Developed withDairy Training Centre

Training Package for Dairy Extension workers

Young Stock Management

August, 2017

2

Part I Training manualPart II Training Guideline

Young Stock Management

I

Preface

SNV Ethiopia, through EDGET project (Enhancing Dairy Sector Growth in Ethiopia, 2013-2018), engages in the capacity building, extension services and innovative support to the Ethiopian dairy sector particularly working with smallholder dairy farmers. The aim of the project is to increase milk production and productivity in order to double the income of the smallholder dairy farmers. EDGET is operational in the regions Oromia, Amhara and SNNP, and working with 65,000 dairy farming households.

The project works closely together with livestock regional bureaus and their respective zonal, woreda and kebele staff in delivering extension and other supports. One area of collaboration is the development of practical training and coaching tools and materials for extension workers based on a need assessment.

SNV has engaged the Netherlands based Dairy Training Centre (DTC) for the development of the Training package for extension workers. The documents were more elaborated and validated with the utmost contribution of high level experts from regional Livestock and Fisheries resources Development Bureaus/Agencies and Research Centers from the three operational regions of EDGET.

Overall nine training packages were developed on Breed Improvement and Fertility Management; Dairy Cattle Feeding and Nutrition Management; Dairy Cattle Health Management; Dairy Farm Management; Dairy Housing and Manure Management; Farm Economics; Forage Production and Management; Hygienic and Quality Milk Production; Young Stock Management.

This training package is on Young Stock Management.

SNV, also on behalf of the experts that contributed and DTC, would hope to see the materials widely used outside the project areas by all interested dairy development practitioners. The materials will be available in hard copies and soft copies including on SNV website www.snvworld.org and other relevant websites.

II

ContentsPreface ...................................................................................................... I

List of tables ............................................................................................ IIIList of figures ............................................................................................. IVI. Young stock training Manual ................................................................... 11. Introduction ............................................................................................ 12. Pregnant cow management ...................................................................... 23. Calf Management .................................................................................... 43.1 Calf Feeding ............................................................................................ 53.1.1 Colostrum feeding .................................................................................. 53.1.2 Milk Feeding ....................................................................................... 63.1.3 Calf starter ......................................................................................... 83.1.4 Roughage ............................................................................................ 83.1.5 Water .............................................................................................. 83.2 Calf feeding schedule ............................................................................... 83.3 Calf weaning ........................................................................................... 103.4 Calf Housing .......................................................................................... 104. Heifer Management ............................................................................... 144.1 Heifer feed and Feeding .......................................................................... 144.2 Body Condition Score (BCS) ..................................................................... 164.3 Heat detection ........................................................................................ 174.4 Steaming up breeding heifer .................................................................... 184.5 Heifer housing ........................................................................................ 194.6 Dairy heifers management to reduce stress ................................................ 205. Common young stock diseases and health management ........................ 215.1 Common young stock diseases ................................................................ 215.2 Health management ............................................................................ 24References ................................................................................................ 25Annex ....................................................................................................... 26II. Young Stock Management Training Guideline ...................................... 28A. Module Book - Rearing dairy replacement heifers .................................. 29B. Calf rearing Lesson matrices and trainer guidelines ............................... 32C. Calf Rearing: ........................................................................................ 42D. Assignment Calf rearing ........................................................................ 48E. Assessment: ......................................................................................... 50

III

List of tablesTable 1 Feeding schedule for calves .................................................................... 8Table 2 Developmental stages of calves ............................................................. 9Table 3 Relation between girth and body weight .................................................. 14Table 4 Desired and reasonable body condition scores of dairy cows .................... 17Table 5 Expected weight at age at different stages of heifers growth development .... 18Table 6 Space required for loose and conventional housing system ......................... 19Table 7 Feeding Space required for mature, calves and yearlings ........................... 19

List of figures

Figure 1 Pre-calving signs .................................................................................... 2Figure 2 Delivery signs ...................................................................................... 2Figure 3 Normal birth position ............................................................................. 3Figure 4 Support difficulties during calving ......................................................... 3Figure 5 Cow licking her calf ................................................................................ 4Figure 6 Calf on suckling ...................................................................................... 6Figure 7 Bucket feeding ...................................................................................... 7Figure 8 Type of calf pen ...................................................................................... 10Figure 9 Calf pen .............................................................................................. 11Figure 10 Heart girth measurement ..................................................................... 13Figure 11 Heart girth and height measurement .................................................. 14Figure 12 Body Condition Score ........................................................................... 17

IV

I. Young stock training Manual

1. Introduction

Calf is the foundation stock of the future dairy herd which signifies the importance of proper calf rearing. Selection of replacements for culled cows can only be effective if good replacement heifers are available in the farm stock. A good management programme will result improving calf mortality, age at first insemination, age at first calving and calving interval.

Raising dairy heifers begins with choice of a bull likely to produce animals with high genetic potential for milk. A well managed dairy farm should have as many calves born every year as there are cows in the herd. Most farmers sell male calves at an early age while the females are reared as dairy replacement heifers. Rearing a high number of replacement heifers brings a dairy farmer to: obtain the best replacement heifers through strict selection criteria from wide selection, expand the dairy herd at low cost (without buying heifers or cows), and sell excess heifers to earn income.

Poor calf rearing allows future profits to slip away, something that is not always easy to believe because present profit must be sacrificed (invested) to harvest the full future profit. Following a few basic, but very important steps, will help ensure that every calf matures into a profit-generating cow.

As a business man when look in terms of economic points of view, rearing heifers is a financial investment that begins to bring dividends after the first calving; therefore the goal should be to make ensure proper growth rate at minimum costs incurred to be inseminated on time in order to realize full production and productivity potential later in life.

2. Pregnant cow management

Pregnant cow management is important for successive calving and this achieved by proper management such as: feeding the cow with high quality and balanced ration, appropriate health management and housing system (refer Feed and nutrition management, and Dairy cattle housing and manure management manuals). When say calf management it begins before birth at last stage of pregnancy (one-two weeks before the calf is born). At this stage the pregnant cow is transferred to a maternity paddock and the paddock should be near the homestead (for closer observation), well ventilated and provided good quality feed and watered.

Separation and hygiene measures

• One - two weeks before the expected date of calving the in-calved cow may be shifted to the individual calving pen or maternity house

• The maternity house/calving pen should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before moving in the cow/ in-calf-heifer

• Keep the cow/in-calf heifer separate from the herd in a clean place (that is not slippery) on a clean bedding (the maternity pen)

• Maintain fresh bedding or cow mat

• Allow the cow to show natural behaviour as much as possible1

Cow handling around calving

· Dry off the cow nearer the parturition 60 days before the expected calving date, so that she will be able to recoup and get ready for the next lactation, so stop milking forthwith.

· The probable dates of parturition can be known if the date of insemination accurately recorded

· On average, the calf is born at 280 days with 7 days differnce after the conception/last insemination.

· Steaming up (start feeding some concentrates) the cow about 3 weeks before the expected calving date. Proper, highly palatable, feed is most important in this stage to help the cow to make a good start of the lactation and give a strong calf.

Figure 1 Pre-calving signs

Parturition Signs

• Relaxation of the pelvic structure and the cervix

• The animal will be restless• Trying to kick or search the flank region• The udder starts to develop about a week to

ten days before parturition• For heifers calving for the first time this

period is longer• The vulva swells, and discharge of mucus is

normal in this stage • Short before calving down there is change

(relaxation) of ligaments at both sides of the tail

• When the udder runs full and the tail is ‘loose’ the moment is near!

Figure 2 Delivery signs

2

3

Calf birth position

• A normal birth takes some (up to 8) hours; normal progress should be seen

• Signs of starting birth: ‘tail-of’, separation from the group, restless

• Contractions of the uterus open the birth way

• The water bladder will break (not always seen)

• Next a bladder becomes visible containing the front leg hoofs.

Figure 3 Normal birth position

• Check that the legs are in the right position and not bent

• This bladder will also break, and in normal progress you will see the nose of the calf coming out

• When you see the eyes of the calf coming out during a contraction it is safe to assist and speed up the birth process

• There will be relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and muscles with raising of tail head and dropping of the quarters

• The mammary glands develops fully and there will be some secretion

Figure 4 Support difficulties during calving

Calving

Most of the cows can give birth without giving any support. The farmer should Observe the cow regularly (every 30 minutes) during the calving process! Also at night!!. If the cow needs support during calving the farmer should consult the expert and should understand the important of proper hygiene and make sure that all the necessary materials are available such as: Water, Soap, Ropes, gloves and Sticks etc.

4

3. Calf Management

A sound and well managed should start:

• After the calf is born, ensure that calf is breathing

• If breathing is not commence, the calf should be assisted (remove mucus from nostrils and if breathing does not start hold calf by hind legs upside down and swing several times)

• Remove all pieces of the placenta, especially from the nose and mouth

• The umbilical cord should be disinfected using disinfectant such as 7% iodine solution or copper sulphate solution

• Put the calf in front of the cow

• Bring the calf to the calf pen

As soon as the calf is born, allow the cow to lick it as the rough action of the tongue will stimulate blood circulation in the calf and also make the cow’s contraction of the uterus due to the release of oxytocin. However, if she refuses to do so it is important to assist by removing the mucus from the nostrils of the new-born and wipe it dry with a clean towel or clothes. Sometimes the respiratory passage may be blocked by the mucus which may lead to difficulty in breathing. Figure 5 Cow licking her calf

The nasal passage can be cleared by one of the following methods:

• Hold the new-born from the hock and hang it head down to allow the mucus flow off.

• Take a twig of hay or grass and tickle its nostrils. The new-born calf will sneeze violently and expel the mucus.

If the above methods fail artificial respiration is needed to safe the calf.

If the calf is unable to suckle, it should be assisted and be allowed to suckle colostrum from the dam during the first week.

If the calf is taken away from the cow immediately after calving, proper care should be taken.

• Check that the calf is put in a warm, clean and properly dried place

� The environment is very important, particularly for young calves, because during the first 3 weeks until they adapt to the new environment. During this period low resistance may expose them easily to infectious diseases such as diarrhoea, pneumonia etc.

• Be sure that the calf gets colostrum from a clean bucket as soon as possible after delivery but within half an hour.

5

• The vital antibodies in the colostrum can only be absorbed by the calf during the first 24 hours of life.

• These anti bodies protect the calf against infectious diseases

• Colostrum is also nutritious and encourages the first passing of faeces.

The digestive system of the new born calf is not well developed and milk feeding of the calf because milk is easy for digestion. The maximum amount of milk given to calf is about 10% of its live weight each day with the frequency of twice a day. This helps gradual motivation of the calf to eat hay, concentrate and water is important for the development of their digestive system. For colostrum, a minimum of 1,5 litres of high quality colostrum, three times in the first 24 hours, results in much antibodies and in a healthy start of life!

3.1 Calf Feeding

3.1.1 Colostrum feeding

Calves must be fed colostrum directly after being born! should be allowed to suckle colostrum from their dams and it can help to transfer antibodies from dam to calf. These antibodies will be absorbed by the calf to forming a ready-made antibody resistance system for the calf against all disease. This will protect the calf against disease in early stages, until their own anti body developing system takes place.

Hence, colostrum is different from normal milk due to:

• Antibodies, which help protect the calf against certain diseases and very rich in nutrients and easily digested,

• Higher protein and energy content than normal milk,

• Higher levels of vitamins and minerals and

• Laxative effect that assists the calf to pass its first feaces (meconium).

Despite all that has been written about the importance of colostrum, it is evident that poor quality and inadequate quantities are being fed in many cases. Colostrum has a vital role in supplying antibodies that give the calf’s immunity against diseases until its own immune system is active. Equally important, however, is a nutritional role of colostrum. It contains a high concentration of many nutrients that are essential to starting digestive process in the intestine.

As a general rule should have fed at least 10% of their body weight as colostrum in its first 24 hours of life, ideally half of this within 6-12 hours of birth.

6

Artificial colostrum

The dam either died immediately after giving birth or not giving colostrum the farm owner should prepared artificial colostrum and feed to the calf three times a day for four consecutive days.

Artificial colostrum does not supply the antibodies but is a good source of nutrients for new born calf and serves as source of antibodies. Artificial colostrum can be prepared from a combination of:

1 egg (protein source) 0.3 litre fresh warm water 1/2 litre whole milk (source of lactose and milk protein) 1/2 teaspoonful cooking oil (energy).

3.1.2 Milk Feeding

A. Suckling

The calf is separated from the cow but during milking it is brought to suckle. The amount of milk the calf consumes is difficult to quantify. Some farmers will allow the calf to suckle one quarter. This method is rarely used in commercial dairies and also if the calf is not present, then the cow may not let down all the milk.

It is best practise in terms of hygiene (as the calf gets clean milk at body temperature). A rule of thumb the calf should be suckling for 2 minutes before milking and 10-15 minutes after milking. Figure 6 Calf on suckling

Advantages of suckling

üSimpler system to manage

üMilk is at the correct temperature (body temperature)

üMilk is clean; there is no chance of contamination through poor handling or from unclean equipment

üCalf is unlikely to get scours

üNo investment required for feeding equipment

üNo labour is required for feeding the calf

üFor zebu cows, the calf suckling stimulates milk let down; without a calf being present the cow cannot be milked

üLower mortality rate

7

Disadvantage of suckling

ü Cow may not let down all milk when calf is not present

ü Difficult to know milk yield

B. Bucket feeding

It is the most commonly used method in commercial dairy farm and the milk is placed into a bucket. The calf trained to drink by placing finger in the milk (bucket). As the calf suckles your finger gently lower its mouth into the colostrum/milk in the bucket then slowly remove the fingers. The calf will start drinking milk from the bucket. Stainless steel buckets, where available, should be used for hygienic reasons as plastic buckets are difficult to clean. Whatever method is used, clean equipment should be used at all times. Sick calves should always be fed last to minimize cross contamination. Attempts should be made to feed milk at body temperature especially during the cold season.

Figure 7 Bucket feeding

When bucket feeding of calves care should be taken:

• Feeding excess milk to the calf can cause scouring. If scouring occurs, reduce the amount of milk and feed water separately. Wait with feeding water for at least one hour after feeding milk

• Give the calf its milk immediately after milking when the milk is at body temperature or heat the milk to body temperature. Heating up can be done by “bain marie” method - bucket with milk in a bucket with heated water to exchange heat. NEVER MIX WATER AND MILK.

• Observe strict cleanliness and hygiene to prevent scouring and other disease problems

• From the second week, provide the calf with clean drinking water at all times. Never mix milk with water!

• From the second week start introducing small amounts of solid feeds, such as dairy meal (or ideally calf feeds) and good quality hay. Feed young calves a total diet of about 20% CP. Refresh the solids every feeding.

• If the solids do not contain (sufficient) minerals, hang a mineral lick where the calf can get the minerals it needs.

8

3.1.3 Calf starter

The starter contains slightly higher fibre content than does the pre-starter, a highly digestible, highly palatable feed specifically formulated as the first dry feed to allow early intake. At this stage the calf is consuming little milk and its rumen is still not fully developed. The starter should contain 18% crude protein, low fibre, 0.7% calcium, 0.45% phosphorus and vitamins A, D and E. The calf shoud be fed 2-3 kg of concentrate in the first one or one and a half year. Feeding sufficient concentrates will allow the calf to reach the desired growth to calf down before 30 month.

3.1.4 Roughage

Introducing roughage and concentrates at an early age in the diets of calves will help the rumen to establish micro-flora and development of the rumen, resulting in an early ability to digest coarse fodders and starchy foods. In this, concentrates are the most important investment in calf rearing. Calves should be offered only high quality forages in early life and supplemented with concentrates (calf starter). If hay is used, it should be of high quality, fine texture, mixed with legumes and fed ad libitum. If they are on pasture, it would be best to always graze calves ahead of adults to control parasites.

3.1.5 Water

Water is critical for calf’s rumen development and health. The calf’s body is 72% water. In hot weather calves can die without water. Drinking water encourages the calf to eat dry feed early. Feeding milk or milk replacer is not a substitute for water. Calves should be offered fresh clean and of good quality water in addition to milk. Lack of drinking water slows down digestion and development of the rumen. Between three weeks and weaning, calves’ water consumption usually increases and therefore, it should be available free choice at all time.

3.2 Calf feeding schedule

Calf feeding schedule is a critical concern on calf management and there are different schedules of feeding calves (Table 1). When skimmed milk feeding is introduced, an energy-rich concentrate mixture will be given. Besides these, the calves will start on good legume hay or early cut green fodder from 2nd weeks onwards. This will stimulate rumen development and establishments of proper rumen micro-organisms. The calf to adapt to cheaper roughage feeding at an early stage (Refer Feed and nutrition management manual for detail information). During 2nd week to one month calves should be fed milk at approximately 10% of their body weight. Milk can be mixed with other dairy products (skimmed milk).

Table 1 Feeding schedule for calvesAge of calf Milk kg/day Concentrate (kg) Roughage + clean

water1 to 4 days Colostrum For the 1st two weeks 2-3 Handful Free choice From 3 weeks to 8 weeks 3-4 0.2 Free choice From 9 weeks to 10 weeks 3 0.25 Free choice From 11 weeks to 12 weeks 2 0.5 Free choice From 13 weeks to 16 weeks 1 0.5 Free choice Wean the calf 2-3 Free choice

Source: HARC, 2016

9

The primary concern in rearing the new-born calf is to ensure it remains healthy. Feeding management should also be directed at addressing nutrient requirements and encouraging rumen development. The aim of designing a calf feeding schedule is to reduce mortality rate while maintaining a growth rate of about 270-300g/day and switch young calves to cheaper feeds as early as possible.

Table 2 Developmental stages of calvesPhase of Calf feeding Program Types of feed offered

Colostrum Phase (1 - 4 days) Colostrum

Pre ruminant phase (5 days to 20 – 30 days) Milk

Transition stage (Liquid and dry feed) Milk replacer and calf starter

Post weaning stage (dry feeds) Calf starterSource:KMoA,2012

After the first week during which the calf is left with the dam, there are four feeding phases can be used for feeding depending on ease and convenience. This feeding phase should aim to switch young calves to cheaper feeds as early as possible so that the milk can be available for sale.

The calf has low immunity at birth and therefore must be given colostrum. The colostrum has antibodies that protect the calf against diseases the cow has been exposed to and their absorption is highest within 12 hrs after birth and very low after 24 hr. As such the calf must suckle colostrum immediately after birth and if necessary it should be given using a nipple bottle. The calf depends on the colostrum antibodies for about 2 weeks when it develops its own immunity. If new animals are introduced into the herd just before calving, it may be necessary to vaccinate them against the common diseases so that they can develop antibodies.

The new-born calf is dependent on milk for nutrition and growth in its early life, as the rumen is not functional. The suckling reflex forms a fold (groove) which serves as a pipe for delivering milk straight from the esophagus to abomasum in young calves (by passing fore- stomachs). The suckling reflex of this esophageal groove will only function when milk is fed at the right temperature, in the right concentration and when the calf is ready to suckle.

Therefore, young calves should only be fed on liquid diets (the groove will not allow solids to pass) and milk may never be diluted with water.

Calves secrete high amounts of lactase enzyme (breaks down lactose in milk to glucose and galactose to supply energy). The other carbohydrate digesting enzymes are low and therefore, milk which has a high lactose level should be fed to the calves. During formulation of milk replacers, the energy source should be milk lactose. Calves have no sucrase enzyme, and should not be fed on sucrose (ordinary sugar).

Since the rumen is not functional, the calf cannot synthesize the B vitamins and they must be supplied in the diet. The diet of the new-born calf should contain milk proteins since enzymes to break down complex proteins do not develop until 7-10 days after birth.

Introduce calf to solid feed. As calf is introduced to solid feed, the rumen starts developing and the calf can be weaned as soon as it can consume enough dry feed (1.5% of Live

10

body weight). It should be noted that dry feed should be introduced early, as solid feed is required for rumen development. Concentrate based diets promote faster growth of rumen papillae (which promotes rumen function) compared to roughages.

3.3 Calf weaning

Weaning is the withdrawal of milk or milk replacer when the calf becomes fully dependent on other feeds. Traditionally, most dairy calves are weaned based on age, 12 - 16 weeks being the most common. Early weaning is possible if more milk is fed and calves introduced to pre-starter and starter early in life. To minimize stress, weaning should be done gradually.

Criteria for weaning:

• When calf attains twice the birth weight• When the calf can consume 1.5% of its body weight of dry feed and• Depending on age of the calfLiquid milk is reduced from 3 weeks of age to encourage the calf to consume and maximize intake of dry feeds.

3.4 Calf Housing

Housing of calves is an important aspect of calf management. Claves are housed for several reasons, the most important being protection from adverse weather conditions and predators, avoid internal and external parasites and control feeding and management. A calf pen should be constructed where possible from locally available materials.

It should be constructed to:

• Allow approximately 2 m2 (1.2 X 1.5 m) space per calf• Be well drained or bedded• Be well lighted (artificial or natural).• Be well ventilated• Strong to stand predator invasion.

Figure 8 Type of calf pen

Calves can be housed permanently indoor until weaning time (when they are turned to pasture or semi-indoor where they housed only at night). The calf house can be permanent or temporary and movable. Permanent houses are easy to clean when a new calf is introduced. Temporary houses are moved from one location to another when new calf moves in.

11

A calf house floor can be on ground level or raised. If at ground level, the floor should be made of easily cleanable material (e.g. concrete) and should be bedded using straw. The sides can be made of concrete or wooden. The raised pens should have a slatted floor. They are made of timber spaced at 1 inch (25.4 mm) to allow urine and faeces to fall on the ground. The house should be at least 1 foot (30.5 cm) from the ground.

In big dairies, calves can be housed individually or in groups. Individual housing is recommended during the first one month. When not possible then group housing can be done though there are several disadvantages including:

• Difficulty in feeding and management.

• Disease control is difficult.

• Fights among calves - decreased growth rate.

� Calves suckling each other which could lead to ingested hair (tend to form hair balls), blind teats and removal of disinfectant from umbilical cord.

Raised calf pen

This type of calf pen is suitable for a zero-grazing unit newborn calves. It is placed inside the roofed and walled section of the unit. It may be permanent or movable.

· Individual pens for calves from birth to 2 to 3 months of age are often built with an elevated slatted floor. This floor will ensure that the calf is always dry and clean.

· The required minimum internal dimensions for an individual calf pen are 1200 by 800 mm for a pen where the calf is kept up to two weeks of age, 1200 by l000 mm where the calf is kept to 6 to 8 weeks of age and 1500 by 1 200 mm where the calf is kept from 6 to 14 weeks of age. Three sides of the pens should be tight to prevent contact with other calves and to prevent draughts. Draughts through the slatted floor may be prevented by covering the floor with litter until the calf is at least one month of age.

Figure 9 Calf pen

· The front of the pen should be made so that the calf can be fed milk, concentrates and water easily from buckets or a trough fixed to the outside of the pen and so that the calf can be moved out of the pen without lifting.

12

4. Heifer Management

A heifer is defined as any female calf from six months up to her first calving. Dairy replacement heifers are usually separated from their mothers (dams) within two days after birth and managed to achieve specific growth rates throughout the rearing period until calving at the planned age, weight and body condition (Annex1).

The ultimate aim of dairy heifer management is to produce well developed heifers able to express full yield potential at the desired calving age, with minimum costs, losses and health problems, and with the potential to milk for at least 6 lactations

The progressive dairy farmer of today realises more and more that heifers have to receive the correct type and amount of feed if a high quality dairy cow is to be produced at a relatively early stage. One can only hope that the practice of leaving weaned heifers in the open grassland field until near the end of gestation period is something of the past and less productive through out of their life.

The progress of the herd depends largely on the way in which heifers are managed for replacement purposes. A sound herd cannot be established by the continual purchased of new heifers of whose history is not much known. The costs are relatively low when compared with prices at which heifers are sold. The best way in which the dairy farmer can determine the efficiency of his managerial programme is by measuring the performance of his heifers in accordance with accepted standards. Rearing replacement heifers has not always been seen as a fundamental part of the dairying enterprise but, when correctly planned and specific feeding programmes have been used overall improvement in herd longevity and farm profitability results. Feeding and managing replacement heifers must be given as much priority as dealing with the milking cow and it must be seen as an investment in tomorrow’s profit generators.

Managing replacement heifers is important for

• Replacement of culled cows • Increase in herd size • Introduction of new blood lines that means genetic improvement • Increase of genetic base and• Improvement of disease control

4.1 Heifer feed and Feeding

The first essential in heifer rearing is to ensure all calves receive sufficient colostrum early enough to absorb the very high levels of antibodies. While these antibodies can only be effectively absorbed by the young calf over the first 24 hours of life, they are also valuable after this time to protect against infections within the gut.

Feeding a dairy heifer is to develop her into a cow of good size, with a strong constitution and with the capacity to turn feed into milk efficiently. Heifer calves should continue to grow steadily from the time they are about 5 months old until they are ready to be inseminated. But they should not become fat. It is much better to keep them on the thin side. During this growing period, roughage feeding should be stepped up. If the heifers are being fed in the barn, increase hay feeding. If they are out for pasture, feed them some hay in a rack/feeding trough to supplement the pasture.

13

When feeding replacement heifers, the farmer should aim to:

· Reduce interval between weaning and first lactation. This will increase number of calving’s per lifetime (more of lactations) and lead to faster genetic improvement.

· Minimize mortality

· Achieve a required growth rate (0.45 - 0.5 kg/day)

· Achieve first calving at 24 to 30 months of age and

· Ensure that heifers reach target live weights for breeding at 13 - 18 months of age.

Heifers can be reared on good quality pasture only as their nutrient requirements are low (growth and maintenance). Supplementation with concentrate should be at 1% of body weight. Generally the amount of concentrate given to heifers should be 1 to 4 kg depending on age (size) of the heifer and forage quality. Mineral salt supplement is recommended on a free-choice basis.

Combining adequate development (230 kg Lwt.) and early age at calving has several advantages in:

• Decreasing risk of calving difficulty, • Improving lifetime milk production • Reducing rearing costs (feed, labour, veterinary expenses etc.)

In most farms, heifers are normally the most neglected group in terms of feeding resulting in delayed calving. When heifers are fed as a group, competition for concentrate is high related to different ages and aggressiveness. Hence, the young and weak consume less compared to others.

Figure 10 Heart girth measurement

For small animals like jersey and zebu feed intake are 3.4 kg hay (or hay equivalent in silage), 1.0 - 2.5 kg concentrate and plus free access of straw and clean water is supplied ad libitum. While for large animals like Holstein Friesians the daily feed intake are 7 kg of hay (or hay equivalent in silage), 1.0 - 2.5 kg of concentrate and plus free access of straw and clean water should be always be available. Both under and over-feeding heifers are undesirable during heifer rearing.

It is therefore important to monitor performance of heifers, particularly the body weight change and height at withers. Body weight and height at withers are important measurements used to evaluate heifer growth. The weight is estimated with a weight band (heart girth) and height by graduated piece of timber (Figure 11).

14

Table 3 Relation between girth and body weight

Girth in (cm) Body weight (kg) Girth in (cm) Body weight (kg)

65 28 151 29070 34 155 31075 41 159 33080 49 163 350 85 58 166 37090 68 169 39095 79 172 410100 91 175 430105 104 178 445110 120 180 460118 145 183 480125 170 186 500132 195 190 530138 220 195 570143 240 200 608147 260 205 645

Source: KMLD, 2012

Monthly checking the girth of all young stock at the farm will help to monitor the growth (Low growth indicates most likely that the feeding need to be improved).

Figure 11 Heart girth and height measurement

15

Other factors influencing growth:

· Health· Stress and Parasites· Too much exercise on un controlled management on poor grazing land (paddock

without proper grass) may affect growth of the young stock· In all cases low growth rates the farmer needs to improve his/her management of

the young stock

Example

Take as example a calf born on the 1st of January, its girth is then 70 cm corresponding with 34 kg of live weight. On the 1st of April, we measure this calf again; the girth is now 100 cm. corresponding with 91 kg.

Calculate total weight and daily weight gain of the calf:

The weight gain is 91 kg. – 34 kg = 57 kg (57.000 gram)

This weight gain is reached in 90 days. (From January 1st to April 1st)

The daily weight gain (growth rate) was: 57.000gr. = 633 gr. / day

While designing a feeding schedule for heifers, the following should be considered:

· Puberty (thus calving) is related to size (feeding) rather than age.

� The consequences of poor feeding are manifested in delayed calving resulting in delayed milk production.

· Feeding heifers too much energy leads to deposition of fat in mammary gland tissue displacing secretory tissue resulting in reduced milk yield.

� The key period in mammary gland development is between 3 and 9 months of age (mammary tissue is growing 3.5 times faster than body tissue).

· Heifers fed high-concentrate rations develop less milk secretory tissues in the mammary gland than heifers raised on recommended rations.

· Under-feeding heifers results in small bodied heifers which experience dystocia

· Heifers calving at 24 months have a higher lactation milk yield compared to calving at an older age.

· Size of animal is related to milk yield.

Heifers should move from a steady growth rate after breeding to a rapidly growing phase to the last two to three months of pregnancy. Heifers growing rapidly at calving time, but needing additional growth during the first lactation, were found to be more persistent milkers than full-sized heifers at calving. The exact amount of concentrate to feed before calving will depend on forage quality, size, and condition of the heifer.

Weaned heifers do, however, require less attention than milk-fed calves and milking cows. Dairy heifers need to be well fed between weaning and first calving. If growth

16

rates are not maintained, heifers will not reach their target live weights for mating and first calving. Undersized heifers have more calving difficulties, produce less milk and have greater difficulty getting back into calf during their first lactation. When lactating, they compete poorly with older, bigger cows for feed. Because they are still growing, they use feed for growth rather than for producing milk. Many studies have demonstrated the benefits of well-grown heifers in terms of fertility, milk production and longevity.

Assignment

The above-mentioned calf is measured again on the 1st of May

The girth is now 110 cm. corresponding with 120 kg.

Answer the following Questions

· The weight gain of this animal from January to May is ……………… Kg.

· The growth rate per day of the whole rearing period is ………………… gr. / day

· In the month of April, the animal gained ……………………………………… Kg.

· The growth rate during the month of April was ……………………… gr. / day

Weighing the calves every month should be done every time at the same moment of the day. Let’s say in the morning after coffee break. In that situation, you can expect all animals to have sufficiently eaten after morning feeding.

Why is this important?

When you are the owner of the above-mentioned calf would you be satisfied?

Motivate your answer:

In case you measure a girth of 121 cm, how will you read the table? (121 is in between 118 and 125 cm representing 145 kg. and 170 kg. 7 cm difference represent 25 kg => every cm represents 3,5 kg weight difference.) The weight of a calf having a girth of 121 cm is ……………. Kg.

4.2 Body Condition Score (BCS)

It can be assess the feeding regimes in dairy cattle. Several system has been suggests but the 1‐5 scoring has been the most used. The animals are scored based on the protrusion of the hooks (tuber coxae) and the pins (tuber ischii) and the depression under the tail head (figure 12). And as a rule of thumb the desired and reasonable body condition scores of dairy cows different accordingly (Table 4).

17

Condition scoring is the visual assessment of the amount of muscle and fat covering the bones of the cattle. It can be assessed independently of live weight, gut fill and pregnancy status and involves observing specific points on the animal (annex 1).Figure 12 Body Condition Score

Table 4 Desired and reasonable body condition scores of dairy cows Time of Scoring Desired score Reasonable range Calving 3.5 3.0-4.0

Peak Milk 2.0 1.5-2.0

Mid-lactation 2.5 2.0-2.5

Dry Off 3.5 3.0-3.5Source:HARC, 2017

Body condition affects milk production and reproductive performance. Scoring enables farmers to compare the condition of their cows with recommended targets. Knowledge of condition scoring then enables farmers to manage their feeding programs better.

It should be done throughout the year to take account of seasonal variations in feeding management, but particularly at the following stages of the lactation cycle:

1. At drying off, when cows that is too thin or too fat should be managed to achieve the target by calving.

2. Just before calving, and if there are still too many thin or fat cows, feeding management should be changed for future calving.

3. At 40 to 60 days after calving, to assess body condition loss in early lactation. If it is excessive, feeding management should be changed leading to the next calving and in early lactation.

4.3 Heat detection

Anatomically, the female sex organs are ready at birth. However, they do not become functional until the animal reaches sexual maturity. This is when a heifer ovulates for the first time and shows the first symptoms of heat, after which the oestrus cycle begins. This can only takes place once the brain is mature enough to produce enough hormones to start the sexual cycle. Before sexual maturity symptoms resembling heat may appear, such as clear discharge from the vulva. This is caused by follicles which develop but do not ovulate. Sexual maturity does not always mean that a heifer is ready for pregnancy. If she is inseminated too early her growth may slow down and she may have parturition problems.

18

Age and body weight are important for the onset of sexual maturity in heifers, body weight is apparently the most important. This means that with improper feeding sexual maturity delayed. The weight and age at which the first heat appears varies depending on the breeds. Because sexual maturity can be reached earlier with proper feeding, the time of first insemination should be chosen according to the size and development of the body rather than the age of the animal.

The age for bulling depends upon the breed and also upon the requirement of the desired calving pattern. Certainly the smaller breeds tend to become mature earlier than the larger breeds but this has to be correlated to the practical demands of the annual milk production cycle. The onset of puberty, and commencement of cycling, is related to live weight more than to age. A delay in puberty means later conception. All heifers should achieve their target weight before joining, because lighter heifers have lower conception rates. Calving problems depend more on heifer live weights at mating, than on live weights or body condition at calving. Frame size is determined early, so there is doubtful merit in the practice of feeding older heifers to make up for poor growth earlier in life. For detail information see manual of breed improvement and fertility management.

For example: Friesian heifers mated at live weight below 260 kg had 34% conception to first insemination compared to 58% for heifers mated weighing 300 kg live weight or more. Of the smaller heifers, 24% had difficult calvings. This declined to 8% in heifers mated at 260 to 280 kg and was lowest in 340 to 360 kg heifers.

Heifers underweight at mating required considerable assistance if in difficulty during calving. It is generally suggested that heifers should not calve before twenty four (24) months old but should calve as soon as possible after that age (Table 5). Growing of young stock needs proper feeding. Said differently growth is a result of good feeding! The ration of these animals therefore needs to contain enough energy and protein.

Table 5 Expected weight at age at different stages of heifers growth developmentStage Common name Age(Months) Weight(Kg)Weaning Weaner 3 - 4 70 - 80Puberty Bulling Heifer 12 220 - 240Insemination In-calf Heifer 15 - 18 275 - 300First calving Milking Heifer 24 - 27 400 - 450Drying 36

Source: Charles K.G,et al.(2012)

4.4 Steaming up breeding heifer

It is putting a pregnant animal on a high plane of nutrition a few weeks before it gives birth, that means in case of heifers, it refers to providing extra concentrate to a pregnant heifer in the last 4 weeks of pregnancy.

This feeding is also intended to allow the rumen bacteria to get accustomed to high levels of concentrate. It provides extra nutrients for the animal and the growing foetus. Steaming up also allows the heifer to put on extra weight (reserve energy) to promote maximum milk production from the very beginning of the lactation. Once heifers are pregnant, feeding should be adequate to ensure proper development to avoid calving problems and poor first‐lactation yield.

19

Pregnant heifers may be maintained on good quality forage alone but concentrates should be given if the forage is of low quality. During the last two months of pregnancy, the feeding regime can affect milk production during the first lactation.

As rule of thumb the heifer should be fed concentrate at 1 percent of body weight starting at about 6 weeks before calving with a ration balanced in protein, minerals, and vitamins.

Feeding concentrates allows the rumen bacteria to get used to digesting high levels of concentrate, which is very important during early lactation. Excess salt intakes can contribute to udder oedema and should be avoided the last 2 weeks before calving. Underfed or poorly grown heifers also will require more assistance at calving and have a higher death rate at calving than normal sized heifers. Ssee the dairy cattle feeding and nutrition management manual for the detail information.

4.5 Heifer housing

Heifers from about weaning age to breeding age are to be housed separately from the suckling calves. Generally no male calves are kept on farm beyond six months of age. When a large number of young stock is there, they should be divided in to different age groups and each group housed separately. When the number of young stock is small, the young stock shed may be an extension of the dry animal shed or it may be a separate unit near to it.

The shed shall be constructed in a simple row of sheds facing each other. The constructional details of young stock sheds are the same as for cow sheds except for the difference in dimension of the mangers and water troughs (Tables 6 and 7), for the details see dairy animal housing and manure management.

Table 6 Space required for loose and conventional housing systemAnimal type Loose house area meter2 Confined house area meter2

Cows 7 3.5

Calves up to 3 month 2 1

3-6 month 3 2

6-12 month 4.5 2

Bull pen 30 12

Source: HARC, 2016

Table 7 Feeding Space required for mature, calves and yearlingsAnimal type space/animal(cm) Trough height (cm) Depth of manager(cm)Mature animals 60-75 60 40Calve & yearlings 40-50 40 15

Source: Sastry, N. S. R. and Thomas, C. K.(1981)

20

4.6 Dairy heifers management to reduce stress

Grouping dairy heifers with mature cows soon after calving often results in stress caused by initial interactions with older, more dominant cows and the re-establishment of hierarchies which can seriously affect performance. Care should be taken during introduction of heifer to a herd.

Guidelines for dairy heifer management to reduce stresses:

· Where possible, heifers should be kept as a separate milking group for at least the first four months of the lactation – promoting fair competition at the feed trough and allowing them to continue growing so they reach their peak yield and get back into calf before having to compete with older animals

· If they are to be managed as part of a cow group, heifers need to be well-grown and the facilities must provide adequate lying-space for the whole herd

· Heifers should always be kept in a recently calved group and not mixed with the herd until at least five days after calving

· Initial introduction into the herd should take place after the afternoon or evening milking when cows are less socially active.

· Accustoming heifers to the milking prior to calving has also been shown to encourage milk production by reducing their fear.

· Although separating the calf within 24 hours of birth is less stressful and easier to manage, there is evidence that heifers that are allowed to suckle their calves for eight weeks experience a more complete milk let down, improving whole lactation yields.

21

5. Common young stock diseases and health management

5.1 Common young stock diseases

A. Calf Scours

The disease that occurs due to unhygienic management characterized by diarrhoea, appears dull and refuses to drink and eat.

Signs

üThe dung of the calf appears: - LiquidüWhitish in colourüStrong smellPrevention:

üFeed sufficient colostrumüKeep calf pen clean at all timesüUse clean utensilsüWash handsüGive clean and fresh water dailyTreatment:

üDilute in 3 liters lukewarm water (9 soda bottles):1 teaspoon of table salt and 1 teaspoon of baking powder

ØDay 1: replace milk for the above solution and feed this in 3 feedings of 1 liter (3 soda bottles each time)

ØDay 2: Start feeding 1-1.5 litre of milk again and make a new solution and continue treatment. Wait with feeding the solution for at least 1 hour after feeding milk.

ØDay 3: make a new solution and feed 3 times a day and also feed 2 liters of water two times on day three

üIf no improvement consult veterinarian

B. Dermatitis

It is an inflammation of the skin due to direct contact with irritants, allergens from bite of ectoparasites, trauma and burn. It is the disease of commonly young animals.

Clinical Signs

üItching

üLesions on the skin

üPresence of vesicles and crusts on the skin

üWet skin

22

Treatment

üDepends on the primary cause of the disease

üSystemic or topical application of corticosteroids; predinisole and dexamethasone.

C. Photosensitization

It refers to hyper sensitivity of lightly coloured skin to sun light. The disease also may arise from consumption of photosensitive plants like phylloerythrin or some times from liver disease.

Clinical signs

Characterized by demarcated inflammatory reactions.

Treatment:

üAdministration of anti-inflammatory drugs like dexamethasone is curative.

üAntibiotics is recommended for secondary bacterial complication.

D. Salmonellosis

It is the most important and common bacterial disease of young animals characterized by septicaemia, acute enteritis and chronic enteritis. The common sources of infection are stress, warm and moist environment and inappropriate storage highly portentous feeds like bone meal, meat meal in the garbage.

Clinical signs

üDiarrheal containing intestinal erosions and putrid smell

üTenesmus and dysentery

üDepression due to fever

üDullness

üBluish skin discoloration

üSevere dehydration

Treatment

üChloramphenicol, Ampicillin and Gentamycin.

üSupportive therapy for fluid replacement

Control measures

Hygienic management of feeds

Vaccination

23

E. Pneumonia

Pneumonia is inflammation of the lung tissue. It is a highly contagious bacterial disease affecting bovines and characterized by bronchitis and pleurisy. The principal route of infection is inhalation where cattle are overcrowded and transmission is by direct contact between infected and susceptible animals by means of infected aerosols from exhaled air.

Clinical signs

üExcessive nasal discharge

üSudden rise in body temperature

üAbsence of rumination

üExtension of head and neck

üOpen mouth breathing with grunting

üCoughing and sneezing

Treatment : depends on the primary cause of the disease:

For bacterial infection:

üOxytetracycline 10% 1ml/10kg of body weight of the animal intramuscular for 3 consecutive days

üOxytetracycline 20% 1ml/10kg of body weight of the animal intramuscular may be repeated after 48 hours of injection.

üProcaine penicillin 20,000 IU/kg of body of the animal intramuscular for 3 consecutive days.

For parasitic pneumonia:

üBroad spectrum anthelmintic

üIvermictin 1%

Prevention and control

üDo not mix animals from un known sources

üAvoid stress conditions

üProper ventilation and regular vaccination

24

F. Ectoparasitic infestation

Young animals are mostly infested by ectoparasites like ticks, fleas and lice because they stay most of the time on bedding material which is favourable environment for multiplication of these parasites.

Prevention and control

üChanging the bedding material every 1-2 weeks to break the life cycle of parasites

üCheck the hair coat of the calves every week

üIn case of parasitic infestation the drug of choice is ivermictin 1% 1ml/50 kg body weight of the animal.

There are also some anatomical disorders that may occur congenitally in new born calves. In such cases consult veterinarians for required surgical corrections.

5.2 Health management

Raising healthy heifers is important in all dairy production systems as health affects growth rate, fertility and hence age at first calving and milk production. Losses are also incurred in form of veterinary costs and death limiting the opportunity for selection of high quality animals and/or sales. Most of the common diseases affecting calves are also important in heifer rearing and have been dealt with in the dairy health management and breed improvement and fertility management manuals.

Tools to monitor the young stock

· Measuring tape (or a rope with nuts at known distances)

· Thermometer (health control)

· Individual calf/heifer cards to record

� Date of birth

� Body weight at different ages

� Preventive health care / vaccinations

� Insemination and Weaning time (age)

· Growth chart for height and weight

· Mention the body condition score with parameters

25

References

Charles Karuku Gachuiri, University of Nairobi, , Margaret Nyawira Lukuyu, KAResearch Institute, Camillus Ahuya, Animal Resources Consultants Ltd. 2012:Dairy cattle training manual. Ministry of Livestock Development, Nairobi, Kenya.

Lukuyu B, Gachuiri CK, Lukuyu MN, Lusweti C and Mwendia S (eds). 2012: Feeding dairy cattle in East Africa. East Africa Dairy Development Project, Nairobi, Kenya.

Marri Heinonen, 1989: Artificial Insemination of cattle in Ethiopia MOA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Moran John Dairy Adviser, DPIV, Senior Kyabram, 120 Cooma Rd, Kyabram, Department of Primary Industries, 2005: Feeding Management for Small Holder Dairy Farmers in the Humid Tropics Victoria, 3620 Australia

Moran John.2002:Calf Rearing: A practical guide, Second Edition, published by Landlinks press, Victoria, Australia

Sastry, N. S. R. and Thomas, C. K. ,1981: Farm Animal Management, Vikas publishing House Pvt. Ltd. India.

26

Annex

Annex 1: Age at first Calving (AFC)

Age at first calving is an important trait, which directly influences productive and reproductive performances of a cow. Age at first calving is closely related to generation interval and influences response to selection. It also determines the cost of female replacement. Heifers calving at a young age will reduce replacement costs of females in a cow herd operation. Any improvement, which reduces age at first calving, would enhance the production of more calf and reduce the generation interval and increase genetic improvement for the targeted traits that respond to selection.

Age at first calving for indigenous cattle types and heir crosses.

Genotype Age at first calving(Months) Source

Borana 41.50 Arnason and Kassa, 1987Borana 45.20 Mekonnen, 1987Borana 46.80 Mekonnen et al.,1993Borana 47.00 Trail et al., 1985Horro 50.00 McDowell, 1971Horro 53.00 Zewdu, 2004Arsi 32.80 Enyew et al., 1998Arsi 34.40 Kiwuwa et al., 1983Arsi 32.82 Enyew et al., 1992Arsi 34.00 Zewdu, 2004

Friesian x Borana (F1) 31.50 Mekonnen,1994

¾ Friesian x Borana 32.70 Mekonnen,1994

Friesian x Borana (F1) 36.00 Sendros et al., 2004a

Jersey x Borana (F1) 35.40 Sendros et al., 2004a

Friesian x Borana (F1) 44.02 Kefena et al., 2006

Jersey x Borana (F1) 38.76 Kefena et al., 2006Source: OARI, 2010

Intensive rearing

- Growth monitoring

- Feeding according to growth objectives

- Cost of intensive feeding vs. cost of long rearing time (roughage)

- Calculation cost benefit comparison at 40 month of age present / wanted situation (objective) is 30 months

27

Example

New situation rearing in 30 month AFC (Age at First Calving) compared to present situation of 40 months. Milk price 10 Birr, concentrate price 8 Birr

Extra investment (more feeding than present situation); concentrate:

800 kg x 8 Birr => 6.400 Birr

At 40 months’ heifers end the first lactation have produced

5000 kg of milk x 10 Birr => 50.000 Birr

Concentrate feeding to reach this production in first lactation

(1 kg conc. Per 3 liters of realized milk?)

Milk 50.000 Birr

Concentrate1/3 x 5000 x 8 Birr 13.333 Birr -

Milk yield – extra feeding cost 36.667 Birr

Extra investment 6.400 Birr -

Yield – extra feeding costs at 40 months 30.267 Birr

+ The value of the calf that was born

So investing in concentrates during rearing is payed back quickly. Here through a higher 5 of the total herd produces milk.

At present animals are probably calving down for the first time at 40+ months and still have to start production.

Intensive rearing is profitable and is sustainable

Due to older age at calving milk production capacity is lost and less calves are born. Most likely the level of production is lower due to poor rearing. Finally, the life-production per animal will be higher saving much more rearing costs because less young stock is need to keep the herd on number.

Note: if the circumstances and feed quality allows the target can even go down to 24 months AFC.

28

Young Stock ManagementTraining Gideline For Dairy Extension Workers

29

Young Stock Management Training Guide

A. Module Book - Rearing dairy replacement heifers

Introduction

The module Rearing dairy replacement heifers is part of the Working Package “Business Management” introduced By SNV Ethiopia as part of the EDGET Project.

One of the EDGET project objectives is to make small holders dairy farms more aware about “commercial farming”. The Module Rearing dairy replacement heifers will help extension workers to acquire the knowledge and skills to make basic decisions which will enable them to improve the performance on calf rearing of enterprises present on small holder farms. Calf rearing is the basis for good cow production performance.

Professional situation

As an extension worker usually have to advise small holder farms on how to manage their livestock in the most optimal way. As an extension worker you should be able to clearly identify which kind of practices at farm level will lead to the best possible technical results.

Dairy farms depend for the productivity of their animals on regular calving of the cows. Besides that cows need to be replaced by young animals at the end of their productive life. The female calves born from the cows are most likely ones to be reared to keep the herd on level or even growing.

Calf rearing is an investment in a female animal in to make it produce milk for sale. A direct consequence of this statement is that for dairy bull calves born on the farm another choice must be made.

As an extension worker you have the knowledge, skills and innovations to manage each of these enterprises in the most optimal way and you have the motivation and “drive” to convince small holder farmers to improve on their knowledge and skills in order to improve rearing of heifer calves into well developed and high producing dairy cows.

As an extension workers you are able to recognize signs of an approaching birth, abnormal positions, give support during calving and handle the just born calve. You can support the farmer is proper feeding practices, health control and growth monitoring. You are able to recognize health problems and know how to (ask for) support (in) health care.

As an extension worker you are also able to explain the benefits of good calf rearing, how it can lead to earlier returns on investment and a higher (life) production.

You will also be able to explain what kind of recordkeeping will help the farmer to monitor calf rearing.

You will be able to explain small holder farmers what it means to become a specialized dairy farmer.

But you (and the owner) have other responsibilities as well; how to deal with environmental and social issues. In the end any business is only really sustainable if it is taking into account the three P’s; People, Planet & Profit.

30

Required entry qualification

To take part in this module on Management you should comply with the following entry requirements:

· Competent in the English language.

· Competent in skills on animal feeding, health control, record keeping and calculation

· Have basic insight/experience in managing small holder dairy farms.

Specific objectives and related topics

Specific objectives and related topics are:

a. At the end of the course participants are able to recognize approaching birth, support a cow calving down, take care of the just born calf. They can monitor sufficient feeding, health care, growth objectives in order to realize calving down of the animal at the previously set age of first calving in the right body condition and body weight using record keeping on animal registration, feeding, health, growth and inseminations.

Related topics are:

· Dry cow management· Birth of a calf· Just born calf· Feeding and health care· Calf diseasesb. At the end of the course participants can analyse present performance of calf rearing

and give advises to improve to (smallholder) dairy farmers.

Related topics are:

· Housing and growth· Health observation· Record keepingAssessment

During the course one assessment will be conducted to measure the competence level of the participants to advise a small holder farm on his/ her calf rearing performances. The assessment will be a group assignment. The group (maximum 5-6 persons) will have to visit an assigned small holder farm and implement the following tasks:

· Report present calf rearing method from birth to first calving· Report present age at first calving· Report policy of breeding (dairy/crossbreed) and method used· Where do the bull calves go?· Write an advise to the farmer (how to improve)· In the advise hand over simple tools to the farmer to monitor the improvement

31

Activities

Below an overview of all activities related to this module are presented:

All activities of this module are done in a real farm environment having cows and young stock of different age as well as a classroom available.

Day Time Subject

Mon 1st Introduction Module/ participants/ trainer and introduction into rear-ing replacement stock

2nd Cow handling around calving, (including pedigree of the expected calf)

3rd Calving process, hygiene, abnormal positions, difficult births, the just born calf

4th Feeding the just born calf, the milk feeding period, housing and health care of the young calf. Farm objectives on age at first calving

Tue 1st Calf rearing after weaning, young stock. observation + exercises

2nd Influence of good calf rearing on cow performance and life production. observation + exercises. (return on investment time)

3rd Use of simple tools to make monitoring of growth and health possible. Practicals.

4th Introduction to the assessment, formation of groups and preparing to use monitoring tools of assigned farmers

Wed 1st Assessment 2nd Assessment

3rd Assessment4th Assessment

Thur 1st Working out assessment2nd Working out assessment

3rd Interaction Trainer / Participants at group levelParticipants react on observations. And can ask questions

4th Overview module “The influence of calf rearing on smallholder dairy farm output”

Fri 1st Prepare for presentation2nd Presentation in presence of farmers

3rd Brainstorm on farmer training 4th Course Evaluation and closing

32

B. Calf rearing Lesson matrices and trainer guidelines

Lesson Matrix# Topic / Serial

Practical Lesson Lesson 1 Calf rearing

Date

Venue

Duration day/ Day 1 of the Course 1

Type of students EDGET Extension Workers

Number of students Maximum 8

Starting situation Students have very little or no experience with calf rearing

Outcomes :The student is able to

Skills .Recognize and separate a cow, approaching to calf down, from the herd- Recognize a normal progress in the calving down process, and normal-.position of the unborn calfSupport calving down process, and use materials in the proper way-Feel up a calving cow in case the position is abnormal- Recognize abnormal position and call in veterinarian support if necessary-Caretaking of the jus born calf and properly feed colostrum-

Knowledge Explain benefits of maternity area and how to take hygiene measures in-.itExplain normal birth process, and how to support it-Explain how to make use of support materials during normal calving-Explain when to call in the veterinarian-Explain how to treat and feed the just born calf-

Attitude Convince farmers that care taking during the calving down process of thecow and just born calf is essential in successful calf rearing

33

Time in minutes

Brief Content Role trainer /didactical methods

Teaching aids Role/activities Participants

30 -Opening of the Course, getting acquainted with each other, explanation Module Book and Course Objectives

-Explaining/ guiding/ making trainees feel at ease

-Module Book -Listening, introduction of themselves, asking questions, answering questions

30 -Sharing experiences with calf rearing-Introduction into calf rearing-Distribution lesson materials.

-Asking for experiences to get an idea about student level

-Example Farm-Calf rearing manual

-Sharing experiences-Participate in example explanation-Check contents of Manual

60 -Explanation “Cow handling around calving”.-

-Explaining theory + assignments

-PPT-Manual-exercises

-Observing theory-Checking practical examples-Asking questions-Study theory

20 Break

60 -Explanation on how to recognize and support the calving down process of a cow-Practical assignment

-Explaining theory + practical assignment

-Real farm situation-Worksheets-Manual

-Farm practical -Asking questions-Fill out worksheets

60 -Explanation on how to prepare maternity area-Explanation of the birth supporting materials and how to use it

-Explaining theory + practical assignment

-Real farm situation-Exercise separation of cow-Exercise use of birth supporting materials

-Farm examples-Asking questions-Practical exercises

60 Lunch

60 -Explanation on difficult births

-Explaining theory + assignment

-PPT-Manual-discussion

-Study theory-Study examples-Asking questions-Making assignment

60 -Explanation caretaking of the just born calf-Explanation feeding

-Explaining theory + assignment

-PPT-Manual-discussion

-Study theory-farm examples-Asking questions

20 Break

120 -Practical at farm -explanation of practical approach

-Real farm situation-all materials needed for good practices

-Practical exercises-Asking questions-Practice skills

34

LESSON Day 1:

The cow calving down, caretaking of the new born calf

Required materials:

-Manual Young stock rearing -Exercises -Practical dairy farm environment

1. Sharing experiences with Calf rearing

2. Introduction

- Distribute and discuss course plan- Distribute book “Calf rearing”- Discussion on Calf rearing practices and constrains to be tackled

3. Lecturing the manual:

- Introduce topic “cow handling around calving” on White Board (WB) or Black Board (BB) + PPT make example assignments.

- Assignment:

· distribute exercise 1, 2 and 3

· discuss Exercises

- homework

4. Evaluation:

- Summary of the lessons, any questions?- Home work (write on WB): - Work out group assignment to smallholder

5. End of day 1

35

Lesson MatrixTopic / Serial #

Practical Lesson Lesson 2 Calf rearing

Date

Venue

Duration 1 day/ Day 2 of the Course

Type of students EDGET Extension Workers

Suggested number of students

8

Starting situation Students have very little or no experience with calf rearing

Outcomes The student is able to:

Skills -Measure the girth of a calf and convert the girth to body weight-Calculate growth rate based on available information-Feed calves right amount of milk, roughage and concentrates-Recognize health -Advise a farmer to optimize calf rearing

Knowledge -Explain benefits of growth measurements for proper rearing.-Explain ration composition to cover requirements for good growth-Explain the need of treatments and preventive health care-Explain when and why to call in the veterinarian in case results are below standard

Attitude Convince farmers that monitoring growth and preventive healthcare is important and economic in successful calf rearing

36

Time in minutes

Brief Content Role trainer /didactical methods

Teaching aids Role/activities Participants

10 -Recap day one - guiding making trainees feel at ease

- -Listening, asking questions, answering questions

30 -Introduction feeding and growth issues as part of calf rearing-Distribution lesson materials.

-Asking for experiences to get an idea about student level

-calf rearing manualWB / BBInternet access

-Sharing experiences-Participate in example explanation-Check contents of Manual, Observing theory

80 -Explanation of terms used in farm calf rearing-Assignment

-asking questions -Support activities of students

Example Farm-Calf rearing manual-exercises

-Checking practical examples-Asking questions-Making exercises

30 Break

60 -Explanation on how to feed young calves in a proper way-Practical assignment

-stimulate discussion the group-stimulate on using available open sources like the internet

-Real farm situation-Worksheets-Manual

-Study open sources-Farm practical -search on internet-Fill out worksheets

60 -Explanation on how to do the best possible feeding with the available feeds-Make a suitable handout for farmers for feeding

-coaching -Real farm situation-wall paper discussion

-Farm examples-Asking questions-Practical exercises

60 Lunch

60 -Explanation on how to monitor growth and healthcare- Explain the value of good housing

-Explaining theory + assignment

-PPT-Manual

-Study theory-Study examples-Asking questions-Making assignment

Farm practical to discover;-Growth facts-Important of record keeping-Needed tools for monitoring-Value of proper (preventive) health careFinally leading to a unified recordkeeping model for smallholder farmers

-Coaching exercises -Common lack of information-Homework assignment

-Exercises-worksheets

Answering and asking questions.

Writing administration model for all farmers

37

LESSON Day 2:

Feeding the calves properly, monitor growth and health. Do record keeping.

Required materials:

- Manual Young stock rearing - Exercises - Practical dairy farm environment- Access to Internet1. Sharing experiences with monitoring Calf rearing based on records

2. Introduction

- Distribute and discuss exercises- Arrange access to internet sources- Discussion on feeding, growth monitoring and recordkeeping- Introduce objectives to be monitored3. Lecturing the manual:

- Introduce topic “Feeding, growth, housing, recordkeeping” on White Board (WB) or Black Board (BB) + PPT make example assignments.

- Assignment:· distribute exercise 4 and 5· discuss Exercises- homework4. Evaluation:

- Summary of the lessons, any questions?- Home work (write on WB): - Work out group assignment to smallholder

38

5. End of day 2

Lesson MatrixTopic / Serial #Practical Lesson Day 3 calf rearingDateVenueDuration 1 day/ day 3 of the Course (Farm visits; 2 farms per group)Type of students EDGET Extension WorkersSuggested num-ber of students

8

Starting situation Students have very little or no experience with calf rearingOutcomes The student is able to:Skills -Make an analysis of present calf rearing at any farm by using growth

calculation and record analyses-Use the analyses to advise farmers to optimize.-Use the calculated benefits of optimization to convince small holder farmers and adopt the optimization practices.

Knowledge -Explain how growth is calculated-Explain the advantages of better calf rearing-Explain how to use record keeping as a tool.-Explain how farm (value)output will improve due to better rearing

Attitude Convince farmers that for commercialization of their small holder farms calf rearing is an essential part of farm management

Time in minutes

Brief Content Role trainer /didactical methods

Teaching aids Role/activities Participants

240 -Travel to target farmers-Groups to observe the total farm herd.-Groups to meet with their assigned farmer and collect calf rearing info and verify with their observations-Return to workshop premises

-Guidance and coaching

-Target farms -Observing-Interviewing-Collection of information

60 Lunch

240 -Travel to target farmers-Groups to observe the total farm herd.-Groups to meet with their assigned farmer and collect calf rearing info and verify with their observations-Return to hostel

-Guidance and coaching

-Target farms -Observing-Interviewing-Collection of information

39

Lesson MatrixTopic / Serial #Practical Lesson Day 4 Calf rearingDateVenueDuration 1 day/ Day 4 of the CourseType of students EDGET Extension WorkersSuggested number of students

8

Starting situation Students have very little or no experience with calf rearingOutcomes The student is able to:Skills -Collect required information to work out calf rearing practices

and technical results present on small holder farms-Prepare to present and explain small holder farms how they perform in calf rearing and advise them on optimization of calf rearing on their farm-Prepare to Introduce new calf rearing approach, making use of objectives, monitoring method and active (preventive) health care.

Knowledge -Explain farmers calf rearing method-Explain farmers monitoring and record keeping-Explain farmers how to monitoring preventive health care

Attitude Convince farmers that calf rearing is an essential part of farm management, and that a planned approach, making use of targets supported by recordkeeping will lead to better economics.

40

Time in minutes

Brief Content Role trainer /didactical methods

Teaching aids Role/activities Par-ticipants

120 Students work out observations of two farms visitedStudents come to an advise to the farmers

Guidance and coaching

Collected infor-mation class-room, internet, flipcharts

Formulate advise per farm

30 Break

120 Students work out the farm approach of the different exer-cise assignments per group

-Guidance and coaching

-target farms -Preparing handout

60 Lunch

120 Students work out the farm approach of the different exer-cise assignments per group

-Guidance and coaching

-target farms -Preparing handout- preparing Record-keeping aids

120 Different groups come to one shared approach on calf rearing at target farms

Guiding and coaching

-group discus-sion

-common message to farmers supported by Handouts and record-keeping aids for dif-ferent aspects of good calf rearing practices

Lesson MatrixTopic / Serial #

Practical Lesson Day 5 Calf rearing

Date

Venue

Duration 1 day/ Day 5 of the Course

Type of students EDGET Extension Workers

Suggested number of stu-dents

8

Starting situation Students have very little or no experience with calf rearing

Outcomes The student is able to:

Skills -Present and explain small holder farms how they perform in calf rearing and advise them on optimization of calf rearing on their farm-Introduce new calf rearing approach, making use of objectives, monitoring method and active (preventive) health care.

Knowledge -Explain farmers calf rearing method-Explain farmers monitoring and record keeping-Explain farmers how to monitoring preventive health care

Attitude Convince farmers that for commercialization of their small holder farms calf rearing is an essential part of farm management

41

Time in minutes

Brief Content Role trainer /didactical methods

Teaching aids Role/activities Par-ticipants

120 Students prepare for presentation

-Guidance and coaching

-target farms -Preparing presentation

60 Break and arrival of farmers

120 Presentation of calf rearing performance and advises to target farms by groups

-Assessing per-formance

-Projector/ white board/ flipovers

-Group presentations

60 Lunch (students and farmers)

60 -Assessment result per group

-Reflection on assignment results and as-sessment score

-Discussion per group

-Reflection and discuss-ing assessment result

60 Evaluation of course -Explaining evaluation form

-Evaluation form -Filling evaluation form

42

C. Calf Rearing:

Calf rearing Exercise 1

1. Mention at least 3 signs to be observed at a highly pregnant cows shortly before calving.

1.

2.

3.

A B

2. Which sign is shown here? (A -> B)

3. What is indicated in picture B?

4. Make a shortlist of all possible materials a farmer must have available to monitor and support the calving down process in a hygienical and safe way

5. What would you recommend a smallholder farmer as far as the maternity area is concerned?

43

Calf rearing Exercise 2

Observation of calving down process

If no calving’s take place at the farm during lesson time, make use of the internet to find related video’s and watch them! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0R2LGEcygyE

Birth support

How to put on the rope to the legs of the unborn calf? and how to connect the sticks to pull??

When birth support must be given, there is little time to finish the job. Therefor it is necessary to know how to deal with the materials “blindly”.

· Discuss how, and test on one and other the available materials for birth support.

· Write down how to deal with the materials before and after to maintain hygiene also for the next time you need it.

· Decide on how to communicate one clear message to farmers and make a protocol Poster.

Difficult births

In most cases (95%+) everything will be normal, this includes a reverse birth position.Still a reverse birth is most of the time more difficult and risky for the calf and cow.Note what risks and difficulties are involved in a ‘normal’ reverse calving.

44

Difficult and abnormal birth positions are shown below. These are just examples. Another abnormality that sometimes occurs is a twisted Uterus. This means that the birth channel is blocked due to one or more twists of the Uterus. In these cases, it is not possible to feel up the position of the calf because of this blockade.

When the birth process takes too long or when you observe abnormalities it is wise to do a feel up inside the birth channel. Maintain proper hygiene when you do this!

Discuss within the group how to deal with the different situation show in the picture, and decide in which cases you need support of a veterinarian.

Note if and how you will communicate this with small holder farmers.

Calf rearing Exercise 3

The new born calf.

Most important for a new-born calf is starting to breath.

In case a calf is born revers, there is always the risk that lungs are full of moist.

Note how the mother cow after a natural birth is stimulating the calf to activate (start breathing).

45

What other possibilities can a farm worker add in case the calf needs extra stimulation?

Second very important demand of the young calf is Colostrum.

In natural behaviour, the calf will stand up 30-60 minutes after being born and tries to find one of the teats to drink milk (colostrum).

In dairy farming, it is common to separate cow and calf immediately.

Still the calf needs 1,5 litre of colostrum as soon as possible, but within half an hour after birth (even in the middle of the night) This should be fed, warm and from its own mother!

Explain why feeding colostrum is one of the most important moments in calf rearing.

Teat bottle to feed colostrum

46

Calf rearing Exercise 4

The milk feeding period

Colostrum feeding is important for a healthy start of calf rearing.

Colostrum: start immediately and repeat often (3-4 times per day) so the calf will drink => MUCH!

A dairy farmer opts for milk to sell. This means that the milk needed for calf rearing competes with milk to be sold. Still good calf rearing is the bases for a well reared dairy cow in the future.

Discuss in the group the essence of feeding whole milk to a calf to be reared for replacement. Also, discuss if and what kind of alternatives are available and reachable for small holder farmers in Ethiopia.

Briefly note your findings:

In natural situations, a calf might drink milk from its mother for a period of 9 months or even longer.

By making use of good quality concentrates, and under good housing conditions it is possible to realize good and healthy growth rates with limited milk input.

Discuss the feeding program as given in the handout within the group and find out how it can be implemented in the Ethiopian situation. Where to get the concentrates, what kind of roughage etc.

Compare your findings with the common practices at smallholder farms and write down were changes must be introduced.

Make an approach plan to communicate this message.

Note: Include in your group discussion what is the best way to deal with the bull calves.

Calf rearing is an investment for replacement stock => future milk production.

If bull calves stay in the farm as swell they will also need milk, which is basically cash output of the dairy farm, so they compete with milk sales.

What is the economical consequence of feeding milk to bulls, or is there even profit by bull fattening to expect? Are there alternatives like selling the bulls at young age,…?

47

Calf rearing Exercise 5

Monitoring growth

Feeding

Feeding and disease management are of great influence to growth of young stock.

In chapter 3 and 4 of the ‘Young stock Management manual’ some information is given about feed requirements and (preventive) disease control.

Discuss in the group how a smallholder farmer can feed the growing young stock according to requirement (table). Make use of available information (internet or locally) about possible intake, digestibility and feeding values of available feeds (roughages and concentrates).

Write down the suggested ration for an animal of 180 kg. life weight (separate paper)

(preventive) Health care

Discuss in the group all suggested treatments and vaccinations at chapter 5 of the ‘Young stock Management manual’. Decide upon a suitable program for the Ethiopian situation.

How is the present situation for farmers in your area according to accessibility to (preventive) care?

Make a treatment and vaccination plan suitable for Ethiopia and discuss how to implement it at the small holder farms. (separate paper)

Monitoring growth

Fill out the table below as complete as possible based on the available farm information

Data sheet young stockDate of visit

….…/……../………

Calf

Name / nr.

Date

of birth

Birth weight in kg.

Girth

in cm.

Present body weight in kg.

Growth per day since birth gr./

day

Previous Weighing

date

Previous weight in

kg.

Growth per day since previous

weighing gr./day

Is all information available (on paper)?

If not: discuss within your group how to improve availability of information, and give suggestions for a uniformed way for smallholders to administrate. (record keeping system)

48

D. Assignment Calf rearing

During the course one assessment will be conducted to measure the competence level of the participants to advise a small holder farm on good cow handling around calving, and monitoring good calf rearing practices for replacement stock. The assessment will be a group assignment. The groups (5 - 6 persons) will have to visit some assigned small holder farms and implement the following tasks:

Day one and two

Presentation, discussion, exercises, knowledge exchange, setting of calf rearing objectives to be implemented and monitored.

Trainer – student interaction leading to set: “Objectives in calf rearing in the dairy sector of Ethiopia”

Groups of 5 - 6 persons have been formed, in cooperation with the trainer you analyze a present farm situation at a farm where animals of all rearing ages are present.

How to look, how to collect information and how to develop an opinion on the present situation.

During the day within the formed groups you make a list of important observations, materials needed and farm information needed.

Module exercises 1 – 5 support the assignment in preparation.

· Discuss with your group members the assignment and divide tasks among the members

· Decide upon the necessary observations, and measurements to be done on the small holder farm, and the way to write down (secure) the information.

· Decide upon the additional information to be given by the small holder farmer about calf rearing related issues.

· Prepare a questionnaire for collecting relevant information you think is necessary for being able analyze present calf rearing performance.

Day three (2 farm visits one in morning one in afternoon)

· Organize brief meeting with the farmer and his/ her family during which the group introduces themselves and explains the exercise and purpose of the visit.

· Requests the farmer and family to show the dairy farm, and to give the needed information of individual animals, farm practices, availability of feedstuffs on your request

· Organize your own observations and measurements (during farm tour) in presence of the farmer and write down the information.

· Give some brief information on your intentions of using the collected information.

· At the end of the interview thank the farmer and the family for their time and information and invite them to attend the presentation of the results and advice for two days later.

49

Day four

· Work out the gathered information on calf rearing of the two farms separately.

· Compare the two outcomes and discuss the differences

· Give your comments, find out if the two farmers can learn something from one another.

· Work out your comments into an advice for the farmer on calf rearing practices.

· Support your advice with a motivation based on its consequences in farm practices. What to change, what investment or direct costs are involved, and what to expect in return.

· Make clear suggestions to the farmers for implementation of optimalization.

· This day your trainer is available for interaction, discussion and questions.

Day five

· Each group prepares a presentation (in were every group member takes part) the presentation contains at least:

� The gathered information per farm, and your commend

� The results per farm compared to the objectives set on day one

� What is good / what needs improvement

� Your advice for optimization to the farms

� Consequences investment / returns

· Each group prepares an advice sheet on “Good calf rearing practices” as a handout for the farmers containing practical tips (and tools) on one A4 paper.

· After morning tea break the presentation is held for the whole group of participant as well as the invited farmers (time allowance 30 minutes).

· There is time for interaction between group and farmers after each presentation (10 minutes)

· The presentation content and the advice sheet are directly after presentation submitted to the trainer for assessment (digitally!)

50

E. Assessment:

· Each group receives a group score for their presentation (ppt. content) and advice sheet.

· Each group member receives an individual score for their individual presentation.

· Assessment results will be discussed with the groups the same day.

· Assessment forms see annex 1 and 2 of this assignment.

Assessment form ppt presentation (Group score)

Group members: .............................................................................................

Subject / Title: ................................................................................................

Group Score: ...................................................................................................

Excellent Good Average Poor Very poor1. Introduction- Group members and visited farms

are given.- Method of work is explained- Content of the presentation is intro-

duced

2. Description of the actual situation- Description of the calf rearing system- Motivation of the farmer- Numbers of animals in different

groups at the farm.- Farming system (i.g. zero grazing)

3. Data collection - Data collection / relevant- Accuracy of data4. Analyses of the collected data- Fact value of outcome- Identification / importance of con-

straints5. Proposal for improvement- Technical description of the proposal- Motivation of choices made- Impact of the proposal investments /

benefits- Needed skills / knowledge for suc-

cessful implementation 6. Quality of the Report- Language- Level (for farmer)- Lay out

51

For each main item, the group can score between 1 and 5 points (1= very poor, 5 = excellent)

Assessment is passed with a score of minimum 18 points (out of 30)

Assessment form for observation of student during presentation (Individual score)

Name trainer: ..................................................................................................

Enterprise presented: ........................................................................................

Observer: ........................................................................................................

Date: ..............................................................................................................

Behaviour criteria;The participant:

Remarks and score by observer (range from 0 (insufficient) to 5 (exellent))

1. Has prepared the correct and required teaching aids

2. Presentation can be followed by all including farmers

3. Presentation follows a logical path and is divided in clear steps if required

4. Links the level of knowledge and skills instructed to the level of the farmers

5. Can execute the basic skills required for the lesson

6. Speaks clearly and is pleasant to listen to7. Makes contact with the group and keeps this

momentum during the lesson

8. Stimulates interaction with the participants

9. Provides for feedback during the presentation to check if message comes through

10. Can describe to which extend outcome was realised

Further Remarks and final score :

Minimum score for passing the assessment will be 30.

*

አራት ኪሎ :. +251 111 557 788 ገርጂ :. +251 116 298 777 31362 አዲስ አበባ ኢትዮጵያ

Designed & Printed by

www.masterprintaddis.com