Zadoks 2013 - Crop Protection in Medieval Agriculture - eBook

7/22/2019 Zadoks 2013 - Crop Protection in Medieval Agriculture - eBook

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stud`cs à prc-fgdcra grknaè nkrèuhturc

Ergp prgtcet`ga

Jna E. Zndgls

à fcd`cvnh nkrèuhturc


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U`dcstgac ]rcssN acw kcacrnt`ga gi ]ubh`soàk

Pgu nrc rcndàk n iuhh vcrs`ga gi to`s bggl, igr ircc!

To`s bggl `s pnrt gi toc U`dcstgac c-h`brnry wocrc fgst gi gur

pubhènt`gas nrc iuhhy neecss`bhc igr ircc. Igr neecss tg fgrc

ircc bggls v`s`t: www.s`dcstgac.egf/h`brnry

Dgwahgnd Iuhh ]DI

Y`s`t toc U`dcstgac c-h`brnry tg brgwsc gur c-bggls. Igr n fà`fnh

icc ygu ena pureonsc n iuhhy iuaet`ganh ]DI nad by dgàk sg, ygu

ochp tg lccp gur h`brnry ruaaàk.

www.s`dcstgac.egf/h`brnry


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U`dcstgac ]rcss

Ergp prgtcet`ga`a fcd`cvnh nkr`euhturc


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stud`cs à prc-fgdcra grknaè nkrèuhturc

Ergp prgtcet`ga

Jna E. Zndgls

à fcd`cvnh nkrèuhturc


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2=>5 J.E. Zndgls

]ubh`socd by U`dcstgac ]rcss, Hc`dcawww.s`dcstgac.egf

@UBA 0;?-0=-??0=->?;-4

]ogtgkrnpo egvcr: Juhy `a n ]snhtcr irgf A Irnaec, e. >>?=, Ant`ganh

H`brnry gi toc Actocrhnads, Tc Onkuc: fs ;9 I >5, p ;v.

Hny-gut & Egvcr dcs`ka: U`dcstgac ]rcss


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Egatcats

> @atrgduet`ga, prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga >>

>.> [oy to`s bggl7 >>>.2 oc pcr`gd gi àtcrcst >4

>.5 Ergp prgtcet`ga n spce`nh `ssuc7 >4

>.4 oc npprgneo >9

2 Bggls nad nutogrs >0

2.> N bgdy gi h`tcrnturc >0

2.2 rnd`t`gas à nkrgagfy 2=2.2.> oc Krnceg-Rgfna trnd`t`ga 2=

2.2.2 oc Acnr-Cnstcra trnd`t`ga 2=2.2.5 Ergss-hàls bctwcca Cnst nad [cst 2=2.2.4 N fcd`cvnh trnd`t`ga 2>

2.5 orcc fcd`cvnh nutogrs 222.5.> Uchcetcd nutogrs 222.5.2 Nagayfus e.03= EC Kcgpga`ln 222.5.5 @ba nh-Nwwf e.>2== Bggl ga Nkrèuhturc 252.5.4 ]`ctrg Ercsecaz` e.>5=9 Ga egffga nkrèuhturc 24

2.4 ]rcdcecssgrs 2;2.4.> Uchcetcd nutogrs 2;2.4.2 Ocs`gd e.;3= BEC Dnys nad wgrls 2;2.4.5 ocgpornstus e.5== BEC Caqu`ry àtg phnats nad Ga toc enuscs

gi phnats 2?2.4.4 oc Rgfna nkrgagf`sts e.>== BEC - e.4== EC Ga nkrèuhturc 2?2.4.3 Yàdgaùs Nantghùs nad Enssùs Bnssus 4totg 9 toecatury EC 202.4.9 @ba [nso`yyn e.0== EC Anbntcna nkrèuhturc 5=

2.3 Egatcfpgrnr`cs 5>2.3.> Uchcetcd nutogrs 5>2.3.2 orcc Nadnhus`na nutogrs 5>

2.3.5 [nhtcr gi Ocahcy e.>2?9 Ousbnadry 522.3.4 Nhbcrtus Fnkaus e.>2==->2?= Ga phnats 522.3.3 @ba Huya >54? Bggl ga nkrèuhturc 55

2.9 Uueecssgrs 552.9.> Uchcetcd nutogrs 552.9.2 Knbr`ch dc Ocrrcrn >3>5 rcnt`sc ga nkrèuhturc 542.9.5 Gh`v`cr dc Ucrrcs >9== ocntrc gi nkrèuhturc 542.9.4 F`kuch Nkusta >9>; toc Bggl gi toc ]r`gr 53

2.; Inatnsy nad rcnh`ty 53

2.? oc nud`caec 59


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5 ]rc-fgdcra nkrèuhturc 50

5.> Kcgkrnpoy nad eh`fntc 505.>.> Kcgkrnpoy, twg secacs 505.>.2 Eh`fntcs 4=

5.>.5 Hnadsenpcs 4>5.2 Inrfs nad inrfàk systcfs 42

5.2.> ]rc-fgdcra inrfàk 425.2.2 Inrf nad i`chd s`zcs 45

5.5 Ergps nad ergppàk systcfs 445.5.> Ergps 445.5.2 ]hnatcd ergps 435.5.5 Ugwa ergps - Ecrcnhs 4?5.5.4 Ugwa ergps - Hckufcs 3>

5.5.3 Ugwa ergps - Yckctnbhcs, ocrbs, granfcatnhs 355.4 Ergp schcet`ga nad phnat `fprgvcfcat 355.4.> Ergp schcet`ga 355.4.2 Ynr`ct`cs 345.4.5 Uccd schcet`ga 345.4.4 Cxeonakc gi sccds nad phnatàk stgel 335.4.3 Kcactès 335.4.9 rnasfutnt`ga 39

5.3 Cav`rgafcat 3;5.3.> oc nb`gtè cav`rgafcat wcntocr 3;

5.3.2 oc nb`gtè cav`rgafcat sg`hs 3?5.3.5 oc b`gtè cav`rgafcat cegsystcf scrvècs 305.3.4 oc ponscs gi toc fgga 9>

5.9 Ergp fnankcfcat 955.9.> Ug`h t`hhnkc - D`kkàk 955.9.2 Ug`h t`hhnkc - ]hgukoàk nad onrrgwàk 945.9.5 Inhhgwàk nad ergp rgtnt`ga 9?5.9.4 Ugwàk nad phnatàk 905.9.3 @rr`knt`ga nad drnànkc ;=

5.; Onrvcstàk, stgràk, prgecssàk ;25.;.> oc onrvcst ;25.;.2 oc torcsoàk ihggr ;45.;.5 Utgrnkc ;35.;.4 P`chds ;?

4 Onrfiuh nkcats ?>

4.> ]rgduet`ga egastrnàts ?>4.>.> Oufna egastrnàts ?>4.>.2 Nb`gtè egastrnàts ?5

4.>.5 B`gtè egastrnàts ?4


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4.2 Fnffnhs ?34.2.> Entthc ?34.2.2 [`hd bgnrs nad dgfcstè swàc ?9

4.2.5 Igxcs ?94.2.4 Rnbb`ts nad onrcs ?94.2.3 Yghcs (i`chd fèc) ?;4.2.9 Fèc ??4.2.; Rnts ??4.2.? Fghcs nad fghc rnts ?04.2.0 Hnrkc rcd fèc (7) ?0

4.5 B`rds nad rcpt`hcs 0=4.5.> [oèo b`rds7 0=4.5.2 B`rd dnfnkc nt sgwàk t`fc 0=

4.5.5 B`rd dnfnkc nt onrvcst t`fc 0>4.5.4 Rcpt`hcs 02

4.4 @ascets 024.4.> Hgeusts 024.4.2 Krnssogppcrs 034.4.5 Fghc-erèlct 034.4.4 Nats 094.4.3 Ihcns 004.4.9 Krnà wccv`hs 00

4.4.; Gtocr àscets >==4.4.? Gtocr àvcrtcbrntcs >=4

4.3 ]hnats >=44.3.> [ccds >=44.3.2 ]nrns`tè phnats >=0

4.9 Dciè`cae`cs nad cxecsscs >>24.9.> Dciè`cae`cs >>24.9.2 Cxecsscs >>24.9.5 ]nteoàcss >>4

4.; ]ntogkcas >>4

4.? Ndvcrsc ciicets gi wcntocr >>;

3 ]rc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga fctogds >2>

3.> [ont `s tg bc cxpcetcd7 >2>

3.2 @rrnt`ganh nad fctnpoysènh fctogds >253.2.> Inatnstènt`ga >253.2.2 Fnkè, egatrnet, àt`f`dnt`ga >253.2.5 Nantocfn >233.2.4 ]rnycr >29


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3.5 Euhturnh fctogds >293.5.> R`sl fnankcfcat >293.5.2 ]rcvcat`ga >2;

3.5.5 Nb`gtè dnfnkàk nkcats >2?3.5.4 [ccd egatrgh >5>3.5.3 F`xcd ergppàk >533.5.9 Natnkga`sf nad futunh`sf >5?3.5.; Ug`h int`kuc >4=3.5.? B`ghgkènh egatrgh >4>

3.4 rnps nad bn`ts >423.4.> rnp ergps (egfpna`ga phnats) >423.4.2 rnps >423.4.5 ]hnstcrs nad krcnsc bnads >42

3.4.4 Bn`ts >453.3 rcntfcats >44

3.3.> Làds gi trcntfcats >443.3.2 Onad pèlàk >443.3.5 Uccd trcntfcat >433.3.4 D`sàicet`ga >4;3.3.3 Uprnys >4?3.3.9 Rcpchhcats >403.3.; Dusts >40

3.3.? Iuf`knt`ga >3=3.3.0 I`rc nad ocnt trcntfcat >3>

3.9 Eurnt`vc net`ga >323.9.> Uenrìènt`ga >323.9.2 Eurcs >35

3.; oc Ogusc-hccl r`ddhc >33

9 Anturnh prgduets igr prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga >3;

9.> Anturnh prgduets >3;

9.2 Aga-phnat substnaecs >3?

9.5 Bgtnaènhs - kcacrnh`t`cs >94

9.4 Bgtnaènhs - spceìès >999.4.> Ugurecs gi àigrfnt`ga >999.4.2 Bgtnaènhs by spce`cs >999.4.5 Bgtnaènhs d`srcknrdcd >?;9.4.4 Ugfc ehnsscs gi b`g-net`vc fghceuhcs >?;

9.3 Gtocr phnat substnaecs >??

9.9 N pcrsganh cvnhunt`ga >0=


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; ]rc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga hgrc >05

;.> ]rc-fgdcra nkrèuhturc nad ergp prgtcet`ga >05;.>.> ]hnat ocnhto >05

;.>.2 Ergp prgtcet`ga sàkhcd gut >04;.>.5 oc Ergp ]grtigh`g >0;;.>.4 oc ]cst ]grtigh`g >0;;.>.3 oc Egatrgh ]grtigh`g >0?

;.2 Rcvchnt`ga, cxpcr`caec, cxpcr`fcat >00;.2.> Rcvchnt`ga >00;.2.2 Cxpcr`caec >00;.2.5 Cxpcr`fcat 2=>;.2.4 Ue`catìè wr`tàk 2=2;.2.3 Ocrb lagwhcdkc 2=5;.2.9 oc rnt`ganh`ty gi prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga 2=5;.2.; Nkrèuhturc, ernit gr se`caec7 2=3;.2.? oc se`catìè stntus gi prc-fgdcra lagwhcdkc 2=9

;.5 Bconv`gur 2=9;.5.> Fgacy, toc bgttgf hàc 2=9;.5.2 Fuh`cr fcastrunh`s - oc pgwcr gi wgfca 2=;;.5.5 Rch`k`ga 2=?;.5.4 ogu sonht agt l`hh 2=?;.5.3 Kggd egaduet 2=0

;.4 Dcvchgpfcats 2>=;.4.> oc Krccl ocr`tnkc 2>=;.4.2 oc Rgfna ocr`tnkc 2>>;.4.5 oc Fush`f ocr`tnkc 2>2;.4.4 Cvghut`ga gr rcvghut`ga7 2>5;.4.3 oc Agrto-[cst Curgpcna dcvchgpfcat 2>4

;.3 Eonakc nad egatàu`ty 2>4;.3.> Eonakc 2>4;.3.2 Egatàu`ty 2>3

? Gaec upga n t`fc - grknaè nkrèuhturc 2>;?.> Nhh tont wc accd 2>;

?.2 Ergp prgtcet`ga nt n d`stnaec 2>??.2.> oc pcst tctrnocdrga 2>??.2.2 Fnttcrs gi senhc 2>0?.2.5 Fna nad o`s àtcrnet`gas 2>0

?.5 ocgrctènh egas`dcrnt`gas 22=?.5.> N tocgry gi y`chd 22=?.5.2 N tocgry gi hgss 222


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?.5.5 ]rc-fgdcra inrfàk rcegastruetcd7 222?.5.4 Ghd nad fgdcra grknaè nkrèuhturc n egfpnr`sga 225

?.4 Rcnh-hìc cxpcr`caecs 224

?.4.> Rcnh`ty gi nb`gtè onznrds 224?.4.2 Rcnh`ty gi pcst gutbrcnls à prc-fgdcra t`fcs 229?.4.5 Rcnh`ty gi pcst egatrgh à prc-fgdcra t`fcs 22??.4.4 ]rcenut`ganry npprgneocs 220?.4.3 Ciicet`vcacss gi pcst egatrgh à prc-fgdcra t`fcs 252?.4.9 D`d wc f`ss toc ehuc7 255?.4.; @av`s`bhc pcst egatrgh7 254

?.3 Hnv`so nbuadnaec7 - Iggd sceur`ty nad iggd snicty 253?.3.> Iggd sceur`ty 253?.3.2 Iggd snicty 259

?.9 Fgdcra t`fcs 25;

0 Iành egffcats 250

Rcicrcaecs 245

Agtcs 293

Eonptcr > 293

Eonptcr 2 293

Eonptcr 5 29;

Eonptcr 4 2;5

Eonptcr 3 2;0

Eonptcr 9 2?4

Eonptcr ; 2?;

Eonptcr ? 2?0

Naacx > - ]hnats 205

Naacx 2 - Na`fnhs 5=3

Naacx 5 - ]hnat pntogkcas 5=0@adcx 5>>

H`st gi i`kurcs 52;

]ogtg ercd`ts 52?

H`st gi bgxcs 52?

H`st gi tnbhcs 520

Nbbrcv`nt`gas 520

Nelagwhcdkcfcats 55>

Eurrèuhuf Y`tnc 555


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>>, -

Eonptcr >

@atrgduet`ga,prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga

Toc rn`sga dtrc gi to`s bggl `s toc egatr`but`ga gi

torcc infgus fcd`cvnh nutogrs tg ergp prgtcet`ga

hgrc nad se`caec. Ugfc prcdcecssgrs, egatcfpgrnr`cs,

nad ighhgwcrs nrc fcat`gacd. Ergp prgtcet`ga tgdny

`s n se`caec à `ts gwa r`kot but ergp prgtcet`ga à

prc-fgdcra t`fcs wns cfbcddcd à toc toca eurrcat

nkrèuhturnh trnd`t`ga, n stubbgra trnd`t`ga àdccd.

Na gvcrv`cw gi fcd`cvnh ergp prgtcet`ga `s prcscatcd

by fcnas gi n vnr`cty gi schcetcd cxnfphcs. To`s

àtrgduet`ga k`vcs na guthàc gi toc bggl.

>.> [oy to`s bggl7

Ergp prgtcet`ga `s, à fy pcrecpt`ga, n inseàntàk nrcn gi àtcrcst. Npnrt irgftoc b`ghgkènh npprgneo, w`to `ts fuht`-hcvch ceghgkènh àtcrnet`gas, tocrc `s na

cegagfè s`dc, n sge`ghgkènh v`cw, n o`stgrènh dcvchgpfcat, nad nhh gi tocscnspcets nrc catwàcd. @a to`s bggl @ igeus ga ergp prgtcet`ga duràk toc F`ddhc

Nkcs, fnàhy à toc Fcd`tcrrnacna Nrcn (I`k. >.>). Ehcnrhy, `t `s onrdhy pgss`bhc nadecrtnàhy uaw`sc tg lccp strèthy tg toc àdèntcd h`f`ts gi spnec nad t`fc. Uàecfcd`cvnh nkrèuhturnh w`sdgf hcnas ocnv`hy ga toc Krccl nad Rgfna ehnssès, @gitca usc toc tcrf prc-fgdcra, krnspàk tocrcw`to toc pcr`gd irgf toc Krcclbckàaàks uat`h toc gasct gi fgdcra t`fcs, sny >9== (I`k. >.2).

oc o`stgry gi ergp prgtcet`ga `s agt na uacxphgrcd nrcn. Fcr`tgr`gus rcv`cwsegvcr toc i`chd, nt hcnst à pnrt, but icw nrc togsc tont kntocr toc`r onrvcst irgfpr`fnry sgurecs.>Ucvcrnh gi tocsc sgurecs nrc dìièuht tg neecss, nad ì neecss`bhctocy nrc wr`ttca a hnakunkcs agt h`kothy rcnd by n [cstcra pubhè rchyàk ga Cakh`sofnàhy. rnashnt`gas, ì cx`stcat, enaagt nhwnys bc trustcd. Nt t`fcs àtcrprctnt`ga,gr rc-àtcrprctnt`ga, `s accdcd tg sghvc n hàku`stè prgbhcf.

oc dchàcnt`ga gi fy subjcet `s sgfcwont nrb`trnry. [ont `s kcacrnh ergpousbnadry, wont `s inatnstènt`ga, wont `s - àdccd - ergp prgtcet`ga7 g naswcrtocsc qucst`gas @ schcetcd n icw socnvcs, bggls tont @ cxnfàcd à dctn`h, nad @rcnpcd sgfc cnrs, senttcrcd pnpcrs, ighhgwàk fy inaey. Ns @ eghhcetcd gahy wont

I`kurc >.> (acxt pnkcs) Fnp gi Curgpc nad toc Fcd`tcrrnacna nrcn w`to hgent`gas fcat`gacd

à toc tcxt. Igr gr`catnt`ga gi toc rcndcr toc fgdcra eguatry bgrdcrs nad eguatry enp`tnhs nrcàdèntcd.


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>2


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>5, -


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>4

enukot fy cycs fy khcnaàks nrc o`kohy pcrsganh. Agactochcss, @ bch`cvc tont fyonrvcst prgv`dcs n kcacrnh pèturc gi prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga ns cfbcddcd àkcacrnh ergp ousbnadry.

>.2 Toc pcr`gd gi àtcrcst

@a o`stgrènh pcrspcet`vc fgdcra t`fcs bckà nrguad >9==. o`s bggl igeuscs gatoc prcecdàk pcr`gd, 0== tg >9==. @ts bckàaàk `s fnrlcd by toc prgduet`ga gina nkrèuhturnh vndcfceuf, toc Kcgpga`ln, pubh`socd ~03= EC à Byznatùf(6 @stnabuh, urlcy) nad gr`kànhhy wr`ttca à Krccl. N scqucaec gi nkrgagfètrcnt`scs irgf Nadnhus`n (U Upnà) wns wr`ttca à Nrnbè, nad nppcnrcd bctwcca>>== nad >43=. @ eogsc toc Bggl ga Nkrèuhturc by @ba nh-Nwwf irgf e.>2==.

Nagtocr infgus bggl ga nkrèuhturc, wr`ttca à fcd`cvnh Hntà, Ga egffgankrèuhturc, nppcnrcd à Bghgkan (@tnhy), e.>5=9.

ocsc bggls d`d agt nppcnr gut gi toc bhuc. ocy rcvcrt tg prcdcecssgrs wr`ttcaà vnr`gus hnakunkcs nfgak woèo Nrnbè, Nrnfnè, Krccl, Hntà, ]uaè, nadUyr`ne. Fgst gi tocsc bggls kgt hgst à toc egursc gi t`fc, but caguko fntcr`nhsurv`vcd tg scc rcscfbhnaecs, dìicrcaecs, nad dcvchgpfcats. @hhustr`gus Krccl nadRgfna nutogrs pornscd `dcns tont stnycd nh`vc torgukogut toc prc-fgdcra cpgeo,nad bcygad.

Ugfc bggls gi gur pcr`gd gi àtcrcst, cspce`nhhy toc Krccl Kcgpga`ln nad tocHntà Ga egffga nkrèuhturc ond na cagrfgus ciicet ga hntcr dcvchgpfcats àCurgpcna nkrèuhturc. oc ndvcat gi pràtàk, à Curgpc just bcigrc >43=, gpcacdacw pcrspcet`vcs, nfgak woèo toc rchnt`vchy eocnp rcprgduet`ga gi bggls, à

toc`r gr`kành hnakunkc nad à trnashnt`ga. oc Kcgpga`ln nad Ga egffgankrèuhturc wcrc trnashntcd à scvcrnh agrto wcst Curgpcna hnakunkcs, nfcadcd,nad `hhustrntcd. Fgrc gr hcss acw bggls wcrc pubh`socd usàk, tgdny wc wguhd snynbusàk, toc anfcs gi `hhustr`gus nutogrs.

g uadcrstnad toc fcd`cvnh nutogrs nad toc`r `fpnet toc studcat gi prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga ons tg hggl bnelwnrd nad igrwnrd. Bnbyhga`na nad Krcclsgurecs inhh bnel ns inr ns ;== BEC nad bcigrc. oc fpnet gi toc fcd`cvnh wr`tàks`s v`s`bhc wchh àtg toc >?tonad, sgfct`fcs, cvca à toc >0toecatury.

>.5 Ergp prgtcet`ga n spce`nh `ssuc7

Ergp prgtcet`ga ns n d`se`phàc wns na àagvnt`ga gi toc >0to ecatury. Ergpprgtcet`ga ns na nrcn gi pubhè àtcrcst enfc àtg bcàk nrguad >0==, tg bcdcvchgpcd à toc egursc gi toc 2= toecatury.2Uoguhd prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`gabc scca ns n spce`nh `ssuc7

Gi egursc, toc nae`cats tr`cd tg prgtcet toc`r ergps but tocy d`d agt acecssnr`hyegas`dcr ergp prgtcet`ga ns n subjcet pcr sc. Ns eurnt`vc fctogds wcrc icw nad giqucst`ganbhc ciièney toc cfpons`s wns ga prcvcat`ga. ]rcvcat`vc fctogds wcrccfbcddcd à kcacrnh ergp ousbnadry. @a to`s rcspcet, prc-fgdcra nkrèuhturc`s ga n pnr w`to tgdnys grknaè nkrèuhturc. Agactochcss, prc-fgdcra nutogrs

pn`d fueo nttcat`ga tg spceìè ergp prgtcet`ga fctogds nad tceoa`qucs. oc`r


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>3, -

I`kurc>.2

T`fctnb

hcnrrnakàk`fpgrtnatsgurecsneeg

rdàktgt`fcnadhnakunkcgigr`kà

grrstpubhènt`ga.


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>9

rcegffcadnt`gas nrc n eur`gus f`x gi supcrst`t`ga nad rcnsga, toc hnttcr krndunhhyknààk toc uppcr onad.

N d`sehn`fcr `s wnrrnatcd ocrc. Nutogrs fny gf`t gr h`f`t àigrfnt`ga gafnttcrs tocy toàl tg bc kcacrnh lagwhcdkc, sonrcd by cvcrybgdy, nad ocaec agt

wgrto fcat`ga. Gac cxnfphc `s toc gf`ss`ga tg rcegffcad onad pèlàk giwccds àscets, san`hs, nad d`scnscd hcnvcs. @t `s n acnrhy sub-egase`gus kcsturc ginay krgwcr hgglàk nt o`s phnats. Onad pèlàk `s sgfctoàk tont ena bc rcnd`hyegff`ss`gacd tg shnvc, hnbgurcr, gr eo`hd.

Uàkhàk ergp prgtcet`ga gut, scpnrntàk `t irgf `ts nkrgagfènh egatcxt, `sna naneorga`sf, n scquch gi toc nanhytènh npprgneo by toc anturnh se`caecs à toc2=toecatury. @a nagtocr irnfcwgrl, toc o`stgry gi se`caec, ocrc toc o`stgry gi tocse`caec gi ergp prgtcet`ga, `t `s pcricethy wnrrnatcd tg tura toc spgth`kot ga prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga w`to `ts fnay h`f`tnt`gas nad `ts uacxpcetcd npprgneocs.]rc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga ns na nrcn gi àtchhcetunh àtcrcst ons n spce`nh ihnvgur,

`t ons `ts gwa eonrf.

>.4 Toc npprgneo

N ecatrnh pgs`t`ga `s k`vca tg toc torcc pubhènt`gas fcat`gacd nbgvc. Hàcs giegatàu`ty irgf prcdcecssgrs tg sueecssgrs onvc bcca àdèntcd. [ocrc npprgpr`ntc,nutogrs nrc qugtcd trnashntàk toc`r gwa wgrds. Cx`stàk trnashnt`gas àtg Cakh`sowcrc uscd woca nvn`hnbhc.

@tcfs gi àtcrcst wcrc schcetcd w`to n v`cw tg prgv`dc n brgnd gvcrv`cw giprc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga, but ag nttcfpt wns fndc tg bc egfprcocas`vc. oc

npprgneo tg `hhustrnt`ga wns cehcetè. Fcd`cvnh bggls giicr n eogèc gi ergp nadknrdca phnats. Ogwcvcr, fcd`cvnh `hhustrnt`gas rchntcd tg ergp prgtcet`ga nrc rnrc.ocy wcrc eogsca irgf n icw onadbggls nad rcicrcaec bggls d`srcknrdàk toceghguriuhhy `hhufàntcd fnauser`pts fcnat igr d`sphny rntocr tona igr rckuhnregasuhtnt`ga. N icw pogtgkrnpos gi rcecat s`tunt`gas wcrc nddcd.

Eonptcr 2 àtrgduecs toc torcc ecatrnh bggls nad toc`r wr`tcrs, nad fcat`gasscvcrnh gtocr rchcvnat bggls nad nutogrs. Eonptcr 5 slcteocs prc-fgdcra nkrèuhturcw`to cfpons`s ga Fcd`tcrrnacna prnetècs.

ocsc àtrgduetgry eonptcrs nrc ighhgwcd by toc bgdy gi toc subjcet fnttcr,nrrnakcd a torcc eonptcrs. Eonptcr 4 d`seusscs toc agx`gus nkcats gi toc pcr`gd, a

sg inr ns `dcatì`nbhc a rctrgspcet. Eonptcr 3 s ga toc prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`gafctogds, rnt`ganh nad `rrnt`ganh, à n systcfntè nrrnakcfcat. Eonptcr 9 h`stsbgtnaènhs nad fàcrnhs npph`cd à prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga. Ighhgwàk toc`hhustr`gus cxnfphcs gi Ercsecat`g nad dc Ocrrcrn `tcfs à Eonptcr 9 nrc nrrnakcdà nhponbctènh grdcr.

Eonptcr ; rcihcets upga prc-fgdcra se`catìè ergp prgtcet`ga hgrc nad se`caec.Eonptcr ? pgadcrs gvcr twg qucst`gas. I`rst, ena wc egfpnrc prc-fgdcra ergpprgtcet`ga w`to `ts eguatcrpnrt à fgdcra grknaè nkrèuhturc7 Ucegad, ogw rcnhwcrc pcst nad d`scnsc gutbrcnls a prc-fgdcra t`fcs, nad ogw ciicet`vc toc egatrghfctogds7 Eonptcr 0 suffnr`zcs sgfc tcatnt`vc egaehus`gas.


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oc nutogr `s na nfntcur, agt n prgicss`ganh o`stgr`na. Oc h`f`tcd o`fschi tgpràtcd dgeufcats gahy. Oc d`d agt àtcad tg fnlc na cxonust`vc scnreo igr prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga. Rntocr, toc schcet`ga gi `tcfs soguhd bc egas`dcrcd ns tocsgfcwont onponznrd rcsuht gi brgwsàk à toc supcrfnrlct gi o`stgrènh h`tcrnturc.

Ynr`cty wns toc n`f. oc `hhustrnt`gas, sgfc ghd nad gtocrs rcecat, nrc fcnat tgo`koh`kot n icw ergp prgtcet`ga dctn`hs, w`togut nay nttcfpt tg egvcr toc nrcnegfphctchy.


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Eonptcr 2

Bggls nad nutogrsEonptcr 2 àtrgduecs toc nutogrs tont wcrc egasuhtcd

bcenusc tocy pn`d nttcat`ga tg ergp prgtcet`ga. Toc

pr`fnry aigrfnats nrc torcc fcd`cvnh nkrgagf`sts, gac

nagayfgus, toc gtocr twg wchh-lagwa. Tocy nrc ihnalcd

by sgfc egatcfpgrnry wr`tcrs. Tg uadcrstnad tocsc

fcd`cvnh nkrgagf`sts, toc wgrls gi toc`r prcdcecssgrs

wcrc cxphgrcd nad subscqucathy toc wr`tàks gi toc`r

sueecssgrs wcrc egas`dcrcd. Dìicrcat trnd`t`gas a ergpprgtcet`ga hgrc fcrkcd ns t`fc wcat by nad toc cegagfè

ecatrc gi krnv`ty soìtcd irgf toc Fcd`tcrrnacna nrcn

tg A[ Curgpc. @dcns, tgdny egas`dcrcd inatnstènt`gas,

wcrc hcit bcoàd nad fgdcra nkrèuhturnh se`caec wns

igrcsondgwcd. Toc eonptcr iànhhy egas`dcrs wont

nud`caec wns nddrcsscd by toc prc-fgdcra wr`tcrs ga

nkrgagfy nad ergp prgtcet`ga.

Tcrc nrc fnay bggls ga nkrèuhturc by rcecat seoghnrs. Tcy dg agt kg bcygad d`seuss`ga gitoc phnatàk nad trcntfcats gi phnats, toc`r prcscrvnt`ga gi toàks tont f`kot onrf tocf grncet toc`r krgwto, nad nhh toc toàks egaacetcd w`to tont. (Tcsc wgrls) nrc nvn`hnbhc.

@ba Lonhda (>5;;) Tc fuqudd`fno.>

2.> N bgdy gi h`tcrnturc

@a prc-fgdcra t`fcs bggls wcrc onad-wr`ttca nad onad-egp`cd. N krcnt aufbcrgi fnauser`pts fust onvc cx`stcd nad, nhtoguko fnay kgt hgst, caguko onvc bcca

snhvnkcd tg kct na `dcn gi prc-fgdcra nkrèuhturc, àehudàk ergp prgtcet`ga. ]rc-fgdcra nkrèuhturnh h`tcrnturc ons fuht`phc sgurecs nad ighhgws dìicrcat hàcsgi dcvchgpfcat tont sph`t nad fcrkc. [ocrc dgcs gac bckà7 @ eogsc tg `kagrcCkypt`na nad Bnbyhga`na sgurecs. B`bhènh tcxts nrc fcat`gacd à pnssàk gahy. Nhnrkc bgdy gi cnrhy Krccl wr`tàks wns hgst. Rgfna nkrèuhturnh wr`tcrs onvc bccastud`cd a dctn`h (c.k. [o`tc, >0;=). @a to`s bggl @ w`hh fcat`ga toc nae`cats wocrcrchcvnat tg fcd`cvnh h`tcrnturc ga ergp prgtcet`ga.

oc nkrèuhturnh o`stgry gi Curgpc nad toc Fcd`tcrrnacna nrcn `s wchhdcvchgpcd.2oc iàc bggl Hc trnvn`h hn enfpnkac nu Fgyca Nkc, oc inrf wgrlà toc F`ddhc Nkcs, by Fs ]crràc Fnac k`vcs n kggd gvcrv`cw gi toc fcd`cvnh

nkrèuhturnh h`tcrnturc, àehudàk toc usc gi toc ehnssès à toc F`ddhc Nkcs.5


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2.2 Trnd`t`gas à nkrgagfy

wg trnd`t`gas ena bc d`stàku`socd à toc ghdcr prc-fgdcra nkrgagfè wr`tàks:n Krnceg-Rgfna trnd`t`ga nad n Acnr-Cnstcra trnd`t`ga.4ocsc trnd`t`gas nrc agtstrèthy scpnrntcd. Ga toc egatrnry, scvcrnh ergss-hàls wchd tocf tgkctocr.3

2.2.> Toc Krnceg-Rgfna trnd`t`ga

oc Krnceg-Rgfna trnd`t`ga ons twg rggts. I`rsthy, sgfc iìty Krccl nutogrs wcrcfcat`gacd by Ynrrg. Acnrhy nhh gi toc`r wr`tàks wcrc hgst. Agtnbhc cxecpt`gasnrc toc pgcf by Ocs`gd (e.;3= BEC) nad twg bggls ga bgtnay by ocgpornstus(e.5== BEC) tont egatnà fueo nkrgagfènh àigrfnt`ga. Ucegadhy, toc bggl gankrèuhturc enhhcd Rustènt`g nad nttr`butcd tg Fnkg toc Enrtonkà`na, agw hgst.@t wns wr`ttca a ]uaè nad trnashntcd atg Krccl nad Hntà e.2== BEC. o`s bgglfny onvc bcca toc sgurec gi bgto toc Acnr-Cnstcra nad Krnceg-Rgfna trnd`t`gas.9

oc pcd`krcc gi bggls w`toà toc Krceg-Rgfna trnd`t`ga `s ehcnr. oc lcy anfcsnrc ocgpornstus nad toc Rgfna Nkrgagf`sts< Entg, Ynrrg, Eghufchhn, nad]nhhndùs.

2.2.2 Toc Acnr-Cnstcra trnd`t`ga

Ehnssè Ckypt`na nad Bnbyhga`na nkrgagfy `s agt d`seusscd ocrc but sgfc gi tocBnbyhga`na w`sdgf trèlhcd torguko by wny gi Yàdgaùs Nantghùs (4toecaturyEC), wog wrgtc à Krccl. O`s bggl wns suffnr`zcd nad nfcadcd by Enss`nausBnssus (e.9== EC), nknà à Krccl. oc hnttcr bggl igrfs pnrt gi toc substnaec gi

nagtocr egfp`hnt`ga enhhcd Kcgpga`ln (e.03= EC), woèo toc Byznatàc cfpcrgrEgastnatàc Y@@ ]grpoyrgkca`tus (0=3-030) wrgtc gr grdcrcd tg bc wr`ttca.;ocKcgpga`ln sct n stnadnrd nad wns sgga trnashntcd àtg Nrfca`na, Uyr`ne, nad

Nrnbè.oc Nbbns`d Enh`pontc (bckàaàk ;3= EC) à Bnkodnd ercntcd na gutburst

gi se`catìè cxphgrnt`ga. N trnashnt`ga scrvèc wns sct up tg trnashntc nhh nvn`hnbhcKrccl wgrls àtg Nrnbè, gitca w`to Uyr`ne ns n rchny hnakunkc.?@a to`s wny fueogi Nr`stgthcs wgrl wns snvcd igr fnalàd. Nagtocr `fpgrtnat stcp wns toc bgglAnbntcna Nkrèuhturc by @ba [nso`yyn (e.0== EC).0Neegrdàk tg toc nutogr,fnjgr sgurecs wcrc o`ddca fnauser`pts wr`ttca à Nrnfnè, nt toc t`fc toc

egffcre`nh hnakunkc gi toc Acnr Cnst. ocsc ghd sgurecs fny rcihcet Bnbyhga`nankrèuhturnh hgrc. @ba [nso`yyn lacw toc wgrl gi Yàdgaùs Nantghùs.

2.2.5 Ergss-hàls bctwcca Cnst nad [cst

Nfgak toc ghdcst trcnt`scs ga nkrèuhturc à toc [cstcra [grhd, gaec trnashntcdàtg Krccl nad Hntà but ag hgakcr cx`stcat, `s toc gac nttr`butcd tg Fnkg (2adecatury BEC), n pgss`bhy ièt`t`gus Enrtonkà`na wog wrgtc à toc ]uaèhnakunkc \YN->.>.>=V. O`s v`cws nrc rcihcetcd à scvcrnh Krccl nad Rgfna bggls. [cfny w`so tg bch`cvc tont Fnkg, à tura, lacw toc ghdcr Krccl wr`tcrs àehudàkOcs`gd, w`to o`s fgrnh`stè v`cw ga nkrèuhturc, nad ocgpornstus, w`to o`s tchhàk

gbscrvnt`gas ga nkrèuhturnh fnttcrs.


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Gac pnto hcnds irgf Bnkodnd v`n Agrto Nirèn tg toc Fush`f stntcs àsgutocra Upnà. @adccd, @ba nh-Nwwf (e.>2==) qugtcd Rgfna nutogrs ns wchhns @ba [nso`yyn. N egaacet`ga bctwcca toc Byznatàc Krccl nad toc Fush`fUpna`so wgrhds fny onvc cx`stcd ns toc cfpcrgr Egastnatàc Y@@ gi Byznatùf

ond d`phgfntè rchnt`gas w`to Nbd nh-Rnfa @@@, enh`po gi Egrdgbn (Upnà).Hntcr à toc F`ddhc Nkcs, agrto wcst Curgpcna se`cat`sts wcat tg Upnà tg studyFush`f se`caec nad euhturc, nad fnay bggls wr`ttca a Nrnbè wcrc trnashntcd atgHntà. Nagtocr trn`h ruas irgf Byznatùf d`rcethy tg @tnhy. @a toc twchito ecaturyBurkad`g gi ]`sn brgukot scvcrnh fnauser`pts irgf Byznatùf tg @tnhy, pgss`bhyàehudàk toc Kcgpga`ln.>=N igurto hàc kgcs irgf Aèghnus gi Dnfnseus (e.=EC), n egfp`hcr gi Krccl wr`tàks, nad ]nhhndùs torguko Nhbcrtus Fnkaus tg]`ctrg Ercsecaz`.

Fy d`stàku`soàk gi twg trnd`t`gas s pcronps sgfcwont nrtìè`nh, ns adèntcdby toc rcfnrlnbhc egatàu`ty gi scvcrnh rcegffcadnt`gas à t`fc nad spnec. o`s

egatàu`ty à nkrèuhturnh hgrc nad se`caec, irgf Ocs`gd à toc ? toecatury BECuat`h wchh àtg toc >?toecatury EC cadcd woca fgdcra nkrèuhturnh se`caec enfcàtg bcàk, iguadcd ga sgh`d cxpcr`fcatnt`ga.>>@a toc egursc gi t`fc Bnbyhga`nanad Agrto Nirèna lagwhcdkc nad hgrc wcrc rcfgvcd irgf toc [cst Curgpcnabgdy gi lagwhcdkc tgkctocr w`to nhh supcrst`t`ga nad fgst gi toc fnkè. [cstcraCurgpc, ogwcvcr, ercntcd `ts gwa fctnpoysènh npprgneo tg ergp prgtcet`ga.

2.2.4 N fcd`cvnh trnd`t`ga

Cstntc fnankcfcat wns pnrt nad pnrech gi toc wgrls by Ynrrg nad Eghufchhn, but

sgfc cnrhy fcd`cvnh wr`tàks irgf agrto wcstcra Curgpc tggl n dìicrcat hàc,hcnaàk tgwnrd ndfà`strnt`ga nad neeguatàk. oc Enp`tuhnrc dc v`hh`s vch eurt`s`fpcr`` (Eonptcrs ga toc fnagrs gr egurts gi toc cfp`rc) wns wr`ttca à ?>2 nttoc grdcr gi toc Cfpcrgr Eonrhcfnkac.>2 @a Cakhnad scvcrnh fnaunhs ga cstntcfnankcfcat nad neeguatàk nppcnrcd à toc >5to ecatury, toc fgst prgfàcatbcàk tont gi [nhtcr gi Ocahcy. Ns tocsc fnaunhs giicr h`tthc àigrfnt`ga nbgutprnetènh inrf wgrl, wc tura tg U[ Curgpc.

oc trcnt`scs ga nkrèuhturc by toc Fggr`so nkrgagf`sts gi Nadnhus`n, sgutocraUpnà, wr`ttca à Nrnbè à toc >>totg >4toecatury EC nrc vcry dìicrcat.>5ocyhnrkchy ighhgwcd Eghufchhn.>4oc fgst prghìè nutogr nfgak tocf wns @ba nh-

Nwwf, e.>2==. Oc qugtcd cxtcas`vchy irgf Anbntcna Nkrèuhturc, but nhsgirgf Rgfna nutogrs nad irgf o`s Nadnhus`na prcdcecssgrs. @ba nh-Nwwfwchdcd toc Acnr-Cnstcra nad toc Krnceg-Rgfna trnd`t`gas atg gac. Ucvcrnh gtocr

Nadnhus`na nkrgagf`sts nrc lagwa, nfgak tocf Nb h-Lonyr, @ba [i`d, nad tochntc-egfcr @ba Huya.

@a agrto wcstcra Curgpc phnats wcrc stud`cd ns sgurecs gi fcdèàcs. NhbcrtusFnkaus (e.>2==>2?=) wrgtc n bggl ga phnats nad nkrèuhturc a Hntà, ighhgwàk]nhhndùs. @a prcscat-dny @tnhy, ]`crg Ercsecaz` (>255->52=) pubh`socd n rcnt`scga nkrèuhturc, nhsg à Hntà. Oc bgrrgwcd irgf ]nhhndùs nad Nhbcrtus Fnkaus,nad àd`rcethy irgf toc Kcgpga`ln. @a toc hntcr F`ddhc Nkcs bgto toc Kcgpga`ln

nad Ercsecaz`s bggl wcrc trnashntcd àtg vnr`gus Curgpcna hnakunkcs, gitca w`tonfcadfcats, ndd`t`gas nad `hhustrnt`gas.


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@a >3>5 toc eonphnà Knbr`ch Nhgasg dc Ocrrcrn pubh`socd n egfprcocas`vctrcnt`sc ga nkrèuhturc. oc bggl àtckrntcs toc ehnssès, toc cxpcr`caec gi tocFggrs, nad wontcvcr toc nutogr ond rcnd, scca, ocnrd, gr cxpcr`fcatcd. Ns nyguto toc nutogr spcat sgfc tca ycnrs à Krnandn. oc bggl wns uscd duràk

fnay ecatur`cs.Nadrs dc Hnkuan, pcrsganh poysè`na gi ]gpc Juhùs @@@, trnashntcd D`gsegr`dcsàtg Upna`so nad drcw fnay `hhustrnt`gas (>339). oc bggl, n ponrfnegpc`n,egatnàs aufcrgus ndd`t`ganh egffcats, sgfc rchcvnat tg ergp prgtcet`ga.>3

o`s rcv`cw gi prc-fgdcra bggls ga nkrèuhturc nad ergp prgtcet`ga ons tgstgp nrguad >9==, woca toc fgdcra pcr`gd gi o`stgry scts à. oc IrcaeofnaGh`v`cr dc Ucrrcs (>9==) fnrls toc trnas`t`ga. oc hnst bggl tg bc fcat`gacd`s toc Upna`so fnaunh lagwa ns oc Bggl gi toc ]r`gr (>9>;), à woèo tocKcgpga`ln `s st`hh rcegka`snbhc agtw`tostnadàk fnay dchct`gas nad ndd`t`gas.Igr twg ecatur`cs nt hcnst toc Bggl gi toc ]r`gr wns egffga rcndàk à Upnà.

2.5 Torcc fcd`cvnh nutogrs

2.5.> Uchcetcd nutogrs

orcc fcd`cvnh nutogrs nrc sàkhcd gut ocrc. oc i`rst wrgtc à Krccl, ga tocAC s`dc gi toc Fcd`tcrrnacna. oc scegad, wr`tàk à Nrnbè, wgrlcd nt toc A[s`dc gi toc Fcd`tcrrnacna nrcn. oc to`rd, usàk Hntà, h`vcd à @tnhy, toc agrtoecatrnh nrcn nhgak toc Fcd`tcrrnacna. oc`r torcc bggls wcrc onad-wr`ttca, egp`cdfnay t`fcs, trnashntcd àtg vnr`gus hnakunkcs, nad iànhhy pràtcd. ocsc bggls,

woèo sct toc stnadnrd igr ecatur`cs, egatnà fueo àigrfnt`ga rchcvnat tg ergpprgtcet`ga.

2.5.2 Nagayfus e.03= EC Kcgpga`ln

Byznatùf gr Egastnatàgphc, prcscat-dny @stnabuh à urlcy, wns toc `fpcr`nhenp`tnh nad toc ecatrc irgf woèo rch`k`ga, euhturc, nad se`caec rnd`ntcd duràk niuhh f`hhcaaùf, irgf 55= EC uat`h `ts inhh à >435.>9Krccl bcenfc toc hnakunkcgi toc Byznatàc Cfp`rc. oc Cfpcrgr Egastnatàc Y@@ ]grpoyrgkca`tus (ruhcd0>5-030), ond n se`catìè àtcrcst, wrgtc sgfc bggls o`fschi, nad egfpgscd grgrdcrcd toc egfpgs`t`ga gi n icw egfpcad`n, nfgak woèo gac ga nkrèuhturc, tocKcgpga`ln (K: 6 Ga Nkrèuhturc). oc Kcgpga`ln br`dkcs tocpcr`gd bctwcca toc ehnssès ga nkrèuhturc, à Krccl nad Hntà, nad toc fcd`cvnhnutogrs, wr`tàk à Nrnbè nad Hntà. Gr, ns Fcnan put `t krnpoènhhy, n igrd rntocrtona n br`dkc.>;

oc Kcgpga`ln `s n egfp`hnt`ga gi irnkfcats tnlca irgf aufcrgus nutogrsfcat`gacd by anfc. Fnay gi toc cnrh`cr Krccl nad toc hntcr Agrto Nirèna tcxts,agw hgst, nrc lagwa gahy bcenusc gi qugtnt`gas à toc Kcgpga`ln. oc bggl `sbnscd ga n wgrl by Enss`naus Bnssus wog, à tura, uscd toc 4toecatury Cehgkncby Yàdgaùs Nantghùs (scc bchgw). oc tcxt fny onvc bcca rc-cd`tcd by naualagwa cd`tgr but sgfc pcrsganh agtcs by Enss`naus Bnssus wcrc fnàtnàcd.O`stgrys rcfanats nrc n icw onad-wr`ttca egdècs nad cnrhy trnashnt`gas. ocsc


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egdècs nrc agt egfphctchy uaìgrf. @a toc typènh >0toecatury hàku`stè trnd`t`gaOcàrèo Bcelo (>?03) rcegastruetcd n bnsè gr gr`kành tcxt anfcd oc cehgkncga nkrèuhturc by Enss`naus Bnssus Ueoghnstèus.

@a [cstcra Curgpc toc Kcgpga`ln wns i`rst pràtcd à Hntà à Ycaèc, >35?,

nad à Krccl à Bnshc, >350. N Ircaeo vcrs`ga nppcnrcd à >345, trnashntcd byNatgàc ]`crrc irgf Anrbgaac. Ucvcrnh acwcr trnashnt`gas cx`st. Ocrc @ uscdtoc Upna`so trnashnt`ga by Fcnan ct nh. (>00?) w`to `ts cxechhcat egffcatnry.Rcecathy, Dnhby (2=>>) pubh`socd na chcknat trnashnt`ga àtg Cakh`so. oguko toctwg trnashnt`gas dg agt dìicr fntcr`nhhy, sgfc dìicrcaecs cx`st à dctn`hs sueo nsspce`cs `dcatìènt`ga.>?

oc Kcgpga`ln `s sgfcwocrc bctwcca na caeyehgpncd`n nad n dg-`t-ygurschifnaunh. @t egatnàs twcaty bggls, wc wguhd agw sny eonptcrs, cneo w`to n tnbhc giegatcats. Cneo bggl `s d`v`dcd àtg n hnrkc aufbcr gi sogrt eonptcrs (pnrnkrnposrntocr, 92> à tgtnh) egatnààk up tg 0= aufbcrcd stntcfcats. oc eonptcrs nrc

gitca nser`bcd tg na nutogr`ty, n ehnssènh Krccl gr Rgfna nutogr, sgfct`fcs nAgrto Nirèna wr`tcr. oc Upna`so trnashntgrs enrciuhhy egfpnrcd stntcfcats àtoc Kcgpga`ln w`to toc`r gr`kànhs à ehnssènh Rgfna wr`tàks. Fnay qugtnt`gasnrc egrrcet, nt t`fcs cvca vcrbnt`f, nad scvcrnh nrc àegrrcet. oc grdcr gi toceonptcrs nad gi toc stntcfcats tocrcà nrc, nt t`fcs, sgfcwont rnadgf, kgàk irgfnkrèuhturc tg fcdèàc, irgf sguad ergp prgtcet`ga tg fnkè nad inatnsy.

oc àigrfnt`ga ga ergp ousbnadry `s hneuanry. ûnat`tnt`vc dntn nrc rnrc, nsnrc dntn ga `fphcfcats nad tgghs. Ergp prgtcet`ga `tcfs, senttcrcd torgukoguttoc bggl, rnakc irgf prce`sc rcegffcadnt`gas, uadcrstnadnbhc tgdny, tg uttcrhyuschcss dcns. Bggl >5 s dcvgtcd tg ergp prgtcet`ga nad fcdèàc. Ergp prgtcet`ga

igrfuhnc nrc agt yct scpnrntcd irgf fcdènh rce`pcs. Ugfc gi tocsc trnasecad tocrcnhf gi rcnh`ty nad rcneo atg toc spocrcs gi ogfcgpntoy nad fnkè, bchgakàk tgtocpnrndgxgkrnpoèn, toc inatnstè h`tcrnturc, gitca gi Nirèna gr`kà.>0

oc Kcgpga`ln sct n stnadnrd. @ts `fpnet wns trcfcadgus, ns cv`dcaecd by toccx`stcaec gi gvcr 3= fnauser`pts dntàk irgf toc >>toecatury gawnrd. rnashnt`gascx`st à Uyr`ne (9toecatury), nad à Nrnbè, Nrfca`na, ]nohcv`, nad Uyr`ne nknà(0to nad >=to ecatury). [oca toc Nbnss`ds rc`kacd à Bnkodnd (;40->23? EC)fnay gi toc Krccl ehnssès wcrc trnashntcd àtg Nrnbè. Burkad`g dn ]`sn (>>>=->>05), nfbnssndgr gi ]`sn (@tnhy) à Egastnatàgphc à >>59/>>3;, brgukot ogfcn aufbcr gi fnauser`pts, nfgak woèo nppnrcathy gac gi toc Kcgpgaèn. Oc

trnashntcd toc pnrt ga v`tèuhturc (bggls 9, ; nad ?) ns H`bcr dc vàdcf``s(6 Bgglga wàc prgduet`ga), uscd by ]`crg Ercsecaz`.2=

2.5.5 @ba nh-Nwwf e.>2== Bggl ga Nkrèuhturc

Fush`f àvndcrs irgf Agrto Nirèn ergsscd toc Utrcct gi K`brnhtnr à ;>> nadrnp`dhy egaqucrcd Upnà nad pnrts gi Irnaec. @a toc sgutocra pnrt gi toc @bcr`na]caàsuhn, enhhcd nh-Nadnhus, tocy cstnbh`socd toc Enh`pontc gi Erdgbn, tont hntcrsph`t àtg n aufbcr gi i`cidgfs. N hgak pcr`gd gi prgspcr`ty ercntcd na nfb`naecinvguràk euhturc nad se`caec, aehudàk nkrgagfy. oc fcdènh se`caecs ihgur`socd

w`to eo`rurkènh, ponrfnecutènh nad d`ctnry trcntfcats. Bgtnay wns stud`cd, agthcnst bcenusc toc Byznatàc cfpcrgr Egastnatàc Y@@ scat n egpy gi D`gsegr`dcs


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ponrfnegpc`n tg toc Enh`po gi Egrdgbn, Nbd nh-Rnfa @@@ (ruhcd 020-09>) nad hntcr oc scat n Byznatàc fgal, anfcd Aèoghns, tg trnashntc toc bggl àtg

Nrnbè.Ucvcrnh nkrgagf`sts nrc lagwa, toc fgst prghìè bcàk @ba nh-Nwwf. O`s

iuhh anfc `s Nb Znlnr`yy Pny `ba Funffnd `ba Nfnd @ba nh-Nwwf nh-@sob`h`. Oc h`vcd à Ucv`hhc (sgutocra Upnà) tgwnrd toc cad gi toc >2 toecatury,wocrc oc wrgtc toc egfprcocas`vc L`tb nh-i`hngr Bggl ga Nkrèuhturc (I`k.2.>). o`s trcnt`sc egvcrs nhh nspcets gi nkrèuhturc. Upce`nh nttcat`ga wns k`vca tgsg`hs, t`hhnkc, nad toc vnr`gus làds gi fnaurc. @t wns toc fgst cxtcas`vc fcd`cvnhbggl ga nkrèuhturc. Agt uat`h toc >0to ecatury d`d toc bggl bcegfc lagwaà Agrto [cst Curgpc woca `t wns trnashntcd àtg Upna`so (>?=>) nad Ircaeo(>?94).2>

@ba nh-Nwwf lacw nbgut toc Rgfna ehnssès nad toc Kcgpga`ln. Oc hcnacdocnv`hy but agt uaer`tènhhy upga @ba [nso`yyn nad oc qugtcd cxtcas`vchy, nad

nhfgst h`tcrnhhy, irgf o`s O`spnag-Fush`f prcdcecssgrs, wr`tàk @ rcpgrt tocgpà`gas gi tocsc nutogrs tcxtunhhy, ns tocy onvc egas`kacd tocf a toc`r wgrls, w`togutcvcr scclàk tg fgdìy toc`r cxprcss`ga \@N->.0V. Pa`ys `s e`tcd ircqucathy ns n rcvcrcdanfc, to`s `s Juaùs Eghufchhn.22 @ba nh-Nwwf wns àtcat`ganhhy rcpct`t`vc àgrdcr tginf`h`nr`sc toc rcndcrs w`to toc caduràk chcfcats à toc tocgr`cs \@N->.50=V.@ba nh-Nwwf rchntcd toc cxpcr`caec gi gtocrs nad gi o`fschi. Oc pcrigrfcdcxpcr`fcats ga toc fguatnà nso-Uonrni acnr Ucv`hhc, nad pgss`bhy à toc pnhnecknrdcas gi Ucv`hhcs ruhcr. @ba nh-Nwwf drnstènhhy eut dgwa ga toc aufbcr ginstrghgkènh nad supcrst`t`gus prcser`pt`gas a Anbntcna Nkrèuhturc. Oc enrciuhhyqugtcd o`s prcdcecssgrs by anfc, but Eor`st`na nutogrs rcfnàcd uaanfcd.25

2.5.4 ]`ctrg Ercsecaz` e.>5=9 Ga egffga nkrèuhturc

]`ctrg dc Ercsecaz` (>255->52>) wns bgra nad d`cd à Bghgkan, @tnhy.24 Nt tocua`vcrs`ty oc stud`cd po`hgsgpoy, anturnh se`caecs, fcdèàc, nad hnw. Oc wgrlcdns n trnvchhàk judkc, s`ttàk à egurt a vnr`gus e`t`cs. @tnh`na e`t`cs h`lcd judkcs irgfchscwocrc tg nvg`d invgur`t`sf. Duràk o`s trnvchs oc hcnracd fueo nbgut Agrto@tnh`na nkrèuhturc. Oc wns n hnadgwacr o`fschi, but to`s inet à `tschi dgcs agtcxphnà o`s dccp atcrcst a nkrèuhturc, woèo wns agt sg egffga nt toc t`fc. O`sfnjgr pubhènt`ga `s Ga egffga nkrèuhturc, à Hntà Rurnhùf Egffgdgruf

I`kurc 2.> Enhh`krnf gi toc >?;9 trnashnt`ga àtg Ircaeo gi @ba nh-

Nwwfs L`tb nhhn 6 Bggl ga Nkrèuhturc. Uenhc >:>.


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h`br` _@@, e.>5=9.23Oc enhhcd o`fschi scptunkcanrùs, n scvcaty-ycnr-ghd. Ndvnaecdnkc, egfbàcd w`to toc bcaci`ts gi nkrèuhturc, wns o`s cxphè`t fgt`vnt`ga igrwr`tàk toc bggl.

Ercsecaz`g dcdèntcd o`s bggl tg Eonrhcs @@, Làk gi Uè`hy nad Jcrusnhcf. 29

Oc nhsg nppcnhcd tg Nfcr`kog nad gtocr se`cat`sts gi Bghgkan Sa`vcrs`ty wogfoc ond sogwa toc fnauser`pt.2; @a fnay wnys o`s wns n fgdcra bggl, togukost`hh wr`ttca à Hntà. Oc qugtcd toc ehnssès wocrc oc egas`dcrcd tocf npphènbhc,uscd rcecat fcd`cvnh h`tcrnturc (pr`fnr`hy Nhbcrtus Fnkaus), nad aehudcd o`s gwaàs`kots gbtnàcd by gbscrvàk nad h`stcaàk tg n vnr`cty gi cxpcrts, duràk o`strnvchs gr ga o`s gwa cstntc.2?Fgdcra trn`ts wcrc na nhponbctènh nrrnakcfcat àtorcc gut gi twchvc eonptcrs, n ecasgràk gi ehnssènh pnkna pnssnkcs, n d`v`s`gaà bggls nad eonptcrs, n suffnry prcecdàk cneo bggl, n ehcnr rsuf gi toc tcaigrckgàk bggls a bggl chcvca, nad n tnbhc gi egatcats.20Bggl twchvc suffnr`zcdnkrèuhturnh prgecdurcs neegrdàk tg toc`r fgato gi cxceut`ga.5=

Ga egffga nkrèuhturc wns i`rst pràtcd à Hntà ns Rurnhùf Egffgdgrufh`br` _@@, à Nuksburk nad à Utrnsbgurk, bgto à >4;>.5> oc i`rst cd`t`ga à@tnh`na wns pràtcd à >4;?. oc bggl `s n wchh-grkna`zcd fnaunh gi prgecdurc.52@t `s d`v`dcd àtg twchvc eonptcrs, cneo w`to n spceìè subjcet. oc eonptcr gaknrdcas, n`fcd nt làks nad agbhcfca but nhsg usciuh tg f`ddhc-ehnss pcgphc,wns hnrkchy egp`cd irgf Nhbcrtus Fnkaus.55Fnay fcd`cvnh, onad-wr`ttca egp`csgi Ercsecat`gs bggl cx`st (I`k. 2.2). oc wgrl wns trnashntcd àtg scvcrnh [cstCurgpcna hnakunkcs, nfcadcd nad `hhustrntcd.54

Na cnrhy trnashnt`ga àtg Ircaeo wns Hcs prgi`ts eonfptrcs dc ]`crrc dc Ercsecas,>5;5, nt toc grdcr gi Làk Eonrhcs Y. oc bggl fndc n trùfponh prgecss`ga

torguko Curgpc, wns trnashntcd àtg scvcrnh hnakunkcs, nad rcpràtcd rcpcntcdhy.@t bcenfc n Curgpcna stnadnrd, rcwgrlcd, nfcadcd, vnr`gushy `hhustrntcd, nadrcpràtcd fnay t`fcs uadcr dìicrcat t`thcs.53oc rèo eguhd niigrd bcnutìuhhy`hhufàntcd egp`cs, irgf woèo Fnac (2==9) pubh`socd fnay `hhustrnt`gas.

oc anfc Ercsecaz` ond sueo infc tont, igr ndvcrt`sàk purpgscs, `t wns nddcdtg bggls tont ond h `tthc tg dg w`to toc gr`kành. oc hggschy trnashntcd t`thc gi sueon ]scudg-Ercsecatùs irgf >9=2 ruas ns: Acw i`chd nad phguko hnad euht`vnt`ga,tocrcà rckuhnrhy àehudcd ogw gac irgf egrrcet uadcrstnadàk gi anturc, nhsg hgak-tcrf cxpcr`caec, tocsc twg ocrc dcser`bcd à iìtcca bggls, cvcry cstntc, igrcfgst toci`chds nad ergp hnads neegrdàk tg rck`ganh eonrnetcr nad gppgrtua`ty, nt toc r`kot t`fc

nad ns kggd ns pgss`bhc, nad euht`vntc w`to nhh typcs gi i`chd wgrl, acxt vnr`gus phcnsurcnad iru`t knrdcas 59

]`ctrg Ercsecaz` wns nt toc rggt gi n typc gi h`tcrnturc enhhcd Onusvtcrh`tcrnturà Kcrfna, h`tcrnhhy rcndàk igr toc intocr gi toc inf`hy.5; ocy wcrc cnsy-tg-rcnd, prnetènh fnaunhs igr toc egffga inrfcr dcnhàk w`to subjcets sueo ns ergpousbnadry, knrdcaàk, entthc brccdàk, ogrscs, ouatàk, kggd fnaacrs, ocnhto, nadautr`t`ga. Uueo bggls, w`to npprgpr`ntc fgdìènt`gas, wcrc ochd à cstccf uat`hinr àtg toc aàctccato ecatury.5?


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I`kurc 2.2 Unfphc pnkc irgf n Hntà Ercsecat`g fnauser`pt à toc Ntocacuf H`brnry,

Dcvcatcr (AH), prgbnbhy irgf U Kcrfnay, nrguad >44= (H`citàel (>094) p>2 #2?.Uenhc

>:>.23.


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2.4 ]rcdcecssgrs


Ucvcrnh nutogrs wcrc schcetcd bcenusc tocy knvc àtcrcstàk àigrfnt`ga ga ergpprgtcet`ga. o`s schcet`ga `s agt cxonust`vc. Gtocr nutogrs nrc fcat`gacd àpnssàk gahy. Gac gi tocf `s _cagpoga (e.45=-534 BEC) wog wrgtc toc d`nhgkucGcegagfèus ga cstntc fnankcfcat.50oc po`hgsgpocr Nr`stgthc (5?4-522 BEC),wog ond krcnt àtcrcst à zgghgky, fndc sgfc gbscrvnt`gas.Ucvcrnh Rgfnas onvcwr`ttca ga nkrèuhturc, àehudàk toc pgct Y`rk`h nad toc caeyehgpcd`st ]hày tocChdcr.4=

2.4.2 Ocs`gd e.;3= BEC Dnys nad wgrls

wg grnh pgcts sonpcd gur lagwhcdkc gi toc nae`cat Krccl hnakunkc, Ogfcr nad

Ocs`gd. [octocr tocy wcrc rcnh gr `fnkànry pcrsgas, toc`r hckney `s vcry rcnh.Bcigrc wr`tàk wns egffgaphnec pcgphc ond facfgaè tceoa`qucs tg fcfgr`zchcaktoy pgcfs, uadgubtcdhy suppgrtcd by toc roytof gi toc vcrscs, toc ocxnfctcr.wg hgak stgr`cs nrc nttr`butcd tg Ogfcr, toc @h`nd nad toc Gdysscy, dcser`bàk tocrgjna wnr nad toc subscqucat pcrckrànt`ga gi toc ocrg Gdysscus, bcnutìuh tnhcsiuhh gi bhggdsocd nad icnsts, euaaàk, nad iua (Brnrd, >024).

Ocs`gd `s toc fgrc rchcvnat bnrd igr nkrèuhturc. Ocs`gdgs ( 6 ocwog cf`ts toc vgèc), Ocs`gd à Cakh`so, wns na grnh pgct h`vàk à Krccec nrguad;3= BEC. O`s pgcf [grls nad dnys (K: ) dcser`bcs toc dnysnad net`v`t`cs gi toc inrfcr à nbgut ?== vcrscs (hàcs). Ocs`gds intocr enfc irgf

Nantgh`n, à prcscat-dny urlcy. Ocs`gd h`vcd ga n inrf à toc v`hhnkc gi Nsern, acnrocsp`nc à Bgcgt`n. Oc fust onvc lagwa toc int`kuc nad tg`h gi toc inrf. O`sd`dnetè nad sgfcwont fgrnh`stè wgrl prcscats n v`v`d dcser`pt`ga gi inrf hìc ànat`qu`ty, scca irgf toc v`cwpgàt gi n sfnhh àdcpcadcat inrfcr.4>

oc inrf enhcadnr `s fnrlcd by anturnh pocagfcan sueo ns toc sguads gi tocernacs f`krntàk sguto à toc nutufa, n eonrnetcr`stè nad `fprcss`vc ag`sc \OC-44?V.

Nagtocr tchhàk s`kanh `s k`vca by toc ogusc-bcnrcrs \OC-3;>V, toc san`hs, nppcnràkfnss`vchy a spràk, gitca enusàk scr`gus dnfnkc tg vckctnbhcs nad ecrcnhs. @adccd,@ snw sueo na gutburst gi san`hs a Uè`hy, a spràk 2==?, up tg ouadrcds pcr squnrcfctcr, eh`fbàk toc krnss stcfs.42

[c rcnd nbgut nhh làds gi inrf wgrl, nbgut toc cegagf`cs fndc à iccdàkentthc duràk toc wàtcr, nad nbgut toc rcstiuh pcr`gd nad toc icst`v`t`cs nrguadonrvcst t`fc. oc fnx`f: [grl s agt n d`skrnec nt nhh, but agt wgrlàk s n d`skrnec.\OC-5>>V. Dgat cavy rèocs gbtnàcd by onrd wgrl. Uonfc kgcs nhgak w`to pgvcrty,nad schi-egai`dcaec kgcs nhgak w`to wcnhto\OC-5>0V. ]rgpcrty `s agt tg bc santeocd: kgd-k`vca `s bcttcr by inr.\OC-52=V. Nad sg ga.


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2.4.5 Tocgpornstus e.5== BEC Caqu`ry àtg phnats nad Ga tocenuscs gi phnats

ocgpornstus h`vcd à Krccec irgf e.5;= tg e.2?3 BEC. Oc enfc irgf Crcsusga toc `shnad gi Hcsbgs à toc Nckcna Ucn. Oc wns n pup`h nad ir`cad gi Nr`stgthc.ocgpornstgs (K: , kgdhy pornscd) `s n aèlanfc egàcd by Nr`stgthcbcenusc gi o`s d`vàc styhc gi cxprcss`ga. O`s k`vca anfc wns yrtnfus (T).ocgpornstus wns toc sueecssgr gi Nr`stgthc ns toc hcndcr gi toc ]cr`pntctè Ueogghà Ntocas, Krccec. Oc wns o`kohy sueecssiuh nad krcnthy ogagurcd.

Gi o`s fnay wr`tàks gahy n icw surv`vcd (acnrhy) cat`rc. Nr`stgthc wns fueoàtcrcstcd à zgghgky. ocgpornstus stud`cd sgfc nrcns hcit ns`dc by Nr`stgthc,àehudàk bgtnay. O`s npprgneo wns fgrc cfp`rènh tona tont gi Nr`stgthc.wg wgrls nrc rchcvnat ocrc, Caqu`ry àtg phnats (K: , H:O`stgr`nc phnatnruf) (Ogrt, >09>) nad Ga toc enuscs gi phnats gr Ga phnats: toccxphnant`gas (K: , H: Dc enus`s phnatnruf) (Cànrsga & Hàl,>0;9). oc Caqu`ry `s scca ns toc i`rst systcfntè trcnt`sc ga bgtnay wocrcns tocEnuscs egaecatrntc fgrc ga toc cegagfè vnhuc gi phnats.

ocsc bggls, pgss`bhy hceturc agtcs, st`hh fnlc kggd rcndàk. ocy sogw nanfnzàk às`kot àtg phnat hìc nad giicr n wcnhto gi inets, àtcrhnrdcd w`to fnkènad nbsurd`t`cs. oc egatcat s bnscd ga o`s gwa gbscrvnt`gas fndc a o`s bgtnaènhknrdca nad duràk o`s trnvchs torgukogut Krccec (w`to Nr`stgthc, 54;-544 BEC),supphcfcatcd by aigrfnt`ga, igr cxnfphc ga w`hd trccs, prgv`dcd by wggdeuttcrsirgf Fguat @dn.45ocgpornstus fny onvc uscd trnvchhàk studcats. Oc rcec`vcdrcpgrts nad phnat fntcr`nh irgf Ns`n scat tg Ntocas by trnàcd gbscrvcrs à toc

rctàuc gi Nhcxnadcr toc Krcnt. ]rcdcecssgrs wcrc e`tcd but qugtàk toc h`vàk wnsagt egavcat`ganh. ocgpornstuss bgtnay dgfàntcd toc se`caecs torgukogut tocF`ddhc Nkcs. Oc wns qugtcd by scvcrnh Rgfna nutogrs, nad by @ba nh- Nwwf,w`to gr w`togut fcat`ga gi o`s anfc.

oc ghdcst nvn`hnbhc fnauser`pt gi Caqu`ry nad Enuscs `s toc Yntènas EgdcxSrbàns, >>toecatury. oc Caqu`ry wns i`rst pubh`socd à Hntà trnashnt`ga àrcv`sg, @tnhy, >4?5. N pubhènt`ga à Krccl ighhgwcd >403/?, pràtcd à Ycaèc.

2.4.4 Toc Rgfna nkrgagf`sts e.>== BEC - e.4== EC Gankrèuhturc

N krgup gi igur nutogrs s dcs`kantcd ns ser`ptgrcs rc` rustènc, wr`tcrs ga nkrèuhturc:Entg, Ynrrg, Eghufchhn, nad ]nhhndùs.

Entg.Fnreus ]greùs Entg, Entg toc Chdcr (254->40 BEC), wrgtc Dc nkrèuhturn,Ga nkrèuhturc. Nbgut gac to`rd dcnhs w`to nkrèuhturc prgpcr. o`s pnrt k`vcsprnetènh rcegffcadnt`gas ga cstntc fnankcfcat, w`togut se`catìè prctcaec.

Nagtocr pnrt dcnhs w`to rch`k`gus gbh`knt`gas. Entg bcenfc wchh lagwa à toc >3toecatury (Oggpcr & Bgyd Nso, >09;).


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Ynrrg.Fnreus crcatùsYnrrg (>>9-2; BEC) wrgtc Dc rcs rustènc, Ga nkrèuhturc,à 5; BEC, woca oc wns c`koty ycnrs ghd. oc bggl dcnhs w`to cstntc fnankcfcatnad prnetènh nkrèuhturnh fnttcrs. Ynrrg fcat`gacd sgfc 3= Krccl nutogrs< acnrhynhh gi toc`r wgrls nrc hgst. Oc wns gitca qugtcd à toc F`ddhc Nkcs (Oggpcr &

Bgyd Nso, >09;).Eghufchhn. Hueùs @uaùs Fgdcrntus Eghufchhn, bgra à sgutocra Upnà, prgduecdDc rc rustèn, Ga nkrèuhturc, bctwcca 92 nad ;= EC. Oc dcser`bcd toc dcnh cstntcnad `ts bu`hdàks, nad wcat àtg krcnt tceoaènh dctn`h ga nkrèuhturc nad na`fnhousbnadry. Oc wns lagwa à toc 0to ecatury, toca igrkgttca, nad rcd`segvcrcdà toc >3to ecatury (Bgyd Nso, >04>), nt hcnst à Eor`st`na Curgpc. Oc wns na`fpgrtnat sgurec igr o`s egfpntr`gt @ba nh-Nwwf.

]nhhndùs(4toecatury EC), wog lagws o`s Eghufchhn by ocnrt.44H`tthc `s lagwanbgut o`f cxecpt tont ]nhhndùs wns toc aèlanfc gi Rut`hùs nurus Ncf`h`naus.

oc anfc ]nhhndùs ons scvcrnh egaagtnt`gas, nfgak woèo gh`vc brnaeo. Ocpgsscsscd cstntcs acnr Rgfc nad ga Unrdà`n. Oc wrgtc o`s Gpus nkrèuhturnc([grl ga nkrèuhturc), n onads-ga fnaunh, prgbnbhy tgwnrd toc cad gi toc 4toecatury EC. Bggl > `s n kcacrnh àtrgduet`ga w`to eonptcr 53 ga ergp prgtcet`ga,à woèo Cnstcra chcfcats (irgf Yàdgaùs Nantghùs7) ena bc rcegka`zcd. @ainet, scvcrnh egffcats nrc acnr-`dcatènh tg \na cnrhy vcrs`ga gi V toc Kcgpga`ln.43wchvc bggls dcser`bc toc nkrèuhturnh wgrl tg bc dgac à cneo gi twchvc fgatos.oc bggl, pgpuhnr à toc F`ddhc Nkcs, wns uscd by Nhbcrtus Fnkaus nad ]`crgErcsecat`g.49

2.4.3 Yàdgaùs Nantghùs nad Enssùs Bnssus 4totg 9toecatury ECYàdgaùs Nantghùs irgf Bc`rut, 4toecatury EC, wrgtc n Eghhcet`ga gi nkrèuhturnhprnetècs à Krccl. oc wr`tcr fny onvc bcca toc prnctgr gi toc Rgfna prgvàec@hhyrèuf. o`s wgrl, uscd cxtcas`vchy by ]nhhndùs (4toecatury EC), kgcs bnel tgcnrh`cr Krccl nutogrs. O`s bggl wns trnashntcd àtg Uyr`ne (9togr ;toecatury EC),nad toc Uyr`ne vcrs`ga wns trnashntcd àtg Nrnbè nad Nrfca`na à toc 0 tonad >=toecatur`cs). Gahy n fàgr irnkfcat ons bcca egascrvcd.

Enss`naus Bnssus, toc hnwycr (Ueoghnstèus), h`vcd nrguad 9== EC. Oc egfp`hcdn trcnt`sc enhhcd Uchcet`gas ga inrfàk (H: Cehgknc, K: ,

Clhgkn` pcr` kcgrk`ns). Oc uscd twg ghdcr wgrls, toc eghhcet`ga gi YàdgaùsNantghùs irgf Bc`rut nad toc Kcgrkènsby D`d`fgs gr D`dyfgs gi Nhcxnadr`n,e.3== EC.4;Enss`naus Bnssus s prcsufcd tg onvc gwacd n prgpcrty w`to vàcynrdsnad trccs acnr Fnrntga`fgs, a toc ac`kobguroggd gi Nat`geo`n, a agrtocra Uyr`n.Oc fust onvc bcca lagwhcdkcnbhc ga v`tèuhturc nad nrbgrèuhturc, nad oc nddcdsgfc gi o`s gwa v`cws.4?oc bggl `s hgst, but fueo gi `ts egatcat surv`vcs à toc>=toecatury Kcgpga`ln ( 2.5.2). rnashnt`gas cx`st à ]crs`na (; toecatury) nad

Nrnbè (?tonad 0toecatury).


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2.4.9 @ba [nso`yyn e.0== EC Anbntcna nkrèuhturc

@ba [nso`yyn, bgra a prcscat-dny @rnq, suppgscdhy h`vcd nrguad 0== EC. ogukoagt na Nrnb, oc wrgtc à Nrnbè ga n vnr`cty gi subjcets, àehudàk nkrèuhturc.O`s bggl L`tb nh-i`hn nh-anbnyyn, Bggl ga Anbntcna nkrèuhturc, wr`ttca à0=5/4 EC nad dètntcd tg o`s ser`bc à 05=/>, `s n vghufàgus trcnt`sc egvcràkbgto nkrèuhturnh prnetècs nad po`hgsgpoènh subjcets.40 Nt toc t`fc, Anbntcnawns toc Nrnbè wgrd igr toc rurnh pgpuhnt`ga gi @rnq nad Uyr`n tont spglc Uyr`nenad Nrnfnè.3=

oc nutogr `dcatì`cd o`fschi w`to toc Fcsgpgtnf`na rurnh pgpuhnt`ga.Nppnrcathy oc lacw toc`r hnakunkc nad eguhd rcnd toc`r o`ddca ser`pturcs.Uupcrst`t`ga, fnkè nad sgrecry rchntcd tg nkrèuhturc, fnàhy gi Eonhdcna nadBnbyhga`na gr`kà, s nfphy d`seusscd. oc nutogr lacw nbgut Ckypt`na euhturc nadhgrc, nad sgfc gi tont fny onvc bcca àegrpgrntcd à o`s bggl ga nkrèuhturc.

oc nutogr fust onvc lagwa Yàdgaùs Nantghùss wgrl, tous rceyehàkghd àigrfnt`ga. oc bggl, w`to `ts @shnfè styhc gi cxprcss`ga, `s agt n h`tcrnhtrnashnt`ga gi cnrh`cr fnauser`pts. oc nutogr o`fschi nad toc egpy`sts fny onvcnddcd toc`r gwa egffcats. @ba nh-Nwwf, e`tàk @ba [nso`yyn, qugtcs scvcrnhcnrh`cr wr`tcrs sueo ns Lgutsnf`, Unkr`t, nad Jnfbguseond, prgv`dàk qugtcs w`toàqugtcs.

Bgx 2.> @ba [nso`yyn ga krnitàk n trcc ganagtocr

@i ygu wnat tg krnit n trcc ga nagtocr sg tont toc krnitcd gac wguhd rcec`vcsgfctoàk woèo wc onvc fcat`gacd (nbgvc) ygu fust tnlc n brnaeo irgf gactrcc nad krnit `t gatg toc bgdy gi nagtocr. @a toc net`ga tocrc `s n subthc spce`nhprgpcrty woèo bchgaks tg toc nrt gi toc pcgphc gi tnh`sfnas.

ocy sny tont ì gac wnats tg dg to`s, oc soguhd tnlc n bcnutìuh (scrvnat)k`rh wog fust bc gi gutstnadàk bcnuty. Oc tnlcs ocr by toc onad nad hctsocr stnad nt toc rggt gi toc trcc wocrc oc wnats tg krnit toc brnaeo. oca ocprcpnrcs toc brnaeo h`lc pcgphc dg woca tocy wnat tg krnit `t nad toca oc

egfcs tg toc trcc gatg woèo oc wnats tg krnit `t. oc k`rh stnads uadcr toctrcc. Oc euts n oghc à toc trcc igr toc brnaeo nad tnlcs gii toc k`rhs ehgtocs nado`s gwa ehgtocs. oca oc puts toc brnaeo à `ts phnec wo`hc onvàk àtcregurscw`to toc k`rh, à n stnadàk pgs`t`ga. [o`hc onvàk àtcregursc oc krnits tocbrnaeo tg toc trcc, tryàk tg dg `t sg tont oc cjneuhntcs nt toc snfc t`fc ns ockrnits toc brnaeo. Oc soguhd nvg`d toc k`rh nitcr onvàk krnitcd toc brnaeo. @isoc bcegfcs prckanat, tont brnaeo w`hh pgsscss nhh toc trccs gdgur nad tnstc. @isoc dgcs agt bcegfc prckanat, toc brnaeo w`hh pgsscss gahy sgfc icnturcs gi toctrcc.oc inrfcr fny usc o`s wìc ì just fnrr`cd. Nad sg ga. (rnashnt`gaOfcca-Natt`hn, 2==9 p 2?>/2).


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Anbntcna nkrèuhturc `s n egfphcx bggl, pnrthy po`hgsgpoènh nad pnrthynkrgtceoaènh. @ts po`hgsgpoènh egatcat `s hnrkchy Nr`stgtch`na. Nhh h`vàk bcàksonvc sguhs. oc phnats onvc sguhs gr ineuht`cs by woèo tocy krgw. Igr ecatur`cs @ba

[nso`yyns wns na àihucat`nh bggl. Fnay nrc toc fnkènh rcfcd`cs, sgfct`fcs

cvca senbrgus (Bgx 2.>), nad aufcrgus nrc toc scas`bhc rcegffcadnt`gas.oc Caeyehgpcd`n gi @shnf scr`gushy qucst`gas toc cx`stcaec gi n pcrsgaenhhcd @ba [nso`yyn. @t stntcs tont toc gr`kà gi toc bggl `s inlcd< `t gr`kàntcdprgbnbhy à toc 3to gr 9to ecatury EC, fnybc à Fcsgpgtnf`n.3> Nhvcs Enrrnrn(2==9) egaehudcd tont bgto toc Anbntcna nkrèuhturc nad toc Kcgpga`ln nrcdcsecadnats gi Fnkgs bggl, n fnjgr dìicrcaec bcàk tont à toc Kcgpga`ln tocsupcrst`t`gas ond bcca i`htcrcd gut. Agtw`tostnadàk toc nreon`stè chcfcats a toctcxt, toc àihucaec gi Anbntcna nkrèuhturc à toc Fush`f wgrhd wns krcnt.

2.3 Egatcfpgrnr`cs


o`s bggl n`fs nt na gvcrv`cw gi prc-fgdcra ergp prgtcet`ga w`togut nay nttcfptnt egfphctcacss. Ns toc torcc schcetcd nutogrs gi 2.5 nrc in`rhy egfprcocas`vc,tocrc `s h`tthc accd tg prgbc dccpcr. Agactochcss, scvcrnh egatcfpgrnry fcd`cvnhnutogrs à [cstcra Curgpc, irgf Upnà tg Br`tnà, dcscrvc n fcat`ga.

2.3.2 Torcc Nadnhus`na nutogrs

@ba [i`d (e.>==;->=;3) wns n wchh-bgra kcathcfna, n fcdènh fna bgra nad

h`vàk à ghcdg. Oc wrgtc à Nrnbè ga fcdèàc, fntocfntès, nad nkrèuhturc.Oc ond nt hcnst sgfc pcrsganh cxpcr`caec a nkrèuhturc ns toc d`rcetgr gi toc RgynhKnrdca gi ghcdgs ]ràec, nh-Fnfa. o`s knrdca wns n phcnsurc knrdca ns wchhns n tr`nh i`chd. @ba [i`ds rcnt`sc ga Nkrèuhturc `s hgst but n irnkfcatnry egpy,fndc e.>4==, gi na cnrhy trnashnt`ga à Enst`h`na wns iguad à ghcdg. oc tcxtgitca qugtcs Nantghùs, toca rcecathy nvn`hnbhc a Nrnbè trnashnt`ga (>=toecatury),but agt toc Anbntcna Nkrèuhturc. @ba [i`d, `kagrcd by @ba nh- Nwwf, wnsqugtcd ircqucathy nad gitca h`tcrnhhy by dc Ocrrcrn, wog nppnrcathy ond neecsstg n Upna`so tcxt, prgbnbhy toc ghcdg egpy. @t wns pubh`socd by F`hhs Ynhhègsn(>045). oc bggl `s egae`sc, w`togut fcdènh nad autr`t`ganh cxeurs`gas. @t giicrsh`tthc acw àigrfnt`ga ga ergp prgtcet`ga.

@ba Bnhnh uhnyuh (6 toc ghcdna) h`vcd à toc >>toecatury. Oc wcat ga ondjtg Fceen, nhsg v`s`tàk Ckypt nad Uè`hy. O`s àtcrcst wns hnrkchy bgtnaènh. Oc wnsnhsg à toc scrvèc gi nh-Fnfa. O`s bggl L`tb nh-nsd wn h-bnya (6 Bgglgi egae`s`ga nad ehnr`ty), na nbr`dkcd vcrs`ga gi n fgrc cxtcas`vc wgrl, dcnhspr`fnr`hy w`to ogrtèuhturc. Oc fpgrtcd sccds irgf toc Acnr Cnst nad oc caknkcdà vnr`cty tcstàk nad neeh`fnt`snt`ga. [oca Nhigasg Y@ gi Enst`hhc egaqucrcdghcdg à >=?3 oc fgvcd tg Ucv`hhc. ocrc oc dcs`kacd n bgtnaènh knrdca igr ruhcrnh-Futnf`d. oc bggl wns trnashntcd àtg Upna`so by F`hhs Ynhhèrgsn & Nzfa

(>033).


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Nb h-Lonyr nh-@sobh (6 toc Ucv`hhna), wrgtc o`s bggl L`tb nh-i`hn (rcnt`scga nkrèuhturc) a ~>=;5. O`s aèlanfc wns nh-sondjdjr, toc nrbgrèuhturnh`st grtoc trcc phnatcr. H`tthc s lagwa nbgut o`s hìc. oc bggl d`seusscs nt hcnst ?9 ergpsw`to fnay dctn`hs ga trcc ergps. Nt hcnst igur egp`cs gi o`s bggl onvc surv`vcd.

Enrnbnzn (>00>) trnashntcd toc bggl àtg Upna`so.

2.3.5 [nhtcr gi Ocahcy e.>2?9 Ousbnadry

[nhtcr gi Ocahcy h`vcd à Cakhnad irgf e.>24= tg e.>5==. Oc wns prgbnbhy naCakh`so la`kot, n dgfàus f`hcs, à toc ighhgwàk gi toc Ehnrc inf`hy woèo gwacdscvcrnh fnagrs nad cstntcs à Khguecstcrso`rc. Oc fny onvc bcca n bn`hìi gasgfc hnrkc cstntc, prgbnbhy à toc [cst F`dhnads. [nhtcr wns ihucat à Ircaeo,spglc Cakh`so, nad uadcrstggd Hntà. Oc wrgtc Ogscbgadryc (Ousbnadry) àIrcaeo, e.>2?9. oc bggl wns trnashntcd atg Hntà nad Cakh`so. @ uscd toc Cakh`sotrnashnt`ga by Gseoàsly (>0;>).

oc tcxt wns inso`gacd à toc igrfnt nad styhc gi n scrfga. @ts nrt`stè igrfwns na ndvèc k`vca by n intocr à ghd nkc tg o`s sga. [nhtcr fny onvc nttcadcdtoc toca eurrcat egurscs à busàcss ndfà`strnt`ga, w`to àstruet`gas à toc nrt gihcttcr wr`tàk, toc igrfuhnt`ga gi wr`ts, dccds, nad neeguats. Ns n v`s`tàk hceturcroc fny onvc hceturcd ga cstntc fnankcfcat ga sueo n egursc, prgbnbhy nt Gxigrd.oc bggl wguhd toca bc na cxtcadcd egursc syhhnbus. oc trcnt`sc d`seusscs tocfnankcfcat gi toc fnagr`nh inrf rntocr tona inrfàk `tschi. oc nutogr catcrcdtoc Dgfàèna Grdcr à toc hnttcr pnrt gi o`s hìc.

2.3.4 Nhbcrtus Fnkaus e.>2==->2?= Ga phnatsNhbcrtus Fnkaus wns bgra nrguad >2== à Hnuàkca (Bnvnr`n) ga toc Dnaubc nstoc sga gi toc Eguat gi Bghhstdt. R`kot irgf eo`hdoggd oc wns n lcca gbscrvcrgi nhh h`vàk toàks. Oc stud`cd à ]ndun (@tnhy) wocrc oc hcnracd nbgut Nr`stgthcspo`hgsgpoy. Oc catcrcd toc Dgfàèna Grdcr. Oc rcec`vcd o`s dckrcc gi Dgetgr àocghgky à ]nr`s. @a Eghgkac oc wns toc tcneocr gi ogfns Nquàns, toc infgustocghgk`na. Nhbcrtus trnvchhcd w`dchy, pcrigrfcd scvcrnh `fpgrtnat egff`ss`gasigr toc Eoureo, nad wns ]rgvàe`nh gi toc Dgfàèna Grdcr à Kcrfnay. Oc d`cdà Eghgkac (Kcrfnay), à >2?=.

Nhbcrtus Fnkaus, n prghìè wr`tcr, wns toc fgst prgfàcat po`hgsgpocr nad

se`cat`st gi toc cnrhy F`ddhc Nkcs. O`s egatcfpgrnr`cs enhhcd o`f rcvcrcathy dgetgrua`vcrsnh`s. Nfgak o`s aufcrgus wr`tàks wns n bggl ga na`fnhs nad gac gabgtnay.32oc hnttcr, Dc vckctnb`h`bus (Ga phnats), wns bnscd ga twg nutogrs,Aèghnus gi Dnfnseus, wog egfp`hcd ghdcr Krccl wgrls, nad ]nhhndùs, toc hnstgi toc Rgfna nutogrs ga nkrèuhturc.35 Oc nfphì`cd tocsc dntn w`to o`s gwacxtcas`vc gbscrvnt`gas, cxpcr`fcats, nad rcihcet`gas.34Bggl Y@@, ga nkrèuhturc,onrdhy fcat`gas ergp prgtcet`ga `ssucs.


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2.3.3 @ba Huya >54? Bggl ga nkrèuhturc

@ba Huya wns bgra à Nhfcrn, à prcscat-dny Upnà, >2?2. O`s gwa anfc wnsUnd nad o`s egfphctc anfc wns Nb Stofa Und b. Nb Djninr Nfnd @baHuya nh-udjb. Oc wgrlcd ns n agtnry pubhè, suppgscdhy trnvchhcd à Nh-fnkor`b (6 agrto wcst Nirèn) nad toc Gr`cat, nad gbtnàcd n hècaec ns n urnaètcneocr.33[`to o`s w`dc lagwhcdkc oc wns rcagwacd à Nhfcrn. Ech`bntc, oc wnslagwa ns na nsectè, fystè, po`hgsgpocr, hnwycr, fntocfntè`na, fcd`gerc pgct,nad cxechhcat enhh`krnpocr. N pghyfnto, oc wrgtc nt hcnst 23 bggls. O`s Bggl gankrèuhturc, L`b nh-i`hon, dntcs irgf >54?. @ba Huya d`cd irgf phnkuc à

Nhfcrn, >540.oc iuhh t`thc gi toc bggl `s Bggl ga toc pràe`phc gi toc bcnuty nad toc cad

gi toc se`caec tont trcnts toc iuadnfcatnhs gi toc nrt gi nkrèuhturc. @t `s toc hnstlagwa fcd`cvnh study ga nkrèuhturc wr`ttca à Nrnbè. oc bggl wns wr`ttca nsn pgcf à n fctrc àtcadcd igr cnsy fcfgr`snt`ga. oc bggl `s o`kohy egae`sc,trcntàk nkrèuhturc brgndhy, a stnrl egatrnst tg toc hgak-wàdcd trcnt`sc by @ba nh-Nwwf. N icw drnwàks gi cqu`pfcat wcrc nddcd. @ba Huya gitca qugtcd @baBnh, nhsg fueo e`tcd by @ba nh-Nwwf, but oc d`d agt fcat`ga toc hnttcr.

oc bggl `s n br`ci fnaunh igr toc àigrfcd krgwcr à Nadnhus`n (U Upnà).oc uscr `s suppgscd tg bc lagwhcdkcnbhc nbgut Nadnhus`na nkrèuhturc, `ts ergps,rch`ci, sg`hs, nad sgurecs gi wntcr. Nkrèuhturnh ergps nrc d`seusscd but toc cfpons`s`s ga ogrtèuhturc. Fueo nttcat`ga s pn`d tg rr`knt`ga. Na`fnhs nrc gi àtcrcst gahyns prgduecrs gi fnaurc. Cstntc bu`hdàk `s trcntcd br`cihy. Ycry h`tthc `s sn`d nbgutwgrlcrs.

N eonrnetcr`stè icnturc `s toc nutogrs sgbcracss, w`togut fnkè gr i`kfcats gitoc fnkànt`ga. Fgst gi toc tcxt s prcser`pt`vc, nppcnhàk tg toc rcndcrs egffgascasc. @a n icw enscs @ba Huya dccfcd t acecssnry tg stntc tont n rcegffcadnt`ga`s gi egai`rfcd gr prgvca ciicet.39oc nutogr, lagwa tg bc na cxechhcat egfp`hcr,wns nbhc tg egadcasc àigrfnt`ga ga wchh gvcr 2== phnat spce`cs àtg gahy >593hàcs. oc bggl nbguads gi s`fphc prnetènh rcegffcadnt`gas nad rcirnàs irgftocgrctènh egas`dcrnt`gas. @ uscd toc Upna`so trnashnt`ga by Jgnquàn Ckunrns@bcz (>0??).

2.9 Uueecssgrs


Nfgak toc prc-fgdcra sueecssgrs gi gur fnjgr fcd`cvnh nutogrs ( 2.5) torcc kgdccp àtg toc tceoaènh`t`cs gi nkrèuhturc nad ergp prgtcet`ga. wg gi tocf, tocUpna`nrd Knbr`ch dc Ocrrcrn nad toc Ircaeofna Gh`v`cr dc Ucrrcs, lacw toc ehnssèsbut rch`cd hnrkchy ga toc`r pcrsganh cxpcr`caec à toc prnetèc gi nkrèuhturc. o`s`s n dce`dcdhy fgdcra chcfcat à toc`r wgrl. Bgto egatr`butcd tg toc ercnt`ga gin ant`ganh hnakunkc nad bgto wcrc fueo rcnd. oc to`rd, toc Entnhga`na Nkusta,uscd fgrc scegad onad lagwhcdkc but, duc tg toc d`dnetènh prcscatnt`ga gi tocegatcat fnttcr, o`s bggl wns n igrcruaacr gi fgdcra tcxtbggls.


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2.9.2 Knbr`ch dc Ocrrcrn >3>5 Trcnt`sc ga nkrèuhturc

oc eonphnà Knbr`ch Nhhgasg dc Ocrrcrn (>4;4->34=) wns bgra à nhnvcrndc hn Rcàn (Upnà).3;Ns n eo`hd oc hcnracd nbgut nkrèuhturc irgf o`s inrfàkintocr nad, nppnrcathy, bcenfc inseàntcd. Ns n yguto oc stud`cd à Krnandn, justegaqucrcd by toc Upna`so irgf toc Fggrs. Oc spcat fueo t`fc à toc vckn3?giKrnandn, hcnraàk ogw toc Fggrs, nt toc t`fc inr fgrc ndvnaecd a nkrèuhturc nadogrtèuhturc tona toc Upna`so, euht`vntcd toc`r hnad nad tcadcd toc`r ergps. Bcs`dcsUpna`so oc lacw Hntà nad oc fny onvc uadcrstggd nt hcnst sgfc Nrnbè. Ocstud`cd toc ehnssès ga nkrèuhturc, àehudàk @ba nh-Nwwf nad ]`ctrg Ercsecaz`.Oc qugtcd rcpcntcdhy nad gitca h`tcrnhhy irgf @ba [i`d. 30

Nitcr tca ycnrs à Krnandn oc wnadcrcd torguko Irnaec nad @tnhy, fnybc tgprcpnrc o`s cxtcas`vc egfp`hnt`ga ga nkrèuhturc Gbrn dc nkrèuhturn, egp`hndgdc d`vcrsgs nutgrcs dc fnadg dch fuy `hustrc y rcvcrcads`fg Ucgr Enrdcanhdc Cspnn Nrzgb`spg dc ghcdg, rcnt`sc ga nkrèuhturc, egfp`hcd irgf vnr`gusnutogrs ga toc nutogr`ty gi toc vcry `hhustr`gus nad fgst vcacrnbhc Enrdành giUpnà Nreob`sogp gi ghcdg, pubh`socd à >3>5 (Fnrtàcz Enrrcrns, >0;=). ocbggl, fgdcsthy prcscatcd ns n egfp`hnt`ga, s na gr`kành nad surpr`sàkhy fgdcratrcnt`sc egfbààk ehnssè nad Nrnbè lagwhcdkc w`to o`s w`dc pcrsganh cxpcr`caec.Dc Ocrrcrns Fncecans, Enrdành Irnae`seg _`facz dc E`sacrgs, wns sg phcnscdw`to toc bggl tont oc ond `t pràtcd nt o`s gwa cxpcasc, tg bc d`str`butcd ircc gieonrkc nfgak toc inrfcrs gi o`s dgfnàs.

oc Gbrn nppcnrcd duràk toc igrfnt`vc ycnrs gi toc Upna`so ant`ga nadhnakunkc. oc bggl trcnts nkrèuhturc cxtcas`vchy, àehudàk vctcrànry se`caec,

fctcgrghgky nad, neegrdàk tg toc eustgf gi toc t`fcs, iggd igr ocnhto. oc bgglegvcrs nhh toc ergps gi toc pcr`gd nad rcneocs àtg nrcns agw enhhcd pcdghgky, sg`hicrt`h`ty, nad ergp poys`ghgky. @t wns wr`ttca à n ehcnr nad s`fphc hnakunkc sg tont`t eguhd bc egasuhtcd by uasgpo`stèntcd inrfcrs ns wchh ns by toc hnadgwacrs nadtoc`r fnankcrs. Ns n rcfà`secaec oc dcser`bcs rgtnt`ga ns toc Fggrs dg `t à tocvckn gi Krnandn \DO-4.3.2>5V. oc bggl wns fueo neehn`fcd, vnr`gushy `hhustrntcd,nad trnashntcd atg scvcrnh hnakunkcs. oc bggl wns uscd wchh atg toc 2=toecatury(D`nz-]hnjn, >03>). @ uscd toc cd`t`ga by Enrrcrns (>0;=).

2.9.5 Gh`v`cr dc Ucrrcs >9== Tocntrc gi nkrèuhturc

Gh`v`cr dc Ucrrcs (>330->9>0) wns bgra à n wchh-tg-dg fcreonat inf`hy à tocHnakucdge, sgutocra Irnaec. [chh-cduentcd, oc trnvchhcd nbrgnd nad w`dcacd o`sguthggl. Oc wns n prgtcstnat, stud`cd hnw, pnrtè`pntcd à toc e`v`h wnr rnvnkàkIrnaec nt toc t`fc, toca bgukot n f`hh nad krguads nt ]rndch à >3;3. 9=@a >3;?oc fgvcd tg o`s cstntc tg dcdèntc o`fschi tg nkrèuhturc ns n kcathcfna-inrfcr.wcaty-twg ycnrs hntcr, à >9==, oc pubh`socd o`s bggl otrc dnkrèuhturc ctfcsankc dcs eonfps (ocntrc gi nkrèuhturc nad fnankcfcat gi toc i`chds).9>DcUcrrcs ond rcnd toc Rgfna nkrèuhturnh`sts nad uscd sgfc gi toc`r aigrfnt`ga, butrcjcetcd nad cvca r`dèuhcd toc`r supcrst`t`gas. Oc d`d agt fcat`ga Ercsecat`g, dcOcrrcrn, gr nay gi o`s Ircaeo prcdcecssgrs.


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Gpca-fàdcd, oc rch`cd pr`fnr`hy ga o`s gwa cxpcr`caec, woèo oc hn`d dgwaà bcnutìuh Ircaeo, ehcnr nad prce`sc, cnsy tg rcnd. oc bggl wns na `ffcd`ntcsueecss, rcpràtcd >0 t`fcs w`toà n spna gi ;3 ycnrs. @a >9;3 toc d`t dc Anatcscvètcd toc Ircaeo prgtcstnats nad, àd`rcethy, toc bggls wr`ttca by tocf. Oc wns

igrkgttca. Duràk toc Anpghcgaè rcv`vnh gi nkrèuhturc à Irnaec toc bggl wnstrnaser`bcd à toca-fgdcra Ircaeo nad pubh`socd gaec fgrc (K`sgrs, >?=2).

2.9.4 F`kuch Nkusta >9>; toc Bggl gi toc ]r`gr

Brgtocr F`kuch Nkusta (*>39=), ]r`gr gi toc cfphc dc hn I`dch`ss`fn Y`hhn dc]crp`na, dch Grdca y Rch`kà dc Una Juna dc Jcrusnha, wrgtc H`brg dc hgs scerctgsdc nkrèuhturn, ensn dc enfpg y pnstgr`h, Bggl ga toc scercts gi nkrèuhturc, eguatryogusc nad ocrdàk.92oc gr`kành vcrs`ga nppcnrcd à Entnhna, but toc nutogrprgduecd n trnashnt`ga àtg Upna`so à toc snfc ycnr, >9>;. oc bggl `s gitcaàdèntcd ns toc Bggl gi toc ]r`gr.

Irn Nkusta nddrcsscs toc ]ndrc dc Inf`h`ns, toc inf`hy intocr, à o`s Ensn dcEnfpg, o`s fnagr nad cstntc. oc bggl `s egfpnrnbhc but ecrtnàhy agt `dcatènhtg toc Kcgpga`ln woèo toc nutogr fust onvc lagwa (à toc Ircaeo trnashnt`ga7).oc tcxt s egfpnet nad systcfntènhhy grkna`scd, wchh-egas`dcrcd, nad icw nutogrsnrc fcat`gacd by anfc. oc tcxt `s ndnptcd tg toc wr`tcrs nrcn, krcntcr Entnhga`n(AC Upnà), àehudàk ]crp`kana (U Irnaec). Nfgak toc ergps acwhy àtrgduecdirgf toc Nfcrèns oc dcser`bcs tgbneeg, but agt pgtntg gr tgfntg.95

oc bggl sogws toc prgkrcss à se`catìè pubhènt`ga. oc subjcet fnttcr `sprcscatcd à n d`dnetènh fnaacr, w`to eonptcrs, subeonptcrs, nad pnrnkrnpos.

oc >;92 egpy tont @ egasuhtcd ond toc tgpès pràtcd à fnrkành khgsscs igrcnsy onadhàk.94Na cxtcadcd suffnry cxphnàs toc egatcat gi toc bggl. Cneoeonptcr ons n ocndàk tont br`cihy àdèntcs `ts egatcat. oc bggl ons n dctn`hcdàdcx, n vgenbuhnry à s`x hnakunkcs, n pcrpctunh enhcadnr, n h`st gi crrntn, nad n icw`hhustrnt`gas. oc bggl, pràtcd gvcr nad gvcr nknà, ond n krcnt fpnet ga Upna`sonkrèuhturc uat`h nt hcnst toc cad gi toc >?toecatury.

2.; Inatnsy nad rcnh`ty

Ga toc Krccl s`dc wc scc rcnh`sf bnscd ga sgh`d gbscrvnt`ga, ns w`to Ocs`gd wogpornscd o`s wgrds à n pgctènh wny, nad ocgpornstus. Ga toc Acnr-Cnstcra s`dcwc scc n eur`gus f`x gi sguad gbscrvnt`ga nad rcegffcadnt`gas o`kohy inatnstètg toc fgdcra cyc. ocsc onvc pnrthy Bnbyhga`na nad pnrthy Agrto Nirèna gr`kà.

Nfgak tocsc inatns`cs fy invgur`tc `s toc Kcgpga`lns rcegffcadnt`ga ga ogwtg nvcrt h`kotaàk dnfnkc tg toc ergp, Bury toc o`dc gi n o`ppgpgtnfus à toc i`chd,nad h`kotaàk w`hh agt str`lc tocrc \KC->,>9V.

g toc fgdcra cyc, sgfc gi toc inatnstè rcegffcadnt`gas nrc ehcnrhypgragkrnpoè sueo ns @ba [nso`yyns gac nbgut krnitàk n trcc (Bgx 2.>). O`s rudcd`rcetacss wns tgg fueo igr p`gus @ba nh-Nwwf, wog qugtcd toc pnssnkc à nsogrtcr nad bgwdhcr`zcd vcrs`ga, sukkcstàk tont toc k`rh f`kot bc toc just-fnrr`cdspgusc.93 Oc nddcd: @ rcpgrtcd tocsc toàks, snys toc Nutogr \6@ba nh-NwwfV,


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w`togut onvàk in`to à toc`r ciièney \@N->.494V. Hntcr fgrc hcvch-ocndcd nutogrssl`ppcd toc pnssnkc. @a toc egursc gi t`fc toc fgst `fprgbnbhc rcegffcadnt`gaswcrc wccdcd gut.

Anbntcna Nkrèuhturc nhsg egatnàs rcnh`ty, fnybc pgss`bhy cvca fgrc tona

@ eguhd `dcatìy à toc senttcrcd qugtnt`gas. Nfgak toc rcnh chcfcats nrc, igrcxnfphc, ogw tg iàd wntcr nad n egatrnpt`ga igr dr`p `rr`knt`ga. [cnlcacd trccswcrc trcntcd by d`kkàk up toc rggt systcf w`to n twg-prgakcd igrl, toc Rgfnab`dcas(I`k. 5.4). oca toc rggts wcrc egvcrcd by ircso sg`h f`xcd w`to fnaurc. @nf agt qu`tc surc woca nad ogw toc trcntfcat wgrls but @ suppgsc tont n ircsonad nfphc dgsc gi fèrgautr`cats `s pnrt gi `t. Gac tocgry stntcs tont systcfntèwguadàk gi toc rggts, senrìènt`ga, st`fuhntcs toc trccs tg prgduec nknà. o`swguhd bc toc uadcrkrguad f`rrgr `fnkc gi nbgvc krguad pruaàk. Inatnsy grrcnh`ty7

@ba nh-Nwwf fcat`gacd fnay prnetècs, agw scca ns inatnstè gr fnkènh, igr

egfphctcacss snlc w`togut acecssnr`hy puttàk in`to a tocf. oc Fush`f o`stgr`na@ba Lonhda (>552->4=9) egffcatcd tont toc Anbntcna Nkrèuhturc egatnàcdfueo sgrecry, igrb`ddca by @shnf nad ocaec gf`ttcd by @ba nh-Nwwf .99 @baHuya sl`ppcd nhh inatnsy nad fnkè, nppnrcathy egas`dcràk `t àciicet`vc gr cvcasàiuh. Ercsecaz` tgg wns prnetènhhy ircc irgf supcrst`t`ga.

Fgdcra t`fcs bckna à Upnà w`to Knbr`ch Nhgasg dc Ocrrcrn (>3>5) nad àIrnaec w`to Gh`v`cr dc Ucrrcs (>9==). ocsc nutogrs, wchh vcrscd à toc ehnssès,agactochcss rch`cd hnrkchy ga toc`r pcrsganh cxpcr`caec a nkrèuhturc. oc`r rcihcx`gasnad cxphnant`gas onvc n dce`dcdhy fgdcra tàkc. [ocrcns dc Ocrrcrn dgcs agtnddrcss naybgdy à pnrtèuhnr, dc Ucrrcs spceìènhhy nddrcsscs toc Onusvntcr, o`s

i`rst wgrds bcàk Hc prc dc inf`hhc, `.c. toc ocnd gi toc inf`hy, tocpntcr inf`h`ns.U`f`hnrhy, Nkustas i`rst wgrds nrc Ch ]ndrc dc Inf`h`ns,pntcr inf`h`nsnknà.9;

2.? Toc nud`caec

Igr toc fnjgr`ty gi fcd`ncvnh Fush`f nutogrs, pcnsnats wcrc tgtnhhy àv`s`bhc, bctocy pnknas, Eor`st`nas gr Fush`fs. Nrnbè h`tcrnturc `s urbna à eonrnetcr, woèo onsegatr`butcd tg n d`stgrtcd v`cw gi fcd`cvnh Acnr Cnstcra sge`cty.9? @adccd, nhh tocehnssènh wr`tàks ga nkrèuhturc nrc n`fcd nt cstntc gwacrs, bc tocy pr`vntc pcrsgasgr giiè`nhs gi stntc nad eoureo. Fgst cstntc gwacrs wcrc h`tcrntc nad suiiè`cathy

niihucat tg buy bggls gr tg bc rcnd tg.Entg toc Chdcr, n fna uscd tg fnankàk pcgphc, wns n hnadgwacr nddrcssàkhnadgwacrs. ]nhhndùs tgg wrgtc igr toc rèo wog, nt toc t`fc, tcadcd tg w`todrnwtg toc`r egfigrtnbhc eguatry oguscs tryàk tg dcvchgp toc`r cstntcs nad prgduecvnhuc (Fnrtà, >0;9). oc Kcgpga`ln, ehcnrhy tnrkctcd nt toc gwacrs gi cstntcsnad hnrkc inrfs \KC-2.44/40V, d`seusscd oufna rcsgurec fnankcfcat à sgfc dctn`hw`to spceìès ga iggd nad dràls igr toc wgrlcrs. @adènt`gas ga toc hny-gut gina cstntc wcrc k`vca by nhh nutogrs qugtcd ocrc. Ercsecat`g nddrcsscd toc niihucate`t`zcas gi Bghgkan, wog bckna tg àvcst fgacy à hnad nad wnatcd n rctura gatoc`r àvcstfcat. oc trcad egatàucs up tg nad àehudàk Nkusta, wog phcnscd


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toc hgrd gi toc fnagr w`to n eonptcr ga oguads nad ouatàk nad toc hndy gi tocfnagr w`to n fcdènh eonptcr, egatr`butcd by twg àv`tcd poysè`nas.

Nhh nhgak toc Fcd`tcrrnacna nad torguko toc ecatur`cs hnrkc cstntcs nad pcnsnatinrfs cx`stcd s`dc by s`dc à vnryàk prgpgrt`gas.90oc cstntc gwacrs gitca tr`cd

tg gust pcnsnat inrfcrs irgf toc`r prgpcrt`cs but scvcrnh ruhcrs ond n pgh`tènhàtcrcst à pcnsnat inrfàk, nhhgttàk hnad tg àd`v`dunhs c`tocr tg rcwnrd f`h`tnryscrvècs (Rgfna pghèy) gr tg ercntc n pgpuhnec irgf woèo tg rceru`t sghd`crs(Byznatàc pghèy). ]cnsnat inrfcrs wcrc, ga toc woghc, `hh`tcrntc nad ond tg rchyga cxpcr`caec gahy.;=ocy fct nad tnhlcd nt rch`k`gus ecrcfga`cs gr, à wàtcrt`fc, nt toc i`rc phnec. ]nss by toc brgazc-wgrlcrs bcaeo nad o`s wnrf hguakc àtoc wàtry scnsga, woca toc eghd oghds fca bnel irgf i`chdwgrl \OC-405V. Inrfcrssonrcd toc`r cxpcr`caecs, ns tocy dg tgdny. oc`r lagwhcdkc nad hgrc wcrc onadcddgwa by wgrd gi fguto.

[c fny suppgsc tont sgfc cxeonakc bctwcca grnh nad wr`ttca trnd`t`ga tggl

phnec, torguko egavcrsnt`ga nad by cxnfphc. Bghcas egas`dcrcd toc Nadnhus`naNrnbè wr`tàks tg bc typènh egurt h`tcrnturc, but @ dgubt `t.;>oc wgrl gi @baBnhwns sn`d tg onvc bcca egp`cd nad qugtcd ircqucathy à Agrto Nirèn irgfua`s`n tg Fgrgeeg. oc nkrgagf`st @ba nh-Nwwf fny onvc tnhlcd w`to gr nthcnst h`stcacd tg inrfcrs. Ugfct`fcs oc fcat`gas hgenh prnetèc. ]ornscs sueo ns tocysny gr sgfc sny eguhd rcicr tg inrfcrs. @ba Huya `s sn`d tg onvc àehudcd hgenhlagwhcdkc à o`s tcxt.;2Dc Ocrrcrn agt gahy hgglcd nt nad tnhlcd w`to inrfcrs,oc ond pnrtè`pntcd à inrfàk ns n inrf onad nt ogfc, nad ns na cstntc fnankcrà toc vckngi Krnandn. @ vcaturc tg sukkcst tont n egatàugus twg-wny ihgw giàigrfnt`ga cx`stcd bctwcca cstntc gwacrs nad pcnsnats fcd`ntcd by ac`kobgurs

nad o`rcd hnbgur. Sp tg to`s vcry dny inrfcrs w`toà n ac`kobguroggd tcad tgighhgw toc cxnfphc gi na àagvnt`vc hcnd inrfcr, à nae`cat t`fcs prgbnbhy toccstntc gwacr.

@ba Lonhda (>552->4=9) wrgtc: Ns wc lagw, toc (pcgphc gi Upnà) gi nhhe`v`h`zcd pcgphc, nrc toc gacs fgst dcvgtcd tg nkrèuhturc. @t rnrchy onppcas nfgaktocf tont n fna à nutogr`ty gr na grdànry pcrsga ons ag trnet gi hnad gr i`chd, grdgcs agt dg sgfc inrfàk.\@L-2.2;0V. E`v`h`zcd pcgphc eguhd rcnd, gi egursc. oc snfc@ba Lonhda ond ag o`ko gpà`ga gi inrfàk à >4toecatury Agrto Nirèn, wocrcnkrèuhturc wns à dcehàc. Cstntcs nad inrfs dg agt y`chd toc`r gwacr n suiiè`catàegfc igr o`s \huxuryV accds \@L-2.2?4V. o`s wns agt duc tg hnel gi àigrfnt`ga ns

àdèntcd by toc qugtnt`ga nt toc stnrt gi to`s eonptcr.;5@a pnssàk @ba Lonhdaoàtcd nt phnat prgtcet`ga.

Gi egursc, toc trèlhc dgwa ciicet, toc krndunh d`spcrsnh gi ch`tc lagwhcdkctg toc egffgacr, pcnsnat gr knrdcacr, d`d cx`st à prc-fgdcra t`fcs. But ogwciicet`vc wns `t7 @fnfuddà (>092 p 30) snw toc nkrèuhturc gi toc Fggrs à

Nadnhus`n torguko rgsc-tàtcd spcetnehcs. D`seussàk toc `fpnet gi toc krcntnkrgagf`sts gi toc pcr`gd (e.>2== - e.>4== EC) oc wrgtc oc`r tceoaènh lagwhcdkcnad prnetènh cxpcr`caecs turacd toc eguatry àtg n krcca hnad iuhh gi trccs, ecrcnhs,knrdcas nad greonrds.


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Eonptcr 5

]rc-fgdcra nkrèuhturcToc v`cw irgf sgfc o`hh tgps à toc Fcd`tcrrnacna

nrcn sogws n rurnh hnadsenpc ns `t fny onvc bcca à

prc-fgdcra t`fcs. N w`dc vnr`cty gi ergp spce`cs wns

krgwa. Ug`h t`hhnkc wns cvca fgrc `fpgrtnat toca tona

`t `s tgdny. To`s eonptcr d`seusscs toc fnankcfcat à

prc-fgdcra t`fcs gi n schcet`ga gi toc phnatcd nad sgwa

ergps. Fueo nttcat`ga wns k`vca tg fnaunh-bnscd wccd

egatrgh. Fnay ergp vnr`ct`cs wcrc lagwa. Torcsoàkond tg bc dgac enrciuhhy ga wchh-prcpnrcd torcsoàk

ihggrs woèo nrc st`hh v`s`bhc à sgfc fguatnà nrcns.

Uchcet`ga gi sccds nad sccd trcntfcats wcrc egas`dcrcd

`fpgrtnat. @dcns nbgut àocr`tnaec gi eonrnetcrs

cx`stcd, ns d`d n agt`ga gi trnasfutnt`ga. Eh`fntc nad

wcntocr, wocrc rchcvnat tg ergp krgwto nad prgtcet`ga,

nrc d`seusscd. Cegsystcf scrvècs nrc àdèntcd.

tont toc rst toàk woèo Kgd gur Hgrd tnukot us tg bc acecssnry igr oufna hìc, `sNkrèuhturc< nad sg, igr rcnsgas sn`d nbgvc, Nkrèuhturc bc prn`scd nad Inrfcrs soguhd bcprcicrrcd nbgvc nhh gtocr Fnlcrs.

F`kuch Nukusta: H`brg dc hgs scerctgs dc nkrèuhturn, >9>;>

5.> Kcgkrnpoy nad eh`fntc

5.>.> Kcgkrnpoy, twg secacs

oc i`rst secac à toc tocntrc gi nkrèuhturc prcscatcd ocrc `s toc Fcd`tcrrnacnanrcn w`to `ts Fcd`tcrrnacna eh`fntc.2Nkrèuhturc, nt hcnst >=,=== ycnrs ghd à toccnstcra pnrt gi toc nrcn, sprcnd nt na cnrhy dntc nad wns wchh cstnbh`socd nhh nhgaktoc Fcd`tcrrnacna Ucn nt toc t`fc gi toc cnrh`cst sgurecs igr to`s bggl, e.>=== BEC.Fcd`tcrrnacna kcgkrnpoy, o`kohy irnkfcatcd by scns nad fguatnà rnakcs, ercntcdkrcnt vnr`nt`ga à hgenh tgpgkrnpoy nad wcntocr, fnlàk kcacrnh`snt`gas hcss vnh`d.Gr`kànhhy, fgst gi toc nrcn wns egvcrcd by igrcsts, w`to gnl igrcsts à toc hgwcregnstnh nrcns nad pàc igrcsts à toc fguatnàs nad dr`cr nrcns. Igrcst dcstruet`gabckna cnrhy nad eguhd ercntc hgenh `fbnhnaecs à eh`fntc nad wntcr supphy.5ocfnà iggd ergps wcrc wocnt nad bnrhcy, w`to wocnt ga toc bcttcr nad bnrhcy ga


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toc pggrcr gr drycr hnads. oc trcc ergps aehudcd gh`vc, krnpcvàc, i`k, nad vnr`gusiru`t spce`cs. Ucvcrnh vckctnbhcs wcrc krgwa à knrdcas. Gur torcc fnjgr sgurecs,Kcgpga`ln, @ba nh-Nwwf, nad Ercsecat`g, dcser`bc Fcd`tcrrnacna nkrèuhturc.

oc scegad secac à toc tocntrc gi nkrèuhturc `s [cstcra Curgpc. gwnrd toc

cad gi toc i`rst f`hhcaaùf EC toc cegagfè ecatrc gi krnv`ty à Curgpc soìtcdirgf toc Fcd`tcrrnacna nrcn tg [cstcra Curgpc, strcteoàk irgf Upnà nad @tnhytg toc Br`t`so @shcs nad Uenadànv`n. @a toc nrcn agrto gi toc ]yrcaccs nad Nhps nfnr`t`fc eh`fntc prcvn`hcd w`to eghd wàtcrs nad rnày suffcrs. Acw hnad wnsrcehn`fcd, gitca ocnvy ehny sg`hs, tg woèo nkrèuhturc ond tg bc ndjustcd.

5.>.2 Eh`fntcs4

Fcd`tcrrnacna secac. @t `s kcacrnhhy togukot tont toc Fcd`tcrrnacna eh`fntc onsagt eonakcd fueo gvcr toc hnst 4=== ycnrs.3Eggh nad rnày wàtcrs nhtcrantc w`toogt nad dry suffcrs. Upràk s rchnt`vchy sogrt w`to n bcnutìuh gutburst gi ihgwcrs.

Nutufa rnàs bckà nt toc cad gi Ucptcfbcr nad toc f`hd nutufa wcntocr nhhgwsigr cxtcas`vc t`hhnkc gi toc fg`stcacd sg`h.

Nbgut toc bckàaàk gi toc Egffga Crn (ycnr > EC), Agrto Nirèn nad tocAcnr Cnst rcec`vcd sgfcwont fgrc prce`p`tnt`ga tona tgdny, ns cv`dcaecd by toccxtcas`vc ergphnads. Duràk toc O`ko F`ddhc Nkcs toc rnàinhh a toc Fcd`tcrrnacnanrcn àercnscd, w`to toc r`vcrs agrto gi toc Fcd`tcrrnacna nad toc wnd`sà Agrto

Nirèn egatnààk fgrc wntcr tona tgdny.oc Fush`f rcnhf, strcteoàk irgf toc Nthnatè Gecna tg toc Ensp`na Ucn nad

bcygad, ond n in`rhy uaìgrf ceghgky, n Fcd`tcrrnacna eh`fntc w`to hnad cxpgscd

tg drgukot but wntcrcd by r`vcrs.

9

oc kcgkrnpoè irnkfcatnt`ga gi toc nrcn nadtoc hnrkc grgkrnpoè dìicrcaecs dg agt nhhgw fueo kcacrnh`snt`ga. @ba nh- Nwwffndc toc pgàt tont cav`rgafcatnh egad`t`gas à Bnbyhga`n nad sgutocra Upnàwcrc egfpnrnbhc sg tont toc rcegffcadnt`gas irgf Anbntcna Nkrèuhturc wcrcnpphènbhc à sgutocra Upnà \@N->.99V. oc agrtocra iràkc gi toc prcscat Unonrnrcec`vcd fgrc rnà tona tgdny irgf toc 9totg toc >2toecatury ns sukkcstcd by tocfnay lsgur à sgutocra ua`s`n.;

Agrto [cstcra Curgpcna secac. Nt toc bckàaàk gi toc Egffga Crn tocagrto wcstcra Curgpcna eh`fntc d`d agt dìicr fueo irgf tgdny. @a toc acxt icwecatur`cs, up tg nrguad 4==, Curgpc bcenfc wnrfcr nad drycr, sg tont Br`ttnay

rcneocd schi-suiiè`caey à wàc nrguad 5==. o`s wnrf pcr`gd cadcd w`to fgrcprce`p`tnt`ga. oc cpgeo gi Eonrhcs toc Krcnt, ;;=- ?==, ond rntocr eghd wàtcrs.

Nitcr to`s pcr`gd gi egghàk, Agrto [cstcra Curgpc wnrfcd up nknà nrguad toc>=toecatury w`to fueo nat`-eyehgaè wcntocr a n bcht irgf toc Nzgrcs tg Kcrfnay,rcsuhtàk à eghd wàtcrs nad wnrf suffcrs. Curgpc wns rchnt`vchy dry irgf toc0totg toc >>toecatury. Duràk toc >2toecatury nvcrnkc naaunh tcfpcrnturcs shgwhyàercnscd. oc Fcd`cvnh Eh`fntc Gpt`fuf rnakcd brgndhy irgf >>;= tg >45=.?

@a toc >5toecatury [cstcra Curgpc cxpcr`caecd rchnt`vchy phcnsnat wcntocr. Neghdcr trcad sct a nitcr >4==. oc >4toecatury wns rntocr eggh nad ond fnay f`hdnad rchnt`vchy wct suffcrs. oc >3 toecatury wns rchnt`vchy eggh w`to fnay eghd

wàtcrs but kggd suffcrs. oc Nhpàc khne`crs bckna tg krgw nitcr nbgut>43=.


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oc i`rst onhi gi toc >9toecatury wns phcnsnat but toc egghàk bckàaàk nrguad>39= hcd tg toc H`tthc @ec Nkc, w`to eghd wàtcrs irgf e.>33=->?==.0

Ug inr, tocsc eh`fntè vnr`nt`gas nrc `rrchcvnat tg toc prcscat d`seuss`ga sàec,ì tocrc wcrc ergp prgtcet`ga egascqucaecs, tocsc onvc agt bcca iguad. [`to n

icw cxecpt`gas, ergp y`chds d`d agt suiicr irgf toc wàtcr eghd, wct wàtcrs bcàkinr wgrsc tona eghd gacs.>=@a toc Nthnatè iràkc, wocrc eyehgaè e`reuhnt`ga w`toocnvy rnàs enfc à irgf toc sguto wcst, wct suffcrs eguhd bc d`snstrgus igr tocecrcnh ergps. Eggh nad wct suffcrs enuscd hgdkàk nad fguhdàk gi toc krnàergps, iuaknh d`scnscs, sprgutàk a toc cnr, pggr y`chds, nad senre`ty gr cvca ouakcrduràk toc ighhgwàk scnsga.>>

5.>.5 Hnadsenpcs

oc hnrkc wocnt i`chds gi tgdnys Nadnhus`n (sgutocra Upnà), ga toc vnst phnàsbctwcca Krnandn nad Ucv`hhc, fny bc just sh`kothy tgg hnrkc à egfpnr`sga tg toci`chds gi prc-fgdcra cstntcs, but toc hnadsenpc nad i`chd s`zcs à o`hhy usenay(@tnhy) bctwcca Ihgrcaec nad ]`sn fny rcenhh toc hntìuad`n, toc hnrkc cstntcs ginat`qu`ty. oc v`cw irgf toc ruàcd Rgfna o`hhtgp-tgwa gi Dgukkn (ua`s`n),gvcrhgglàk ergppcd vnhhcys, `s rcfà`secat gi nae`cat nkrèuhturnh secacry. ocnae`cat nkrèuhturnh hnadsenpc `s rcenhhcd à Yghub`h`s, n dchnp`dntcd Rgfna tgwaà prcscat-dny Fgrgeeg, v`cwàk toc icrt`hc wocnt-krgwàk phnà à toc wcst nadtoc gh`vc krgvcs ga toc o`hhs à toc cnst.

[r`tcrs irgf Ynrrg (e.5= BEC) tg Nkusta (>9>; EC) àigrf us nbgut toccstntcs, toc`r hgent`ga nad hny-gut. Rgfna fgsnès à prcscat ua`s`n bcnutìuhhy

`hhustrntc toc ehnssè nutogrs.

>2

@a toc Fcd`tcrrnacna nrcn prc-fgdcra pcnsnatinrfàk prgbnbhy geeurrcd a hnrkc pnteocs, nrrnakcd nrguad v`hhnkcs. [`toà tocscpnteocs i`chds fny onvc bcca dcaschy ehustcrcd.>5oc v`cw irgf Krnandn, sgutocraUpnà, gvcr toc àtcaschy euht`vntcd vckn sukkcsts ogw sueo pnteocs f`kot onvchgglcd.>4@ba Lonhda fcat`gacd ehustcrs gi aufcrgus v`hhnkcs w`to ruaaàk wntcrnad dntc pnhfs à agrto wcst Nirèn, n dcser`pt`ga tont bràks tg fàd toc prcscat-dny pnhf krgvcs à toc Dnds, Drn, nad Z`z vnhhcys gi Fgrgeeg. oc o`hh d`strètsgi Upnà, Fgrgeeg, nad urlcy pcronps fgdch toc nae`cat dry-hnad subs`stcaecinrfàk.

[cstcra Curgpcna fcd`cvnh inrfàk `s sphcad`dhy `hhustrntcd à vnr`gus Bggls

gi Ogurs. oc fgaufcatnh pubhènt`ga by ]crràc Fnac (2==9) dcser`bcs nad`hhustrntcs fcd`cvnh inrfàk à dctn`h. Hcss `s lagwa nbgut toc pcnsnats ogusàk. @onvc scca pcnsnat dwchhàks rnakàk irgf sgd-egvcrcd duk-gut oghcs tg aèc oguscsw`to nat`quc iura`turc, pgttcry nad s`hvcr, but @ dg agt lagw wont prc-fgdcrapcnsnat ogusàk hgglcd h`lc.

@a prc-fgdcra t`fcs igrcsts nad wggds, serub nad rguko nrcns wcrc fgrcnbuadnat nad hnrkcr tona tgdny. Dcigrcstnt`ga wns rnfpnat a nat`qu`ty nad duràktoc F`ddhc Nkcs, woca wggd wns accdcd igr egglàk nad ocntàk, egastruet`gagi bu`hdàks nad so`ps, igr i`ràk toc l`has gi toc pgttcrs, nad iuchhàk toc iuranecsgi toc brgazc nad `rga sfchtcrs. Duràk pcr`gds gi rcecss`ga, scegadnry wggdhnad

rcenpturcd hgst krguad.>3

Igrcsts ond fnay dìicrcat uscs, igr t`fbcr, iuch, ouatàk,iccdàk p`ks, nad eghhcetàk bcrr`cs gr fusorggfs. Uenttcrcd wggds nad sorub hnads


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42

w`hh onvc àtcrnetcd w`to ergps, à n acknt`vc gr n pgs`t`vc scasc, by niicetàk tocfèrgeh`fntc nad toc àtcreonakc gi àscets, agx`gus gr bcaciè`nh, iuak`, usunhhyagx`gus, nad gtocr phnat pntogkcas.

Nagtocr hnadsenpc chcfcat, onrdhy v`s`bhc agwndnys, egas`stcd gi fnrsocs.

ocsc fnrsocs wcrc icnrcd bcenusc tocy wcrc fnhnr`n-r`ddca.>9

Gvcr toc ecatur`cstoc fnrsocs wcrc drnàcd nad rcehn`fcd nad prgtcetcd nknàst ihggdàk by d`lcs,nad fnhnr`n d`snppcnrcd.

5.2 Inrfs nad inrfàk systcfs

5.2.> ]rc-fgdcra inrfàk

Ergp prgtcet`ga enaagt bc uadcrstggd w`togut sgfc lagwhcdkc gi nkrèuhturcà prc-fgdcra t`fcs. Igr n hgak t`fc, pgpuhnt`ga aufbcrs nad nkrèuhturnh

prgduet`ga fust onvc bcca à bnhnaec. [oca hnrkc e`t`cs enfc àtg cx`stcaec tocdcfnad igr iggd àercnscd nad toc sgurec nrcn gi iggd prgduet`ga ond tg bccxtcadcd, gitca gvcrscns. [nrs wcrc wnkcd tg egaqucr gr dcicad iggd sgurecs, wnrstont eguhd nhsg dcstrgy ergps à toc sgurec nrcns. By egfpnr`sga w`to wnrinrc, tocvnknr`cs gi toc wcntocr wcrc gi hcss `fpgrtnaec< iggd stgrnkc wns toc naswcr. Ergppcsts nad d`scnscs enfc nad wcat, n icw lagwa by anfc, fnay àegka`tg.

Nkrèuhturnh prgduet`ga à toc Fcd`tcrrnacna nrcn, nad `ts vnr`nb`h`ty, wnsdctcrfàcd by kcgkrnpoy, eh`fntc, sg`h icrt`h`ty, nad sge`g-cegagfè inetgrs.

Nkrèuhturc wns, gi egursc, toc lcy àdustry gi toc pcr`gd. [ocnt wns toc stnphciggd, ighhgwcd by bnrhcy. Yàcynrds nad gh`vc krgvcs prgduecd toc enso ergps,

wàc nad g`h. Hckufàgus ergps wcrc krgwa pr`fnr`hy igr ogfc egasufpt`ga.Yckctnbhcs eguhd bc fnrlctcd wocrc fnrlcts wcrc acnrby. @a pcr`gds gi niihucaec,granfcatnh knrdcas nad pnrls wcrc a invgur a nad acnr toc e`t`cs nad egfbàcdw`to vckctnbhc knrdcas nad greonrds nrguad toc eguatry oguscs.

Nkrèuhturc à Agrto [cstcra Curgpc, agrto gi toc Nhps nad inr agrto gitoc ]yrcaccs, dìicrcd irgf Fcd`tcrrnacna nkrèuhturc ns `t wns dctcrfàcd by neh`fntc w`to f`hd spràks, wct suffcrs, f`hd nutufas, nad eghd wàtcrs. Fnayegnstnh rck`gas nad r`vcr vnhhcys ond ocnvy sg`hs tont eguhd agt bc phgukocd by toc

I`kurc 5.> ]hgukoàk w`to n

wocchcd phguko, drnwa by n

pn`r gi gxca. Toc phgukofna

oghds n hgak, pgàtcd stèl, toc

st`fuhus, ocrc w`to toc sernpcr

nt toc hgwcr cad. @a irgat gi

toc egatrnpt`ga n eguhtcr `s

sukkcstcd. Greonrd à toc

bnelkrguad. Irgf: Ercsecat`g(>3>>) i >4 vg. Uenhc >:>.


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eustgfnry sernteo phguko. oc wocchcd phgw enfc àtg usc (I`k. 5.>). Cxtcas`vcfnrsocs wcrc uai`t igr nkrèuhturc uahcss ocnv`hy drnàcd. Igrcsts ond tg bc ehcnrcdtg usc toc hnad igr nkrèuhturc. @a toc F`ddhc Nkcs, fgals, cspce`nhhy E`stcre`nas,wcrc net`vc à gpcaàk up acw hnads.>;

oc prgpgrt`ga gi euht`vntcd tg v`rkà hnad vnr`cd gvcr toc egursc gi t`fc,à neegrdnaec w`to pgpuhnt`ga s`zc. @a toc >2 to nad >5to ecatur`cs toc [cstcraCurgpcna pgpuhnt`ga àercnscd rnp`dhy nad nkrèuhturnh prgduet`ga eguhd onrdhylccp pnec w`to pgpuhnt`ga krgwto. oc >4 to ecatury wns r`ddca by enhnf`t`csnad ns n rcsuht toc pgpuhnt`ga phuffctcd, hnad uadcr nkrèuhturc dcercnscd,nad igrcsts cxpnadcd. oc Krcnt ]hnkuc gi >54;/3> l`hhcd nbgut gac to`rd gitoc Curgpcna pgpuhnt`ga. oc subscqucat senre`ty gi hnbgur eonakcd toc sge`nhrchnt`gas drnstènhhy nad st`fuhntcd tceoaènh àagvnt`ga à nkrèuhturc.

Hnad tcaurc rchnt`gas rnakcd irgf irccfca pcnsnats usàk inf`hy hnbgur tghnrkc cstntcs bnscd ga shnvc hnbgur. ocsc rchnt`gas vnr`cd egas`dcrnbhy w`to phnec

nad t`fc. Utntc pghè`cs ond n dce`s`vc ciicet ga hnad tcaurc rchnt`gas, nad tous gahnad prgduet`v`ty. Ruhcrs eguhd `fprgvc nkrèuhturnh prgduet`ga by st`fuhntàkpcnsnat inrfàk gr, àvcrschy, cxphg`t toc`r inrfcrs tg toc cxtcat tont tocy stgppcdprgdueàk igr toc fnrlct.>?Cstntc inrfàk nad pcnsnat inrfàk cx`stcd s`dc bys`dc, à cvcr-vnryàk prgpgrt`gas.>0 oc hcknh nad sge`nh nrrnakcfcats bctwccahnad gwacrs nad hnad uscrs, subjcet tg eonakc neegrdàk tg pcr`gd nad rck`ga, nrcagt egas`dcrcd rchcvnat tg toc prcscat d`seuss`ga.

]rc-fgdcra nkrèuhturc wns grknaè nkrèuhturc, à tgdnys hcknh scasc. 2=@t wnsHgw Cxtcranh @aput Uustnànbhc Nkrèuhturc, [email protected]>oc hntìuad`n w`to toc`rv`hhns gi toc igrfcr [cstcra Rgfna Cfp`rc ond agt caguko fnaurc, cxonustcd

toc sg`h, nad wcrc agt sustnànbhc. Nrnbhc hnad wns turacd àtg pnsturc ns entthcbrccdàk bcenfc toc fgrc prgi`tnbhc busàcss. ]hày wns vcry ehcnr nbgut cstntcinrfàk \AO->?.;.53V. Nad ì toc truto bc egaicsscd, hnrkc cstntcs onvc bcca toc ruà gi@tnhy, nad nrc agw prgvàk toc ruà gi toc prgvàecs tgg onhi gi Nirèn wns gwacd bys`x hnadhgrds, . Fueo gi toc Agrto Nirèna nkrèuhturnh hnad, gaec sg prgduet`vc,bcenfc subjcet tg dcscrtìènt`ga.

5.2.2 Inrf nad i`chd s`zcs

Uurinec nreoncghgky ons prgv`dcd acw às`kots àtg nae`cat Krccl inrfàk (3 to-

2ad

ecatury BEC), n igrf gi (acnr-) subs`stcaec inrfàk, w`to inf`hy inrfs ginbgut 4-3 on.22Euht`vnt`ga wns rchnt`vchy àtcas`vc, w`to n ecrcnh-pu

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