Yukie Aida- Examination of Horwitz, Copes Construct of Fl Anxiety, Case of Students of Japanese

Examination of Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope's Construct of Foreign Language Anxiety: TheCase of Students of JapaneseAuthor(s): Yukie AidaSource: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 78, No. 2 (Summer, 1994), pp. 155-168Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers AssociationsStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/329005 .

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Examination of Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope's Construct of Foreign Language Anxiety: The Case of Students of Japanese YUKIE AIDA Department of Oriental and African Languages and Literatures University of Texas at Austin 2601 University Avenue Austin, TX 78712 Email: aida@ccwf cc.utexas.edu

THE PRESENT STUDY CONCERNS HOW language anxiety is related to Japanese language learning. It uses Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope's theoretical model of foreign language anxiety as a research framework. It has been reported that foreign language anxiety is a rather pervasive phenomenon (14; 31; 32; 46; 47; 52). Although language anxiety could be viewed as positive energy (or facilitating anxiety as called by Alpert and Haber) that motivates learners, many language teachers and researchers have been concerned about the possibility that anxiety may function as an affective filter (28), preventing a learner from achieving a high level of proficiency in a foreign language (4; 7; 17; 25; 27; 39; 42; 56; 62). However, most of the research studies have involved Western languages such as French, German, Spanish, and English, and there has been little investigation of non-Western languages like Japanese. In order to develop a fuller understanding of the nature of language anxiety and its implications for language education, future research should include non-Western languages. This study takes a step in that direction.

As a Japanese educator, the author became very interested in exploring the role of anxiety in Japanese language learning among college students. Learning Japanese is a very difficult task for Americans. According to Jorden and

The Modern LanguageJournal, 78, ii (1994) 0026-7902/94/155-168 $1.50/0 ?1994 The Modern Language Journal

Lambert, it requires approximately 1320 hours of instruction in an intensive program in languages like Japanese, Arabic, Chinese, and Ko- rean to bring students to the same level of proficiency reached after only about 480 hours of instruction in languages like French or Spanish. Therefore, the experiences that students have in the classroom with such difficult languages may be different from the experiences of students in languages that are more similar to English.

Do students of Japanese feel anxious in their classrooms? If so, what are the sources of their anxiety? Are there gender differences in language anxiety? Does anxiety interfere with their learning ofJapanese? The present study was designed to answer these questions.

Due to the importance of the economic and political relationship between the US and Ja- pan, the number of students interested in learning Japanese has been growing at a rapid pace. According to the results of the fall 1990 survey conducted by the Modern Language Associa- tion, 45,717 college students were studyingJapa- nese in United States institutions of higher education in 1990, representing a spectacular increase of 94.9% from 1986 when 23,454 students were registered in Japanese language courses (6). Japanese became the fifth most commonly taught language in 1990, rising from seventh position in 1986. Therefore, it is important for language educators to identify the variables that may increase or decrease retention and success in Japanese language learning. Lan- guage anxiety is one of these important variables.



156 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994) EARLY RESEARCH ON FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY

Early research on the role of anxiety in foreign language learning failed to demonstrate any clear-cut relationship between anxiety and a learner's achievement in a foreign language. For example, Chastain examined the relationships between anxiety and course grades in three language programs: French (audiolingual or regular), German, and Spanish. While there was a significant negative correlation found between course grades and test anxiety in the French audiolingual class, students in the regular French, German, and Spanish classes who experienced a higher level of anxiety were more likely to receive better grades than students with a lower level of anxiety. Backman looked at the relationship between anxiety and language progress among Venezuelan students learning English in the US. Students' progress measured by a placement test, a listening comprehension test, and teachers' ratings did not show a significant correlation with any of the anxiety measures.

In Kleinmann's 1977 study of Spanish-speaking and Arabic-speaking ESL students, facilitating anxiety was found to be correlated with students' oral production of linguistically difficult (thus challenging) English structures (e.g., in- finitive complements and passive sentences). However, there was no evidence that debilitating anxiety negatively influenced oral performance. The facilitating and debilitating effects of anxiety were also observed by Bailey through her review of students' diaries.

Young (62) conducted a study to test whether oral proficiency was negatively influenced by anxiety in three languages, i.e., French, Ger- man, and Spanish. She found some negative correlations between students' OPI (Oral Profi- ciency Interview) scores and some of the anxiety measures. However, when language ability measured by a dictation test and a self-appraisal measure of foreign language oral proficiency was controlled statistically (i.e., the variability due to language ability was removed from the relationship between anxiety and oral performance), the correlations between anxiety measures and OPI scores were nonsignificant. Such results are very predictable since language ability is likely to correlate with language achievement. When language ability is held constant as was done in Young's (62) study, there is little left in the OPI scores to covary with anxiety. How- ever, these nonsignificant correlations obtained through the above procedure cannot warrant

that anxiety is not associated with achievement, because we do not know whether the anxiety measures used in Young's study could accu- rately capture students' anxiety levels in oral production.

HORWITZ, HORWITZ, AND COPE'S CONSTRUCT OF LANGUAGE ANXIETY

Horwitz (24) and Horwitz et al. have attrib- uted the inconclusive results of previous research to the lack of a reliable and valid measure of anxiety specific to language learning. They conceptualize foreign language anxiety as "a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning processes" (25: p. 31). The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS, hereafter) was developed by Horwitz (24) in order to capture this specific anxiety reaction of a learner to a foreign language learning setting. Horwitz et al. integrated three related anxieties to their conceptualization of foreign language anxiety, i.e., communication apprehension (35), test anxiety (19; 50), and fear of negative evaluation (58).

According to McCroskey (34), communication apprehension is defined as a person's level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons. McCroskey (33) points out that typical behavior patterns of communicatively apprehensive people are communication avoidance and communication withdrawal. Com- pared to nonapprehensive people, communicatively apprehensive people are more reluctant to get involved in conversations with others and to seek social interactions. The extensive body of research in this area, summarized by Daly and Stafford and by Richmond, supports Mc- Croskey's claim. In 1985 McCroskey, Fayer, and Richmond studied the relationships between communication apprehension and self-perceived competence in Spanish and English among Spanish-speaking Puerto Rican college students who had received instruction in English. They found that students with low self-ratings of competency in English were more likely to report higher levels of English communication apprehension. On the other hand, there was no such correlation found between self-perceived competence in the native language, i.e., Span- ish and Spanish communication apprehension. Similarly, Foss and Reitzel and Lucas report that communication anxiety exists among students



Yukie Aida 157

in the ESL classroom; it seems to function as a block for students' mastery of English. It is very likely that people experience anxiety and reluc- tance in communicating with other people or in expressing themselves in a foreign language in which they do not have full competence.

The second element of foreign language anxiety, test anxiety, is defined by Sarason (51) as "the tendency to view with alarm the consequences of inadequate performance in an evaluative situation" (p. 214). Students worry about failing to perform well. Culler and Holahan and other researchers (22; 60) speculate that test anxiety may be caused by deficits in students' learning or study skills. Some students experience anxiety during a test situation because they do not know how to process or organize the course material and information. Since daily evaluations of skills in foreign language classrooms are quite common, and making mistakes is a normal phenomenon, students may suffer stress and anxiety frequently, which may pose a problem for their performance and future im- provement. Other researchers posit that test anxiety occurs when students who have performed poorly in the past develop negative, ir- relevant thoughts during evaluation situations (40; 49; 59). Test-nervous students may not be able to focus on what is going on in the classroom because they tend to divide their attention between self-awareness of their fears and worries and class activities themselves. They may say to themselves, "I'll never be able to pro- nounce it correctly," "The teacher is ready to correct me," or "Other students will laugh at me if I speak." They become distracted and anxious during class, which interferes with their performance.

Lastly, fear of negative evaluation is defined as "apprehension about others' evaluations, dis- tress over their negative evaluations, and the expectation that others would evaluate oneself negatively" (58: p. 449). Research shows that people who are highly concerned about the im- pressions others are forming of them tend to behave in ways that minimize the possibility of unfavorable evaluations. They are more likely to avoid or prematurely leave social situations in which they believe others might perceive them unfavorably (29; 57; 58; 63). When they affiliate with others, they often fail to initiate conversations or participate only minimally in the conversation, as by just smiling and politely nod- ding, or listening to others talk and only interacting with occasional "uh-huh's" (8; 30; 43; 45). When this notion of fear of negative

evaluation is applied to foreign language learners, we can easily imagine that students with fear of negative evaluation sit passively in the classroom, withdrawing from classroom activities that could otherwise enhance their im- provement of the language skills. In extreme cases, students may think of cutting class to avoid anxiety situations, causing them to be left behind. Horwitz et al. believe that these three anxieties, i.e., communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation, are important parts of foreign language anxiety and have an adverse effect on students' language learning.

Horwitz (23) reported that the FLCAS had a correlation coefficient of .28 (p = .063, n = 44) with communication apprehension (measured by McCroskey's Personal Report of Communica- tion Apprehension, 35), .53 (p < .01, n = 60) with test anxiety (measured by Sarason's Test Anxiety Scale, 51), and .36 (p < .01, n = 56) with fear of negative evaluation (measured by Wat- son and Friend's Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale). The FLCAS also correlated with final grades: r = -.49, p < .01 (n = 35) for two beginning Spanish classes and r = -.54, p < .01 (n = 32) for two beginning French classes. Higher FLCAS scores were associated with lower final grades. Price also reported in her dissertation that the FLCAS scores of 106 students of second-semester French classes were positively correlated with test anxiety (r = .58, p < .001) and public speaking anxiety (r = .43, p < .001). The FLCAS scores also correlated negatively with final grades (r = -.22, p < .05), final exam scores (r = -.29, p < .01), and oral exam scores (r = -.27, p < .05). However, when students' Modern Language Aptitude Test scores were controlled, only the correlation between the oral exam scores and the FLCAS scores re- mained significant.

The main purpose of this study was to test Horwitz et al.'s construct of foreign language anxiety by validating an adapted FLCAS for students ofJapanese. It was an exploratory study to discover the underlying structure of the FLCAS and to examine whether or not the structure reflects the three kinds of anxiety presented earlier. It also assessed the instrument's reliability and the relationship of students' anxiety levels to their performance in Japanese. It was hoped that the results of this empirical study using a non-Western language would shed new light on the concept of foreign language anxiety and would expand its scope and implications.



158 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994) METHOD

Subjects. In the fall of 1992, students who were enrolled in second-year Japanese I at the Uni- versity of Texas at Austin were asked to participate in this study. Ninety-six students (fifty-six males and forty females) completed the questionnaires designed for this study. There were more than ninety-six students enrolled in the course, but some students failed to complete the questionnaires or to pass the course. Three students did not pass the course because they failed to attend class regularly and to complete several important exams and/or assignments (e.g., lesson quizzes, essay writing, oral presen- tation). Therefore, only data obtained from these ninety-six students were used for analysis. The mean age of this sample was 21.5 years. There were sixty-four native speakers of English and thirty-two non-native speakers of English (i.e., five Spanish speakers, six Chinese, four- teen Korean, five other Asian language speakers, and two other non-Asian language speakers). When the native speakers of English and non- native speakers of English were compared on the level of anxiety (see the Procedures section for how to obtain a subject's anxiety score), a one- way ANOVA showed that there was no significant difference between the two groups: F(1, 94) = .07, p = .79, X = 96.2 for native speakers of English and X = 95.5 for non-native speakers of English). In addition, a Bartlett-Box F test for homogeneity of the variance indicated that the data of the present study satisfied the assumption of equal variances: F = 1.21, p = .27. Therefore, the two groups were treated as one sample.

Procedures. On the very first day of the fall semester 1992, subjects were asked to complete both a FLCAS and background questionnaire (see Appendix). In this study, the term "foreign language" used in the original FLCAS was replaced with "Japanese language." In re- sponding to the statements on the FLCAS, subjects were asked to consider their experiences in the previous year's first-year Japanese course. Therefore, students' FLCAS scores re- flect their anxiety in the first-year Japanese classroom. The instructions read as follows: "In this section, we would like you to respond to each of the following statements based upon your experience in your last year's Japanese course (JPN507). "

Instruments. The FLCAS contains thirty-three items, each of which is answered on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from (a) "strongly dis-

agree", to (c) "neither agree nor disagree", to (e) "strongly agree". A student's endorsement in (a) "strongly disagree" was equated with a numerical value of one; (b) "disagree" was two; (c) "neither agree nor disagree," three; (d) "agree" four; and, (e) "strongly agree" was five.

For each subject, an anxiety score was derived by summing his or her ratings of the thirty- three items. When statements of the FLCAS were negatively worded, responses were re- versed and recoded, so that in all instances, a high score represented high anxiety in theJapa- nese classroom. The theoretical range of this scale was from thirty-three to 165.

The background questionnaire included questions on the student's age, sex, ethnicity, academic major and status, native language, reasons why he or she was taking a Japanese course, whether or not he or she had been to Japan and for how long, whether or not he or she was pleased with the final course grade given for the second-semester Japanese class, and whether or not he or she had other family members who speak Japanese.

Instructors provided subjects' final course grades (in percentages) for the second-semester Japanese classes. The final course grade was se- lected primarily because it had been used as a global measure of language proficiency by many researchers (e.g., 7; 9; 18; 25; 55).

RESULTS

Reliability of the FLCAS. The present study, using ninety-six students ofJapanese, yielded in- ternal consistency of .94 (X = 96.7 and s.d. = 22.1), using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. As shown in Table I, the reliability, mean, standard deviation, and range obtained in this study were very similar to those of Horwitz (23), who used students enrolled in an introductory Spanish class. The mean of this study, 96.7, was slightly higher than that of Horwitz's (23) study, X = 94.5. It is understandable that students may feel more anxious in learning a non-Western, foreign language like Japanese (26) than in learning commonly taught Western languages such as Spanish.

There was no significant gender difference found in language anxiety: t(94) = .41, p = .69. The mean scores for males (n = 56) and females (n = 40) were 97.4 and 95.6, respectively. The results of this study suggest that the FLCAS is a reliable tool regardless of whether the language is a European Western language.

On the first day of the next semester (spring



Yukie Aida 159

TABLE I Reliabilities of The FLCAS in Two Studies

Horwitz Present study et al., 1991

Sample size 96 108 Students status first year first year Language Japanese Spanish Cronbach's alpha .94 .93 Range 47-146 45-147 Mean 96.7 94.5 Standard 22.1 21.4

deviation Test-retest r = .80, p < .01 r = .83, p <.01

reliability (n = 54; over (n = 108; over one semester) eight weeks)

1993), students who had passed second-year Japanese I and were enrolled in second-year Japanese II were asked to complete the FLCAS again. Fifty-four students (thirty-one males and twenty-three females) responded. Their two FLCAS scores were correlated to obtain test- retest reliability over one semester. The correlation between the FLCAS scores in the fall and those in the spring was .80, p < .01, n = 54, indicating that the FLCAS measures a person's level of anxiety with high accuracy at different times. This high correlation suggests that the FLCAS may tap a person's persistent trait anxiety (as called by Spielberger) in the foreign language classroom and not a temporary condi- tion of state anxiety that is triggered by a specific moment or situation.

Factor Analysis. The second analysis was performed to detect an underlying structure of the FLCAS's thirty-three items, i.e., students' ratings of the original (unreversed and unre- coded) thirty-three statements. Principal components analysis with varimax rotation was performed on the thirty-three items. Orthogo- nal rotation was used because of the conceptual simplicity and ease of description. The initial run produced seven factors with eigenvalue greater than one. In a rotated matrix, however, there were only four factors with SSLs (the sum of squared loadings, which is equal to the eigenvalue in the unrotated matrix) greater than one. Therefore, the subsequent analysis spec- ified the number of factors as four. With a factor loading of .50 (twenty-five percent of the variance) as a cutoff for inclusion of a variable in interpretation of a factor, six items (items 2, 6, 15, 19, 28, and 30, see Table II) did not load on any factor. None of the items loaded on more than one factor with a loading of .50 or greater.

Loadings of variables on factors, commu-

nalities, and percent of the variance are shown in Table III. The solution accounted for 54.5% of the total variance. Eighteen items were loaded on the first factor, accounting for 37.9% of the variance. Examples of the items included in this factor are item 3, "I tremble when I know that I'm going to be called on in my Japanese class," and item 13, "It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my Japanese class." The factor one was assigned a label of Speech Anxiety and Fear of Negative Evaluation. The items included in this factor indicate a student's apprehension in speaking in aJapanese class and fear of embarrassment in making errors in front of other students (see Table II). Two items, 8 and 18, were negatively loaded on this factor. In other words, item 8, "I am usually at ease during tests in my Japanese class," and item 18, "I feel confident when I speak in my Japanese class," are negatively associated with factor one. Unlike the speculation of previous researchers (e.g., 34; 58), speech anxiety and fear of negative evaluation may not be totally independent concepts, but rather are probably different labels describing one phenomenon in a language learning situation. In their factor analysis of various anxiety measures, MacIntyre and Gardner (37) reported that McCroskey's Personal Report of Communica- tion Apprehension measure (34) and Watson et al.'s Fear of Negative Evaluation measure loaded on the same factor. Their findings are in accordance with those of the present study.

The second factor included four items (i.e., 10, 25, 26, and 22) and accounted for 6.3% of the variance. Item 22 was negatively loaded on this factor. The author named this factor "Fear of Failing the Class" and considered that it showed a student's worry and nervousness about being left behind in the class or failing the class altogether.

Items 32, 11, and 14 comprised the third factor, accounting for 5.6% of the variance. It was labeled "Comfortableness in Speaking with Jap- anese People" by the author. In the interview with Young (61), Krashen says that foreign language learners need to think of themselves as the kind of people who speak the foreign language very well. This idea is similar to Gardner's concept of integrativeness. It is likely that indi- viduals who do not see the language as truly foreign and feel comfortable with the native speakers of the language have a lower filter of anxiety.

Lastly, two items, 5, "It wouldn't bother me at



160 The Modern Language Journal 78 (1994)

TABLE II FLCAS Items with Percentage of Students Selecting Each Alternative in Four Factors

SAa A N D SD

Factor One (Speech Anxiety and Fear of Negative Evaluation) 3d I tremble when I know that I'm going to be called on in my Japanese class.

7b 24 20 35 14 13d It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my Japanese class.

5 20 19 35 21 27 I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my Japanese class.

4 27 24 38 7 20d I can feel my heart pounding when I'm going to be called on in my Japanese class.

8 28 21 28 15 24c I feel very self-conscious about speaking Japanese in front of other students.

10 35 18 28 8 31d I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak Japanese.

3 12 13 45 28 7d I keep thinking that the other students are better at Japanese than I am.

16 28 26 22 8 12 In Japanese class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know.

12 32 17 35 4 23d I always feel that the other students speak the Japanese language better than I do.

9 26 21 34 9 18c,f I feel confident when I speak in my Japanese class.

7 27 28 32 5 33c I get nervous when the Japanese teacher asks questions which I haven't prepared in advance.

12 44 21 23 1 16 Even if I am well prepared for Japanese class, I feel anxious about it.

9 35 21 24 10 1 I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in my Japanese class.

14 28 13 34 12 21 The more I study for a Japanese test, the more confused I get.

1 6 10 43 40 29c I get nervous when I don't understand every word the Japanese teacher says.

6 27 23 37 7 4c It frightens me when I don't understand what the teacher is saying in the Japanese class.

8 48 15 21 8 8f I am usually at ease during tests in my Japanese class.

12 28 13 39 9 9c I start to panic when I have to speak without preparation in Japanese class.

14 32 23 22 9

Factor Two (Fear of Failing the Class) 10 I worry about the consequences of failing my Japanese class.

30 27 8 18 17 25 Japanese class moves so quickly I worry about getting left behind.

18 40 9 24 9 26 I feel more tense and nervous in my Japanese class than in my other classes.

23 29 12 23 14 22f I don't feel pressure to prepare very well for my language class.

27 45 12 13 3

Factor Three (Comfortableness in Speaking with Native Japanese) 32 I would probably feel comfortable around native speakers of Japanese.

5 26 42 19 8 11 I don't understand why some people get so upset over Japanese classes.

6 35 33 21 4 14 I would not be nervous speaking the Japanese language with native speakers.

10 47 19 17 7

Factor Four (Negative Attitudes Toward the Japanese Class) 5f It wouldn't bother me at all to take more Japanese language classes.

1 5 14 35 45



Yukie Aida 161

SAa A N D SD

17 I often feel like not going to my Japanese class. 2 15 11 47 25

Items Not Included in the Factor Solution 2e I don't worry about making mistakes in my Japanese class.

16 47 12 19 7 6e During Japanese class, I find myself thinking about things that have nothing to do with the

course. 3 12 21 43 22

15 I get upset when I don't understand what the teacher is correcting. 4 39 29 26 2

19e I am afraid that my Japanese teacher is ready to correct every mistake I make. 3 12 26 48 12

28 When I'm on my way to Japanese class, I feel very sure and relaxed. 3 19 41 29 8

30 I feel overwhelmed by the number of rules you have to learn to speak Japanese. 5 35 22 29 8

aSA = strongly agree; A = agree; N = neither agree or disagree; D = disagree; SD = strongly disagree. bPercentages in this table are rounded to the nearest whole number, thus may not add up to 100. cItems that are classified by Horwitz et al. (25) as ones indicative of speech anxiety. dItems that are classified by Horwitz et al. (25) as ones indicative of fear of negative evaluation. eltems that are classified by Horwitz et al. (25) as ones indicative of test anxiety. fltems that were negatively loaded on the factors.

TABLE III Factor Loadings, Communalities (h2), Percents of Variance for Four-Factor Principal Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation on FLCAS Items.

Label Speech Fear of Comfort- Negative Anxiety Failing ableness Attitudes

with JPN Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 h2

Item 3 .77 .69 Item 13 .76 .61 Item 27 .75 .73 Item 20 .73 .67 Item 24 .73 .66 Item 31 .71 .53 Item 7 .71 .60 Item 12 .69 .58 Item 23 .69 .57 Item 18 -.67 .70 Item 33 .60 .42 Item 16 .60 .59 Item 1 .58 .60 Item 21 .58 .53 Item 29 .57 .54 Item 4 .56 .62

Label Speech Fear of Comfort- Negative Anxiety Failing ableness Attitudes

with JPN Item Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4 h2

Item 8 -.56 .48 Item 9 .54 .49 Item 10 .72 .54 Item 25 .53 .60 Item 26 .51 .56 Item 22 -.51 .46 Item 32 .74 .62 Item 11 .60 .41 Item 14 .59 .45 Item 5 -.77 .65 Item 17 .73 .59

% of variance 37.9 6.3 5.6 4.7

% of total variance accounted for by the solution 54.5

all to take more Japanese language classes," and 17, "I often feel like not going to my Japa- nese class," constituted the fourth factor. Item 5 was negatively loaded on this factor. This factor explained 4.7% of the variance and was called "Negative Attitudes Toward the Japanese Class."

In their review of the literature in regard to anxiety and language learning, MacIntyre and Gardner (38) postulated that language anxiety develops as a result of negative experiences the student may have had in an earlier stage of learning a new language. The present analysis




supports their hypothesis. Students' negative attitudes toward the language class can contribute to their overall levels of foreign language anxiety.

The factor solution of the present study provided partial support for Horwitz et al.'s construct of foreign language anxiety. It has shown evidence that speech anxiety and fear of negative evaluation are indeed important components of foreign language anxiety. Yet the present study did not support Horwitz et al.'s claim that test anxiety is the third component of foreign language anxiety. Items 2, 6, and 19 which were considered by Horwitz et al. to be indicative of test anxiety, failed to load on any of the factors. In addition, eighty-three percent of the students rejected statement 21, "The more I study for a Japanese test, the more confused I get." The subjects of the present study seem to be less intimidated by the Japanese tests. These findings are congruent with the results obtained by MacIntyre and Gardner (39), who found that test anxiety did not contribute to the communicative anxiety of the language classroom. They concluded that test anxiety was a general anxiety problem; it was not specific to foreign language learning. Based on these findings, it appears clear that test anxiety is not con- ceptually related to other components of foreign language anxiety as Horwitz et al. proposed, and that items reflective of test anxiety could be eliminated from the FLCAS. Speech anxiety and fear of negative evaluation are considered as relatively enduring personality traits (41), whereas test anxiety is regarded as a state marked by temporary reactions (e.g., worry and nervousness) to an academic or evaluation situation (51). This distinction might also partially explain the results of this factor analysis. The present study suggests that other factors such as a student's fear of failing the class, comfortableness in speaking with native speakers of the language, and negative attitudes toward the language class influence the level of anxiety in the foreign language classroom.

The results show that a fair amount of anxiety exists in the Japanese classroom. A third or more of the students in the sample showed anxiety agreement with items reflective of foreign language anxiety. There were six items (4, 5, 10, 25, 26, and 33) that were endorsed by over half of the students. Eighty percent of the students disagreed or strongly disagreed with statement 5, "It wouldn't bother me at all to take more Japa- nese language classes." This suggests that students may be less likely to take a Japanese class

beyond the required classes and that the attrition rate might be high at a transition point from a lower division class to an upper division class'.

The Relationship between Anxiety and Perfor- mance. In the subsequent analysis, the relationship between foreign language anxiety and students' performance was investigated. First, the correlation coefficient between anxiety and course grade was calculated with a Pearson product-moment correlation. It produced a moderate negative correlation (r = -.38, p < .01) indicating that the higher the students' levels of anxiety, the more likely they are to receive low grades. For the second analysis, each student was classified into either a high anxiety group or a low anxiety group by a median split procedure, based upon his or her total score on the FLCAS. The median score of anxiety for this sample was ninety-five. A two by two ANOVA was conducted using anxiety (high vs. low) and gender (males vs. females) as the independent variables and final course grade as the dependent variable. There was a significant main effect of anxiety: F(1, 92) = 7.35, p < .01 (see Table IV). The high anxiety group received significantly lower grades (X = 85.6) than the low anxiety group (X = 89.8). While students having a high anxiety level were more likely to receive a grade of B or lower, those with a low level of anxiety were more likely to get an A.

It was also found that there was a significant effect of gender on course grade: F(1, 92) = 4.74, p < .05. Female students scored higher (X = 89.7) than did males (X = 86.1)2. There was no significant anxiety-gender interaction effect on course grade: F(1, 92) = 3.20, p > .05. In both male and female groups, highly anxious students were more likely to receive lower grades than students having a low level of anxiety.

TABLE IV Anxiety by Sex ANOVA Results on Achievement (N = 96)

Sum of Mean Sig. Source Squares df Squares F of F

Main Effects Anxiety 376.6 1 376.6 7.35 .008 Sex 243.1 1 243.1 4.74 .032

Interaction Anxiety

by sex 164.1 1 164.1 3.20 .077

Residual 4715.2 92 51.3 Total 5551.0 95 58.4



Yukie Aida 163

Association Between Anxiety and Demographic Data. A series of one-way ANOVAs were conducted to investigate the relationship between language anxiety and students' demographic data.

Elective vs. Required Status. Students were classified into one of three groups: 1) Required Group, including forty-one students who were taking the Japanese class to satisfy the university's language requirement, 2) Elective Group, including forty-four students who were taking the Japanese class for personal interest or enjoy- ment, and 3) Major Group, including eleven students who are majoring in Japanese or in Asian Studies with specialization in Japanese. An ANOVA result shows that there were no differences in anxiety among the three groups: F(2, 93) = 2.64, p > .05. However, when the Ma- jor Group was removed from the analysis and the Required Group was compared with the Elective Group in the anxiety level, an ANOVA yielded a significant difference: F(1, 83) = 5.5, p < .05. The Required Group had a significantly higher level of anxiety (X = 99.6) than the Elec- tive Group (X = 93.1).

Experience in Japan. Comparison in the anxiety level was made between students who had been to Japan (n = 36) and those who had never been to Japan (n = 60). The result of a one-way ANOVA was significant: F(1, 94) = 4.0, p < .05. Those with experience in Japan showed a significantly lower level of anxiety in the classroom (X = 92.5) than those who had not been to Japan (X = 98.1). Exposure to culture and people in Japan may be a factor for this group difference.

Family Who Speaks Japanese. There were twenty- four students who had a family member with a command of Japanese. The anxiety levels of these students were compared with the anxiety levels of students whose family members did not speak Japanese (n = 72). There was no anxiety difference found between the two groups: F(1, 94) = .1, p = .77. The presence of a family member who speaks Japanese does not seem to be related to the individual's level of anxiety in the Japanese classroom.

Satisfaction with Grade in Japanese. Sixty-nine students indicated that they were pleased with the grade they received for the second semester of first-year Japanese. Twenty-seven students said that they were not pleased. A comparison of the anxiety levels of these two groups re- vealed a significant difference: F(1, 94) = 12.7, p < .01. Satisfied students exhibited a much lower level of anxiety (X = 93.1) than non- satisfied students (X = 103.4). It appears that

students who are feeling good about their grades are likely to experience lower anxiety than those who are not happy with their grades.

DISCUSSION

The adapted Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale was found to be a highly reliable instrument to measure the anxiety level of students learning Japanese in a college setting typ- ified by the University of Texas at Austin. Fac- tors that had an impact on students' anxiety in learning Japanese were speech anxiety and fear of negative evaluation, fear of failing the Japa- nese class, degree of comfort when speaking with native speakers of Japanese, and negative attitudes toward the Japanese class. In the present sample of students ofJapanese, test anxiety was not a factor contributing to students' foreign language anxiety. The factors that were found important in this study for explaining the construct of foreign language anxiety appear to support views of language anxiety proposed by scholars such as MacIntyre and Gardner (38) and Krashen and Terrell (cited in 61).

Consistent with research findings using West- ern languages like French, German, and Span- ish (e.g., 25; 32; 47; 55), language anxiety was found to be negatively related to students' performance in Japanese. A recent article by Gardner and MacIntyre reports that "the best single correlate of achievement is Language Anxiety" (p. 183). The author intends to examine in a future study whether the Gardner and MacIntyre statement stands true for the sample of students studying Japanese. The present study used final course grades as the dependent variable to examine the relationship between anxiety and language achievement. Since the FLCAS appears to measure anxiety primarily related to speaking situations, use of a specific measure of oral skills may yield more profound relationships between language anxiety and achievement.

Although the present study was successful in producing partial support for the findings of previous research studies using Western languages, certain limitations of this study need to be considered. First of all, the subjects were only those who had completed two semesters of Japanese. A study using students with a longer history ofJapanese language learning may produce different results. In their 1991 article, Mac- Intyre and Gardner (38) cited the results of several studies, indicating that as "experience and proficiency increase, anxiety declines in a fairly




consistent manner" (p. 111). Therefore, anxiety may play a different role in foreign language learning for advanced students.

Secondly, subjects of this study were asked to recall their experiences in the first-year Japa- nese classes and to indicate their feelings about those classes. There was a three month gap between the time when they completed the first- year course (spring 1992) and the time of their anxiety assessment (fall 1992). For some students, the strong anxiety reactions they had experienced in the first-year class may have been lessened by fall 1992. Therefore, the accuracy of their recall of their anxiety experience cannot be completely guaranteed.

Thirdly, readers should interpret the results of the factor analysis, keeping the following lim- itation in mind. The size of the variances for factors, two, three, and four was very small (6.3%, 5.6%, 4.7%, respectively), compared to that of factor one, speech anxiety and fear of evaluation (37.9%). This suggests the possibility that there was actually no more than one mean- ingful factor in the present data. This study did not perform a data transformation to reduce potential skewness in distributions of the items. If there were some items with skewed distributions, the results could have been different.

Lastly, readers should note that due to the correlational nature of this study, the results of the ANOVA do not prove that a cause-effect relationship exists between anxiety and achievement in Japanese. It is possible that some uni- dentified variables caused high anxiety and low achievement among students of Japanese. For example, a student's help-seeking behavior may influence both anxiety and achievement. Stu- dents who are not comfortable in seeking help from their instructors or teaching assistants may experience a high level of anxiety in the classroom; and their failure to seek help may, in turn, result in lower levels of achievement.

The findings of the present study and those of other language researchers suggest the important role of teachers in lessening classroom tension and in creating a friendly, supportive atmosphere that can help reduce students' fear of embarrassment of making errors in front of peers. Students will appreciate and learn more from teachers who are able to identify students experiencing foreign language anxiety and take proper measures to help them overcome that anxiety. In 1990, Appleby reported that students are most irritated by teachers who are un- empathetic with their needs and who are poor communicators. Being responsive to the stu-

dents' needs, language teachers can make it possible for anxious students to maximize their language learning by building a nonthreaten- ing and positive learning environment, as well as by helping them acquire effective study and learning strategies.

However, foreign language anxiety may not be alleviated simply through certain teaching methodologies. Comeau points out in her thesis that the Natural Approach (54) which is designed to lessen anxiety in the classroom has not been proven successful in achieving this goal. In the study done by Koch and Terrell in 1991 (cited by Comeau), sixty percent of their subjects with previous classroom language study indicated that they felt more anxious or equally anxious under the Natural Approach than under other methods. In her own study, Comeau compared the anxiety levels of two groups of Spanish students: one hundred students attending a school that uses the Natural Approach and 116 students attending a school that uses an eclectic/proficiency-based approach. There was no significant difference in the level of anxiety between students in the two schools, indicating no special advantage of the Natural Approach over other methods in reduc- ing the anxiety levels of students. She suggested that anxiety interacts with learner variables such as students' expectation of grades and their own perception of language ability rather than with methodology itself.

Therefore, future research should look into potential interactions between anxiety and other student characteristics such as learners' beliefs about their own language ability, self- esteem, help-seeking behaviors, and knowledge and use of language learning strategies. Anx- ious students may be anxious in the classroom because they may not know how to ask questions to clarify their assignments or how to organize and process information to enhance their understanding of the material. Some students may need assistance from the instructor, but do not ask for help because they might view help-seeking as a manifestation of weakness, immaturity, or even incompetence. They might feel lost in the language classroom and anxious about the teacher discovering their problem.

It is also possible that anxious students may be able to handle anxiety-provoking situations if they possess high self-esteem. Greenberg and his colleagues (20; 21) proposed a terror management theory, which posits that "people are motivated to maintain a positive self-image because self-esteem protects them from anxiety"



Yukie Aida 165

(21: p. 913). According to this theory, people who are high in self-esteem are likely to be less anxious; and threats to self-esteem cause anxiety. Horwitz et al. noted that foreign language learning could pose a threat to learners' self- esteem because it deprives the learners of their normal means of communication (since making errors are common in the language classroom) and thus of the ability to behave fully as normal people. Then, people with a sure sense of self-worth could manage more effectively the threats caused by the language learning environment than those with low self-esteem. In a study using a small group (n = 57) of students of Japanese, Aida, Allemand, and Kawashima found that students with high anxiety and high self-competence received slightly higher final course grades (X = 83.0) and oral skills scores (X = 88.7) than did students with high anxiety and low self-competence (X = 79.6 for course grade and X = 86.0 for oral scores), although the differences were not statistically significant. Among students with high anxiety, those with high self-esteem might be handling their anxiety better than those with low self-esteem, re- sulting in their higher scores on both course grades and oral skills grades. Future research employing a larger number of subjects may be able to produce a clearer pattern of the relationship between self-esteem and anxiety.

This study focused on issues pertaining to anxiety in Japanese language learning. Since the research area of foreign language anxiety is still young, future investigators have much to explore. The studies examining the relationship between anxiety and the learner characteristics mentioned above will help us increase our understanding of language learning from the learner's perspective and provide a wider range of insights.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Elaine Horwitz, who read an earlier version of this manuscript and provided me with valuable sugges- tions, and to Carolyn Allemand, Hana Kawashima, and Lin Yan Chan, who assisted me in data coding and library research. Preparation of this paper was partially supported by a grant from the Northeast Asia Council of the Association for Asian Studies.

Requests for reprints should be sent to Yukie Aida, Department of Oriental and African Languages and Literatures, the University of Texas at Austin, 2601 University Avenue, Austin, TX 78712.

NOTES

'The author does not imply that the potentially high attrition rate is due solely to language anxiety. It could be influenced by other factors. Seniors would not likely delay their graduation by taking additional Japanese classes. Many juniors and seniors have to take their major courses and may not have room for an extra Japanese course. Some students may be interested in learning Japanese art, culture, or history but not necessarily the language.

2 A possible explanation for this gender difference in achievement may be the use of different language learning strategies by men and women. In their study involving 1200 college students, Oxford and Nyikos found that females reported more frequent use than males of three of the five learning strategies studied: formal rule-related practice strategies, general study strategies, and conversational input elicitation strategies. On the other hand, males reported no more frequent use than females on any of the five strategy categories. Similar gender differences in the use of learning strategies were found in Ehrman and Ox- ford's study using seventy-eight sophisticated language learners as their subjects (e.g., Foreign Service Officers, military officers, professional language trainers, and language instructors). Therefore, it is possible that females in the present study might have used more language learning strategies than males as did the females in the studies by Oxford and her colleagues. Greater use of learning strategies may have positively influenced achievement levels for the female students in Japanese courses.

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APPENDIX

BACKGROUND QUESTIONNAIRE (please print)

Your Last Name First Name

Home phone number Work phone number

age sex single married children (ages)

ETHNICITY: Circle one. 1 White (not Hispanic) 2 Black (not Hispanic) 3 Hispanic 4 American Indian or 5 Asian or Pacific Alaskan Native

Islander (include 6 Other Specify Asian Americans)

What year are you in? 1 Freshman 2 Sophomore 3 Junior 4 Senior 5 Graduate 6 other Specify

Double major? 1 YES 2 NO If yes, please list your majors / If no, give the name of your single major

Are you taking this course to satisfy the university's foreign language requirement?

1 YES 2 NO 3 My major (Asian Studies or Japanese)

Other reasons:

What is your native language?

Are any of your family members of Japanese heritage?

1 YES 2 NO If yes, who?

Do any of your family members speak Japanese? 1 YES 2 NO If yes, who?

Have you been to Japan? 1 YES 2 NO If yes, how long in total? (Include every occasion when you were in Japan.)

How many Japanese people do you know personally? How many of them do you consider as your close friends? How well do you expect to do in this class? (Place a check on the line.) Very Very well . ...- poorly

Errata

THE MLJ APOLOGIZES FOR MISSPELLING PROFESSORJAVORSKY'S NAME ON HIS ARTICLE in the last issue. The correct spelling appears in the citation below.

Ganschow, Leonore, Richard L. Sparks, Reed Anderson,JamesJavorsky, Sue Skinner &Jon Patton, "Differences in Language Performance among High-, Average-, and Low-Anxious College Foreign Language Teachers." MLJ78,1 (1994): 41-55.

We would also like to correct the authors of the citation number 51 (page 54). The correct authors are Sparks, Richard and Leonore Ganschow.

We thank Leonore Ganschow for bringing these errors to our attention.



Documents

Yukie Aida- Examination of Horwitz, Copes Construct of Fl Anxiety, Case of Students of Japanese