
Group
A
B
C
None
Intermediate
High
Chilling requirements
NA (72) EU (48) EA (88)
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
NA EU ASLocation
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
Chilling Leaf-out
a b c
67" 68" 69" 70" 71" 72" 73" 74" 75" 76" 77" 78" 79" 80" 81" 82" 83" 84" 85" 86"Extended Data Figure 5 | Contrasting leaf-out strategies in North America (NA), Europe 87"(EU), and eastern Asia (EA) estimated from phylogenetic models. a, Estimated coefficient 88"values (effective posterior means and 95% credible intervals) for differences in chilling 89"requirements between NA, EU, and EA species (N = 66 NA, 43 EU, and 68 EA species). 90"Model includes genus and family random effects to account for shared evolutionary history of 91"species. b, Estimated coefficient values including phylogenetic autocorrelation for differences 92"in Munich leaf-out times between NA, EU, and EA species (N = 100 ENA, 74 EU, and 173 93"EA species). To control for species’ life history strategy and native climate (mean annual 94"temperature), both models (a + b) include fixed effects for growth habit (shrubs vs. trees), 95"leaf persistence (evergreens vs. deciduous species), and species’ 0.5 quantiles for mean 96"annual temperature in their native ranges. Values reflect standardized data and can be 97"interpreted as relative effect sizes. Species from NA leaf out later and have higher chilling 98"
47"
48" 49" 50"Extended Data Figure 4 | Effect of continental origin on species-specific chilling 51"requirements and leaf-out times. a, Number of species with available data shown in 52"brackets. See Fig. S11 for species-specific results of twig-cutting experiment 53" 54" 55" 56" 57" 58" 59" 60" 61" 62" 63" 64" 65" 66" 67" 68" 69" 70" 71" 72" 73" 74"Extended Data Figure 5 | Contrasting leaf-out strategies in North America (NA), Europe 75"
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
AM EU AS
Chi
lling
requ
irem
ents
per
con
tinen
t (%
)Group
A
B
C
-4
-2
0
2
4
NA EU ASLocation
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
NA EU EA
a b
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
AM EU AS
Chi
lling
requ
irem
ents
per
con
tinen
t (%
)Group
A
B
C
None
Intermediate
High
Chilling requirements
NA (72) EU (48) EA (88)
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
NA EU ASLocation
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
Chilling Leaf-out
-4
-2
0
2
4
NA EU ASLocation
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
NA EU EA
a b
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
NA EU ASLocation
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
Chilling
Leaf-out
Figure S9 Days to leaf-out for North American (NA), European (EU), and East Asian (EA)
species under different chilling levels. a, Median days until leaf-out in a climate chamber ±
95% CI under three chilling treatments for NA (n = 72 species), EU (n = 48), and EA (n = 88)
species. b–d, Leaf-out probability for NA, EU, and EA species as a function of the number of
days twigs were kept in a climate chamber under the three chilling treatments: (b) long
chilling, (c) intermediate chilling, and (d) short chilling. Dashed lines indicate median forcing
requirements for NA, EU, and EA species, i.e., the number of days after twig collection when
50% of species had leafed out.
Values reflect standardized data and can be interpreted as relative effect sizes. 142" 143" 144" 145" 146" 147" 148" 149" 150" 151"
152" 153"
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 20 40 60 80
Pro
babi
lity
of b
udbu
rst
Days until budburst
Long chilling (C3)
Intermediatechilling (C2)
Short chilling (C1)
!"# $"! $"# %"! %"# &"! &"#Long (C3) Intermediate (C2) Short (C1)Chilling
A
B
C
D
Day
s to
leaf
-out
NAEUAS
50
40
30
20
10 0
a
b
c d P
ropo
rtion
of l
eafe
d ou
t spe
cies
Figure S10 Family- and genus-level differences in chilling requirements between North
America (NA), East Asia (EA), and Europe (EU). a, b, Heat maps showing mean chilling
requirements per family (a) and genus (b) for NA, EU, and EA species. c, d, Mean within-
family (c) and within-genus (d) differences in chilling requirements (± 95% CIs) between NA
and EA species (left bar), NA and EU (middle), and EU and EA species (right). Note that, for
the calculation, the chilling categories were treated as numerical characters (no chilling
requirements = 0, intermediate = 1, high = 2). Numbers of within-family / within-genus
contrasts are shown above bars.
214" 215" 216"
""217" 218"Extended Data Figure | Family- and genus-level differences in chilling requirements 219"between North America (NA), eastern Asia (EA), and Europe (EU). a, b Heat maps 220"showing mean chilling requirements per family (a) and genus (b) for ENA, EU, and EA 221"species. c, d, Mean within-family (c) and within-genus (d) differences in chilling 222"requirements (± confidence intervals) between NA and EA species (left bar), NA and EU 223"(middle), and EU and EA species (right). Note that for the calculation the chilling categories 224"
10
20
30
40
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5continent_num
family_num
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0chilling
Adoxaceae Altingiaceae
Anacardiaceae Araliaceae
Berberidaceae Betulaceae
Cannabaceae Caprifoliaceae Celastraceae
Cercidiphyllaceae Clethraceae Coniferales Cornaceae
Cupressaceae Elaeagnaceae
Ericaceae Ericaeae
Fabaceae Fagaceae
Ginkgoaceae Grossulariaceae
Hamamelidaceae Hydrangeaceae
Juglandaceae Lardizabalaceae
Lauraceae Magnoliaceae
Malvaceae Meliaceae
Myricaceae Oleaceae
Paeoniceae Pinaceae
Rhamnaceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Rutaceae
Salicaceae Salicaeae
Sapindaceae Scrophulariaceae
Smilacaceae Stachyuraceae
Ulmaceae Vitaceae
High Interm
ediate Low
NA EU EA
20
40
60
80
0.51.01.52.02.53.03.5continent_num
Genus_num
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0chilling
Abies Acer
Aesculus Alnus
Amelanchier Amorpha
Aronia Berberis
Betula Buddleja
Caragana Carpinus
Carya Castanea Celastrus
Celtis Cephalanthus
Cercidiphyllum Cercis
Cladrastis Clethra
Comptonia Cornus
Corylopsis Corylus
Decaisnea Deutzia
Elaeagnus Eleutherococcus
Euonymus Fagus
Forsythia Fraxinus
Gaylussacia Ginkgo
Hamamelis Heptacodium
Hibiscus Hydrangea
Juglans Kalmia
Larix Ligustrum
Lindera Liquidambar Liriodendron
Lonicera Malus
Metasequoia Myrica Nyssa Orixa
Ostrya Paeonia
Parrotiopsis Photinia
Picea Pinus
Populus Prinsepia
Prunus Ptelea Pyrus
Quercus Rhamnus
Rhododendron Rhus Ribes
Robinia Rosa Salix
Sambucus Sassafras
Sinowilsonia Smilax Sorbus Spiraea
Stachyurus Symphoricarpos
Syringa Tilia
Toona Ulmus
Vaccinium Viburnum
Vitis Weigela
NA EU EA
−1.5
−1.0
−0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5Continent contrast
Mea
n ch
illing
diff
eren
ce p
er fa
mily
−1.5
−1.0
−0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5Continent contrast
Mea
n ch
illing
diff
eren
ce p
er fa
mily
a b c
Chilling requirem
ents
d
NA vs. EA
Mea
n ch
illin
g di
ffere
nce
per f
amily
M
ean
chill
ing
diffe
renc
e pe
r gen
us
17 19 24
16 13 16
No species
NA vs. EU
EU vs. EA
NA vs. EA
NA vs. EU
EU vs. EA
Figure S11 Region-specific responses to reduced chilling are not sensitive to photoperiod
treatment. Contrasting responses of North American (NA), European (EU), and East Asian
(EA) species to experimentally reduced winter chilling under short (left panel) and long day
conditions (right panel). We show the median forcing requirements (accumulated degree days
>0°C outdoors and in a climate chamber) ± 95% CIs until leaf-out under three different
chilling levels for NA (n = 49 species), EU (n = 34), and EA (n = 78) species, when twigs
were exposed to 8h (left panel) or 16 h day length (right panel) in the climate chamber. Data
from Laube et al. (2014) and Zohner et al. (2016).
226" 227"Extended Data Figure x | Region-specific responses to reduced chilling are not sensitive 228"to photoperiod treatment. Contrasting responses of North American (NA), European (EU), 229"and East Asian (EA) species to experimentally reduced winter chilling under short (left panel) 230"and long day conditions (right panel). We show the median forcing requirements 231"(accumulated degree days >0°C outdoors and in a climate chamber) ± 95% CI until leaf-out 232"under three different chilling levels for NA (N = 49 species), EU (N = 34), and EA (N = 78) 233"species, when twigs were exposed to 8h (left panel) or 16 h day length (right panel) in the 234"climate chamber. 235" 236" 237" 238" 239" 240" 241" 242" 243" 244" 245" 246" 247" 248" 249" 250" 251"
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
300
500
700
900
Chilling
GD
D (>
0°C
)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
300
500
700
900
ChillingG
DD
(>0°
C)
Deg
ree
days
>0°
C
NA EU EA
Long (C3) Intermediate (C2) Short (C1) Long (C3) Intermediate (C2) Short (C1)
Short days (8-h) Long days (16-h)
Figure S12 Family-level differences in the timing of spring leaf unfolding between North
America (NA), East Asia (EA), and Europe (EU). a, Heat maps showing mean within-family
differences in leaf out times monitored at six gardens (see Figure 3) between NA and EA
species (left panel), NA and EU (middle panel), and EU and EA species (right panel). Each
contrast contains at least two species per continent. b, Mean within-family differences in leaf-
out dates (± 95% CIs) between NA and EA species (left panel), NA and EU (middle panel),
and EU and EA species (right panel). Number of within-family contrasts available for each
garden shown above garden names.
201" 202" 203" 204" 205" 206" 207" 208" 209" 210" 211" 212" 213" 214" 215" 216" 217" 218" 219" 220" 221" 222" 223" 224" 225" 226" 227" 228" 229" 230" 231" 232" 233"
543" 544" 545" 546" 547" 548"
549" 550" 551" 552" 553" 554"
10
20
305 10 15
garden_num
family_num
-20
-10
0
10
20
leafout
Anacardiaceae
Aquifoliaceae
Aristolochiaceae
Berberidaceae
Betulaceae
Bignoniaceae
Caprifoliaceae
Cornaceae
Cupressaceae
Ericaceae
Fabaceae
Fagaceae
Hamamelidaceae
Hydrangeaceae
Juglandaceae
Lauraceae
Magnoliaceae
Moraceae
Oleaceae
Pinaceae
Ranunculaceae
Rosaceae
Rutaceae
Salicaceae
Sapindaceae
Saxifragaceae
Styracaceae
Tilaceae
Ulmaceae
Vitaceae
Adoxaceae
AA Berlin Mort. Mun. Ott. USNA
Leaf-out difference ENA
-EA
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
5 10 15Location
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
10
20
305 10 15
garden_num
family_num
-20
-10
0
10
20
leafout
Adoxaceae
Anacardiaceae Berberidaceae
Betulaceae Bignoniaceae
Caprifoliaceae
Celastraceae Cornaceae
Cupressaceae Ericaceae
Fabaceae
Fagaceae Grossulariaceae
Hamamelidaceae Hydrangeaceae
Juglandaceae Lauraceae
Magnoliaceae
Malvaceae Moraceae
Oleaceae Pinaceae
Ranunculaceae Rosaceae
Rutaceae
Salicaceae Sapindaceae
Saxifragaceae Ulmaceae
Vitaceae
Leaf-out difference (days)
AA
Ber
lin
Mor
ton
Mun
ich
Otta
wa
US
NA
AA
Ber
lin
Mor
ton
Mun
ich
Otta
wa
US
NA
AA
Ber
lin
Mor
ton
Mun
ich
Otta
wa
US
NA
Mea
n le
af-o
ut d
iffer
ence
(day
s)
26 23 15 15 8 4 13 13 10 10 5 14 14 11 15
543" 544" 545" 546" 547" 548"
549" 550" 551" 552" 553" 554"
10
20
305 10 15
garden_num
family_num
-20
-10
0
10
20
leafout
Anacardiaceae
Aquifoliaceae
Aristolochiaceae
Berberidaceae
Betulaceae
Bignoniaceae
Caprifoliaceae
Cornaceae
Cupressaceae
Ericaceae
Fabaceae
Fagaceae
Hamamelidaceae
Hydrangeaceae
Juglandaceae
Lauraceae
Magnoliaceae
Moraceae
Oleaceae
Pinaceae
Ranunculaceae
Rosaceae
Rutaceae
Salicaceae
Sapindaceae
Saxifragaceae
Styracaceae
Tilaceae
Ulmaceae
Vitaceae
Adoxaceae
AA Berlin Mort. Mun. Ott. USNA
Leaf-out difference ENA
-EA
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
5 10 15Location
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
NA - EA NA - EU EU - EA
No shared species
a b
Figure S13 The effect of climate (STV, MAT, TS) on species-specific leaf-out times. a,
Recursive partitioning tree for the relationship between climate parameters and species-
specific leaf-out dates (day-of-year, DOY) observed in Munich in 366 temperate woody
species. Median STV, MAT, and TS in a species’ native range, growth habit (shrub/tree), and
leaf persistence (deciduous/evergreen) were evaluated as potential split points. Number of
species contained in each terminal node shown below boxplots. b, Coefficient values (means
and 95% CIs) for the relationship between three climate parameters and leaf-out times
monitored at four gardens estimated from HB models including phylogenetic autocorrelation
and fixed tree and evergreen effects. Values reflect standardized data and can be interpreted
as relative effect sizes. Sample sizes: Arnold Arboretum (AA), 822 species; Berlin Botanical
Garden (Berlin), 627 species; Morton Arboretum (Morton), 354 species; Munich Botanical
Garden (Munich), 366 species.
94"
95"Extended Data Figure 10 | The effect of climate on species-specific leaf-out times. a, 96"
Recursive partitioning tree for the relationship between climate parameters and species-97"
specific leaf-out dates (day-of-year, DOY) observed in Munich in 366 temperate woody 98"
species. Sprig temperature variability (STV), mean annual temperature (MAT), temperature 99"
seasonality (TS), growth habit, and leaf persistence were evaluated as potential split points. 100"
Number of species contained in each terminal node shown below boxplots. b, Coefficient 101"
values (effective posterior means and 95% credible intervals) for the relationship between 102"
three climate parameters and leaf-out times monitored at four gardens. Sample sizes: Arnold 103"
Arboretum (AA), 822 species; Berlin Botanical Garden (Berlin), 627 species; Morton 104"
Arboretum (Morton), 354 species; Munich Botanical Garden (Munich), 366 species. Models 105"
include phylogenetic autocorrelation and fixed tree and evergreen effects. Values reflect 106"
standardized data and can be interpreted as relative effect sizes. 107"
94"
95" 96"Extended Data Figure 10 | The effect of climate on species-specific leaf-out times. a, 97"
Recursive partitioning tree for the relationship between three climate parameters and species-98"
specific leaf-out times (Munich data) in 366 temperate woody species. Sprig temperature 99"
variability (STV), mean annual temperature (MAT), temperature seasonality (TS), growth 100"
habit, and leaf persistence were evaluated as potential split points. Number of species 101"
contained in each terminal node shown below graphs. b, Coefficient values (effective 102"
posterior means and 95% credible intervals) for the relationship between three climate 103"
parameters and leaf-out times monitored at four gardens. Sample sizes: Arnold Arboretum 104"
(AA), 822 species; Berlin Botanical Garden (Berlin), 627 species; Morton Arboretum 105"
(Morton), 354 species; Munich Botanical Garden (Munich), 366 species. Models include 106"
phylogenetic autocorrelation and fixed tree and evergreen effects. Values reflect standardized 107"
data and can be interpreted as relative effect sizes. 108"
Growth habit
Shrub Tree
STV
MAT
60
80
100
120
140
STV
MAT
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
STV WT TS
AA
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
STV WT TS
Berlin
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
STV WT TS
Morton
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
STV WT TS
Munich
Growth habit
Shrub Tree
STV
MAT
60
80
100
120
140
STV
MAT
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
STV WT TS
AA
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
STV WT TS
Berlin
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
STV WT TS
Morton
8
6
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
STV WT TS
Munich
Leaf
-out
(DO
Y)
< 1.4 ≥ 1.4 < 1.2 ≥ 1.2
< 9.7°C ≥ 9.7°C < 13.2°C ≥ 13.2°C
N = 60 88 44 41 37 96
< 13.2°C ≥ 13.2°C
a b
STV MAT TS STV MAT TS STV MAT TS STV MAT TS
Figure S14 Leaf-out contrasts between western North American (WNA) and eastern North
American (ENA), European (EU), and East Asian (EA) species. a, Heat maps for the
difference in species-level leaf-out dates between WNA and ENA species (left panel), WNA
and EU species (middle panel), and WNA and EA species (right panel) monitored at two
gardens when all species, or only shrubs / deciduous species were included (see Appendix
Table S5). Sample sizes for each continent at the respective garden are shown below garden
names. Contrasts with sample sizes below 10 species per continent (trees and evergreen
species) are not shown (grey fields in heat map). Leaf-out dates were observed in 2012. Data
available from Panchen et al. (2014). AA: Arnold Arboretum, Boston, MA, USA; Berlin:
Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Berlin, Germany. b, Coefficient
values (means and 95% CIs) for differences in leaf-out dates between WNA and ENA
species, WNA and EU species, and WNA and EA species estimated from HB models
including phylogenetic autocorrelation and fixed tree, evergreen, and gymnosperm effects.
Values reflect standardized data and can be interpreted as relative effect sizes.
61"Extended Data Figure 7 | Leaf-out contrasts between western North American (WNA) 62"and eastern North American (ENA), European (EU), and Asian (AS) species. a, Heat 63"maps for the difference in species-level leaf-out dates between WNA and ENA species (left 64"panel), WNA and EU species (middle panel), and WNA and AS species (right panel) 65"monitored at two gardens when all species, or only shrubs / deciduous species were included. 66"Sample sizes for each continent at the respective garden are shown below garden names. 67"Contrasts with sample sizes below 10 species per continent (trees and evergreen species) are 68"not shown (grey fields in heat map). Leaf-out dates were observed in 2012 and came from 69"Panchen et al. (2014) (see Table S3). AA: Arnold Arboretum, Boston, MA, USA; Berlin: 70"Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Berlin, Germany. b, Coefficient 71"values (effective posterior means and 95% credible intervals) for differences in leaf-out dates 72"between WNA and ENA species, WNA and EU species, and WNA and AS species. Models 73"include phylogenetic autocorrelation and fixed tree, evergreen, and gymnosperm effects. 74"Values reflect standardized data and can be interpreted as relative effect sizes. 75" 76" 77" 78" 79" 80" 81" 82" 83" 84"
Fig. S6. Leaf-out contrasts between Western North American (WNA) and Eastern North
American (ENA), European (EU), and Asian (AS) species. (A) Heat maps for the difference
in species-level leaf-out dates between WNA and ENA species (left panel), WNA and EU
species (middle panel), and WNA and AS species (right panel) monitored at two gardens
when all species, or only shrubs / deciduous species were included. Sample sizes for each
continent at the respective garden are shown below garden names. Contrasts with sample
sizes below 10 species per continent (trees and evergreen species) are not shown (grey fields
in heat map). Leaf-out dates were observed in 2012 and came from Panchen et al. 2014 (see
Table Sx). AA: Arnold Arboretum, Boston, MA, USA; Berlin: Botanic Garden and Botanical
Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Berlin, Germany. (B) Coefficient values (effective posterior means
[EPM] and 95% credible intervals) for differences in leaf-out dates between WNA and ENA
species, WNA and EU species, and WNA and AS species. Models include phylogenetic
autocorrelation and fixed tree, evergreen, and gymnosperm effects. Values reflect
standardized data and can be interpreted as relative effect sizes.
WNA - ENA WNA - EU WNA - AS
All
Trees
Shrubs
Deciduous
Evergreen
Leaf-out difference (days)AA Berlin AA Berlin AA Berlin
1
2
3
4
5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5x
y
-10
-5
0
5
10
fill
1
2
3
4
5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5x
y
-10
-5
0
5
10
fill
1
2
3
4
5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5x
y
-10
-5
0
5
10
fill
18/211 23/126 18/148 23/95 18/610 23/401
10
5
0
-5
-10
a b
Coe
ffici
ent e
stim
ate
16
12
8
4
0
-4
-8
-12
-16
-12.0 -12.4 -6.7 -8.0 -6.3 -4.8
-12.9 -6.2 -3.3 -0.2 -5.7 1.5
-10.6 -12.5 -3.0 -6.0 -3.7 -3.3
EA
Figure S15 The temperature regimes experienced by species native to North America (NA, n
= 317), Europe (EU, n = 202), or East Asia (EA, n = 619), using the median (0.5 quantile)
STV, MAT, and TS in a species’ native range.
America EU EA
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
Continent
STV
(sta
ndar
d de
viat
ion)
America EU EA
05
1015
20
Continent
MAT
(°C
)
America EU EA
2530
3540
45
Continent
TS (°
C)
Table S1 Results of twig cutting experiments to study the effect of chilling on forcing
requirements until leaf-out in 215 temperate woody species. Continent: continent a species is
native to (NA = North America, SA = South America, EU = Europe, EA = East Asia, WA =
West Asia). Chilling: classification of species according to chilling requirements (see
Material and Methods section for classification rules). Superscripts indicate the study from
which data was taken: (1) Laube et al. (2014), (2) Polgar et al. (2014), and (3) Zohner et al.
(2016). C1 / C2 / C3: median forcing requirements (growing degree days >0°C outdoors and
in climate chamber) until leaf-out for the three different chilling treatments C1 (short
chilling), C2 (intermediate chilling), and C3 (long chilling). NL: no leaf-out within study
period. For graphic representation see Appendix Figure S1.
Genus Species Continent Chilling C1 / C2 / C3 Abies alba EU Intermediate1 510 / 300 / 375 Abies homolepis EA Intermediate1 NL / 360 / 375 Acer barbinerve EA None3 307 / 272 / 309 Acer campestre EU High3 757 / 476 / 377 Acer ginnala EA None3 368 / 393 / 429 Acer negundo NA Intermediate1 610 / 210 / 200 Acer platanoides EU Intermediate3 809 / 527 / 483 Acer pseudoplatanus EU High1 665 / 480 / 340 Acer rubrum NA High2 NL / NL / 430 Acer saccharinum NA High2 NL / NL / 1046 Acer saccharum NA High1 NL / 690 / 360 Acer tataricum EA Intermediate1 340 / 240 / 250 Aesculus flava NA High3 1421 / 1132 / 622 Aesculus hippocastanum EU Intermediate3 587 / 527 / 498 Aesculus parviflora NA High3 737 / 604 / 514 Alnus incana EU Intermediate3 700 / 511 / 454 Alnus maximowiczii EA None3 700 / 665 / 638 Alnus serrulata NA High2 NL / NL / 540 Amelanchier alnifolia NA Intermediate3 632 / 445 / 392 Amelanchier florida NA Intermediate3 586 / 445 / 377 Amelanchier laevis NA Intermediate3 1240 / 509 / 482 Amorpha fruticosa NA None1 350 / 550 / 525 Aronia arbutifolia NA High3 660 / 402 / 298 Aronia melanocarpa NA None3 327 / 314 / 368 Berberis dielsiana EA None3 188 / 285 / 306 Berberis thunbergii EA Intermediate2 374 / 314 / 276 Berberis vulgaris EU None2 352 / 402 / 452 Betula lenta NA High3 737 / 618 / 498 Betula nana EU High3 719 / 716 / 604 Betula papyrifera NA High2 660 / 446 / 298 Betula pendula EU Intermediate1 300 / 210 / 190 Betula populifolia NA None3 368 / 391 / 412 Buddleja albiflora EA None3 150 / 225 / 300 Buddleja alternifolia EA None3 150 / 299 / 355 Buddleja davidii EA None3 155 / 300 / 354 Caragana pygmaea EA None3 111 / 225 / 207 Carpinus betulus EU Intermediate3 719 / 435 / 407 Carpinus laxiflora EA Intermediate3 527 / 376 / 424 Carpinus monbeigiana EA None3 527 / 450 / 549 Carya cordiformis NA High3 1059 / 1040 / 718 Carya glabra NA High2 NL / NL / 452 Carya laciniosa NA High3 1455 / 1203 / 709 Carya ovata NA High3 1793 / 1552 / 777 Castanea sativa EU None3 606 / 556 / 567 Cedrus libani WA Intermediate3 574 / 558 / 498 Celastrus orbiculatus EA Intermediate2 682 / 534 / 584 Celtis caucasica EU Intermediate3 820 / 492 / 443 Celtis laevigata NA High3 898 / 781 / 509 Celtis occidentalis NA High3 779 / 922 / 622 Cephalanthus occidentalis NA Intermediate3 700 / 604 / 624 Cercidiphyllum japonicum EA Intermediate3 645 / 423 / 420
Table S1 Continued Genus Species Continent Chilling C1 / C2 / C3 Cercidiphyllum magnificum EA High3 617 / 445 / 344 Cercis canadensis NA High3 827 / 699 / 638 Cercis chinensis EA None3 488 / 558 / 704 Cladrastis lutea NA High3 941 / 683 / 585 Clethra alnifolia NA High2 NL / 688 / 430 Comptonia peregrina NA High2 NL / 534 / 430 Cornus alba EA Intermediate3 606 / 481 / 409 Cornus amomum NA Intermediate2 682 / 490 /430 Cornus kousa EA None3 448 / 452 / 498 Cornus mas EU None1 280 / 230 / 230 Corylopsis sinensis EA None3 448 / 393 / 459 Corylopsis spicata EA None3 547 / 466 / 496 Corylus americana NA Intermediate2 748 / 402 / 386 Corylus avellana EU None3 254 / 190 / 194 Corylus heterophylla EA Intermediate3 725 / 398 / 358 Corylus sieboldiana EA Intermediate3 601 / 319 / 328 Decaisnea fargesii EA Intermediate3 568 / 393 / 420 Deutzia gracilis EA None3 167 / 209 / 262 Deutzia scabra EA None3 345 / 429 / 358 Elaeagnus ebbingei EA None3 141 / 146 / 198 Elaeagnus umbellata EA None3 352 / 314 / 298 Eleutherococcus senticosus EA None3 300 / 302 / 297 Eleutherococcus setchuenenis EA None3 408 / 393 / 420 Eleutherococcus sieboldianus EA None3 316 / 256 / 328 Euonymus alatus EA Intermediate2 682 / 380 / 430 Euonymus europaeus EU Intermediate3 468 / 452 / 381 Euonymus latifolius EU High3 NL / 525 / 377 Fagus crenata EA High3 663 / 607 / 377 Fagus engleriana EA High3 663 / 492 / 377 Fagus grandifolia NA High2 NL / NL / 1024 Fagus orientalis EU High3 1079 / 766 / 508 Fagus sylvatica EU High3 900 / 570 / 330 Forsythia ovata EA None3 227 / 316 / 371 Forsythia suspensa EA None3 330 / 256 / 297 Fraxinus americana NA Intermediate2 NL / 754 / 826 Fraxinus chinensis EA Intermediate1 490 / 450 / 390 Fraxinus excelsior EU None1 510 / 400 / 450 Fraxinus latifolia NA Intermediate3 896 / 850 / 782 Fraxinus ornus EU High3 1887 / 1381 / 689 Fraxinus pennsylvanica NA None1 360 / 375 / 430 Gaylussacia baccata NA High2 814 / 842 / 430 Ginkgo biloba EA Intermediate3 809 / 604 / 585 Hamamelis japonica EA Intermediate3 617 / 382 / 377 Hamamelis vernalis NA High3 976 / 509 / 344 Hamamelis virginiana NA High2 792 / 842 / 430 Heptacodium miconioides EA None3 227 / 316 / 345 Hibiscus syriacus EA None3 347 / 452 / 622 Hydrangea arborescens NA Intermediate3 709 / 350 / 377 Hydrangea involucrata EA Intermediate3 601 / 382 / 344 Hydrangea serrata EA Intermediate3 488 / 301 / 394 Juglans ailantifolia EA Intermediate1 625 / 400 / 335 Juglans cinerea NA Intermediate1 624 / 440 / 390 Juglans regia EU Intermediate1 580 / 550 /426 Kalmia angustifolia NA Intermediate2 NL / 424 / 584 Kalmia latifolia NA High2 NL / NL / 826 Larix decidua EU None1 250 / 200 / 190 Larix gmelinii EA Intermediate3 267 / 209 / 176 Larix kaempferi EA Intermediate3 663 / 461 / 392 Ligustrum compactum EA None2 352 / 314 / 298 Ligustrum ibota EA None2 352 / 314 / 298 Ligustrum tschonoskii EA None3 130 / 242 / 317 Lindera benzoin NA High2 NL / NL / 900 Liquidambar orientalis WA None3 247 / 393 / 498 Liquidambar styraciflua NA Intermediate3 881 / 604 / 567 Liriodendron tulipifera NA Intermediate3 737 / 332 / 317 Lonicera alpigena EU None3 267 / 257 / 238 Lonicera caerulea EU None3 111 / 151 / 151 Lonicera maackii EA None2 352 / 314 / 298 Lonicera maximowiczii EA None3 130 / 183 / 177 Lonicera subsessilis EA None2 352 / 292 / 298 Malus domestica - Intermediate2 374 / 314 / 276 Metasequoia glyptostroboides EA None3 307 / 362 / 408 Myrica pensylvanica NA High2 660 / 600 / 452
Table S1 Continued Genus Species Continent Chilling C1 / C2 / C3 Nothofagus antarctica SA Intermediate3 587 / 452 / 409 Nyssa sylvatica NA High2 NL / NL / 730 Oemleria cerasiformis NA None3 327 / 301 / 317 Orixa japonica EA Intermediate3 606 / 527 / 498 Ostrya carpinifolia EU None3 327 / 332 / 440 Ostrya virginiana NA High3 867 / 525 / 297 Paeonia rockii EA None3 347 / 347 / 358 Parrotia persica WA None3 468 / 289 / 394 Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana EA None3 468 / 362 / 454 Photinia villosa EA None3 347 / 378 / 468 Picea abies EU Intermediate3 1226 / 885 / 908 Pinus nigra EU None1 490 / 300 / 515 Pinus strobus NA None1 350 / 225 / 300 Pinus sylvestris EU Intermediate1 510 / 295 / 325 Pinus wallichiana EA None1 300 / 225 / 260 Populus grandidentata NA High2 NL / NL / 804 Populus koreana EA None3 287 / 287 / 336 Populus tremula EU High1 460 / 400 / 305 Prinsepia sinensis EA None3 73 / 74 / 74 Prinsepia uniflora EA None3 141 / 162 / 161 Prunus avium EU Intermediate1 365 / 230 / 195 Prunus cerasifera WA None3 227 / 301 / 317 Prunus padus EU None3 347 / 332 / 336 Prunus serotina NA Intermediate1 460 / 200 / 195 Prunus serrulata EA Intermediate3 508 / 466 / 420 Prunus tenella EU None3 307 / 393 / 394 Pseudotsuga menziesii NA Intermediate1 510 / 355 / 360 Ptelea trifoliata NA None3 663 / 542 / 622 Pyrus elaeagnifolia EU Intermediate3 601 / 335 / 344 Pyrus pyrifolia EA None3 287 / 423 / 420 Pyrus ussuriensis EA None3 267 / 209 / 237 Quercus alba NA High2 NL / NL / 584 Quercus bicolor NA High1 510 / 440 / 310 Quercus robur EU Intermediate3 509 / 430 / 374 Quercus rubra NA High1 NL / 540 / 340 Quercus shumardii NA Intermediate3 985 / 604 / 549 Rhamnus alpina EU High3 1040 / 623 / 427 Rhamnus cathartica EU Intermediate3 694 / 461 / 474 Rhamnus frangula EU High2 814 / 688 / 430 Rhododendron canadense NA None3 428 / 496 / 604 Rhododendron dauricum EA None3 448 / 496 / 423 Rhododendron mucronulatum EA None3 141 / 194 / 198 Rhus typhina NA High2 814 / 600 / 430 Ribes alpinum EU Intermediate3 345 / 162 / 95 Ribes divaricatum NA Intermediate3 663 / 256 / 237 Ribes glaciale EA None3 167 / 162 / 147 Robinia pseudoacacia NA Intermediate1 375 / 225 / 290 Rosa hugonis EA None3 224 / 209 / 237 Rosa majalis EU None3 195 / 209 / 266 Rosa multiflora EA Intermediate2 374 / 314 / 276 Salix gracilistyla EA None3 307 / 287 / 317 Salix repens EU High3 820 / 557 / 377 Sambucus nigra EU None3 327 / 242 / 293 Sambucus pubens NA Intermediate3 450 / 209 / 286 Sambucus tigranii EU Intermediate3 450 / 225 / 286 Sassafras albidum NA High2 NL / NL / 980 Sinowilsonia henryi EA None3 428 / 393 / 498 Smilax rotundifolia NA High2 NL / NL / 1024 Sorbus aria EU High3 1087 / 638 / 509 Sorbus commixta EA Intermediate3 420 / 302 / 311 Sorbus decora NA Intermediate3 632 / 382 / 410 Spiraea canescens EA None3 300 / 225 / 276 Spiraea chamaedryfolia EA None3 330 / 194 / 297 Spiraea japonica EA None3 360 / 303 / 344 Spiraea latifolia NA High2 792 / 446 / 298 Stachyurus chinensis EA Intermediate3 773 / 573 / 585 Stachyurus praecox EA None3 307 / 301 / 394 Symphoricarpos albus NA Intermediate1 415 / 190 / 190 Syringa josikaea EU None3 287 / 378 / 293 Syringa reticulata EA None3 227 / 287 / 370 Syringa villosa EA None3 227 / 227 / 293 Syringa vulgaris EU None1 190 / 150 / 190 Tilia dasystyla WA High3 836 / 509 / 392
Table S1 Continued Genus Species Continent Chilling C1 / C2 / C3 Tilia japonica EA None3 388 / 409 / 468 Tilia platyphyllos EU Intermediate3 587 / 437 / 468 Toona sinensis EA None3 488 / 635 / 585 Ulmus americana NA High3 617 / 461 / 328 Ulmus laevis EU High3 1040 / 735 / 377 Vaccinium angustifolium NA Intermediate2 792 / 446 / 452 Vaccinium corymbosum NA High2 682 / 490 / 276 Vaccinium pallidum NA High2 814 / 754 / 584 Viburnum betulifolium EA Intermediate3 587 / 481 / 459 Viburnum buddleifolium EA High3 NL / 466 / 317 Viburnum carlesii EA None3 347 / 301 / 327 Viburnum opulus EU Intermediate3 663 / 496 / 514 Viburnum plicatum EA Intermediate3 1059 / 466 / 498 Viburnum recognitum NA High2 616 / 556 / 386 Vitis aestivalis NA High2 814 / 534 / 430 Weigela coraeensis EA None3 375 / 287 / 328 Weigela florida EA None3 327 / 316 / 526 Weigela maximowiczii EA Intermediate3 632 / 382 / 377
Table S2 Experimental setup of twig cutting experiments to study the effect of chilling on
forcing requirements until leaf-out in 215 temperate woody species. C1, C2, C3 = Different
collection dates of twigs resulting in different levels of chilling. We show the collection dates
and (in brackets) the number of chill days that accumulated before collection for the three
studies from which data was taken (Laube et al. 2014; Polgar et al. 2014; Zohner et al. 2016).
Chill days were calculated as days with a mean air temperature below 5°C between 1
November and the respective collection date.
Study C1 C2 C3
Zohner et al. 2016
(144 species studied)
Laube et al. 2014 (29 species)
Polgar et al. 2014
(42 species)
21 Dec
(40)
14 Dec (33)
8 Jan (52)
11 Feb
(79)
30 Jan (73)
14 Feb
(86)
21 March
(96)
14 March (110)
20 March
(115)
Table S3 ANCOVA for the relationships between forcing requirements until leaf-out
(growing degree days >0°C outdoors and in climate chamber) and continent (North America,
Europe, East Asia), chilling treatment (C1 – C3), and habit (shrub, tree) [see Figure 2 and
Appendix Figure S5c]. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001.
N = 208 species F-value
Continent F(2) = 86.4***
Chilling F(1) = 65.8***
Habit F(1) = 23.1***
Continent x chilling F(2) = 12.4***
Continent x habit F(2) = 0.4
Chilling x habit F(1) = 1.4
Table S4 Mean leaf-out times monitored at six gardens of species restricted to NA, EU, and
EA, when all species or only trees / shrubs / deciduous / evergreen species were included.
95% confidence intervals and sample sizes shown in brackets, respectively. AA: Arnold
Arboretum, Boston, MA, USA; Berlin: Botanical Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin-
Dahlem, Berlin, Germany; Morton: Morton Arboretum, Lisle, IL, USA; Munich: Munich
Botanical Garden, Munich, Germany; Ottawa: Ottawa Arboretum, Ottawa, Canada; USNA:
US National Arboretum, Washington, DC and Beltsville, MD, USA.
Extended Data Table 2 | Mean leaf-out dates monitored at six gardens of species restricted 238"
to North America (NA), Europe (EU), and Eastern Asia (EA), when all species or only trees / 239"
shrubs / deciduous / evergreen species were included. 95% confidence intervals and sample 240"
sizes shown in brackets, respectively. 241"
AA Berlin Morton Munich Ottawa USNA All 106.1
(1.6) (291)
106.8 (2.4) (190)
92.5 (2.2) (137)
105.5 (2.2) (106)
126.7 (2.7)
(90)
89.6 (3.9)
(22) Trees 109.9
(1.9) (166)
113.1 (2.7) (106)
94.8 (2.9)
(96)
110.1 (2.6)
(63)
128.4 (2.8)
(73)
92.8 (4.7)
(12) NA Shrubs 101.3
(2.8) (125)
98.8 (3.6)
(84)
87.1 (2.5)
(41)
98.7 (2.9)
(43)
119.6 (7.2)
(17)
85.8 (6.0)
(10) Deciduous 103.0
(1.4) (249)
105.4 (2.3) (175)
91.1 (2.0) (125)
104.7 (2.1) (101)
125.0 (2.7)
(78)
89.7 (4.1)
(21) Evergreen 125.2
(5.2) (42)
126.5 (11.4)
(14)
106.8 (11.5)
(12)
121.8 3.9 (5)
141.7 (3.1)
(11)
89.0 (-) (1)
All 99.8 (3.1) (148)
102.6 (3.3)
(95)
92.2 (3.6)
(38)
98.5 (2.8)
(85)
122.0 (8.1)
(21)
91.9 (5.2)
(10) Trees 106.0
(4.4) (46)
109.9 (4.3)
(51)
95.7 (4.4)
(26)
106.0 (2.9)
(38)
126.6 (7.3)
(17)
93.5 (5.9)
(8) EU Shrubs 93.4
(3.6) (45)
94.0 (4.0)
(44)
84.5 (3.6)
(12)
92.4 (3.7)
(47)
102.2 (21.7)
(4)
85.5 (6.8)
(2) Deciduous 96.1
(2.7) (74)
100.6 (3.5)
(81)
90.5 (3.6)
(32)
97.5 (2.8)
(78)
115.6 (8.5)
(16)
91.9 (5.2)
(10) Evergreen 115.8
(8.2) (17)
114.0 (8.6)
(14)
101.0 (10.6)
(6)
110.3 (10.0)
(7)
142.2 (3.5)
(5)
- (-) (0)
All 99.4 (1.2) (610)
99.4 (1.7) (401)
86.4 (1.5) (206)
94.4 1.4 (295)
116.0 (4.4)
(57)
82.4 (1.7) (139)
Trees 103.7 (1.7) (283)
107.0 (2.2) (193)
89.4 (2.4) (115)
103.3 (2.0) (100)
116.9 (4.8)
(48)
83.9 (2.2)
(81) EA Shrubs 95.8
(1.7) (327)
92.3 (2.1) (208)
82.6 (1.1)
(91)
89.8 (1.6) (195)
111.0 (11.4)
(9)
80.3 (2.7)
(58) Deciduous 96.8
(1.2) (525)
97.9 (1.6) (367)
85.0 (1.2) (190)
94.0 (1.4) (279)
114.2 (4.4)
(53)
81.6 (1.7) (132)
Evergreen 116.4 (3.5)
(85)
115.3 (7.9)
(34)
103.5 (10.4)
(16)
100.2 (7.7)
(16)
140.2 (8.0)
(4)
97.0 (9.1)
(7)
242"
Table S5 Mean leaf-out times monitored at two gardens of species restricted to western North
America and eastern North America, when all species or only trees / shrubs / deciduous /
evergreen species were included. 95% confidence intervals and sample sizes shown in
brackets, respectively. AA: Arnold Arboretum, Boston, MA, USA; Berlin: Botanical Garden
and Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Berlin, Germany.
AA Berlin Western North America
All 93.1 (5.5)
(18)
94.6 (6.1)
(23) Trees 103.5
(7.7) (4)
97.8 (12.7)
(5) Shrubs 90.1
(5.9) (14)
93.8 (7.1)
(18) Deciduous 93.1
(5.5) (18)
94.6 (6.1)
(23) Evergreen -
(-) (0)
- (-) (0)
Eastern North America
All 105.1 (1.7) (211)
107.0 (2.6) (126)
Trees 106.8 (1.7) (115)
112.8 (2.5)
(70) Shrubs 103.0
(3.1) (96)
100.0 (4.4)
(56) Deciduous 103.7
(1.5) (194)
107.1 (2.7) (124)
Evergreen 121.2 (9.5)
(17)
105.5 (48.1)
(2)
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