You Are Philosophers Already
North Berwick HS Higher/Int 2 Philosophy Intro
You Are Philosophers Already!
If you have formed a picture of what the world is made of, how
humans should behave and how you can be sure that something is
true, then you have already done philosophy.
What is Philosophy?
The question seems reasonable enough. You hear people
saying......
’My philosophy on life is....’ So what do they mean by this
term?
Questions are one thing, the real trouble comes with the
answers.
Firstly, philosophers do not always agree on the answer to the
question ‘What is philosophy?’ and you may not like the answer at
the moment which is - ‘Philosophy is the study of philosophical
questions.’
Another answer to the question could be – ‘philosophy is what
philosophers do!’
Philosophy is really an activity, or a process. It is a way of
thinking about certain kinds of questions. The tool it uses for
this activity is critical thinking. So what is critical thinking?
Critical thinking involves analysing the reasons given for
believing – what the world is made of, how we should behave and
what is true. In other words the three big questions –
What is real? How should we act? How do we know?
On The Shoulders of Giants
The writings of philosophers from the past like Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle, Descartes, Hume, Kant, Russell, Singer and so on are
important sources because they have tried to solve the main
philosophical problems, of what the world is made of, how we should
behave and what is true, in a systematic way.
These philosophers have expressed their views in the form of
arguments. They have either produced arguments of their own or
criticised the arguments of others – these are called counter
arguments.
Philosophy mainly involves trying to deal with arguments.
Philosophical Argument 1
Philosophical Argument 2
Philosophical Argument 3
Assignment 3
1 What is our main philosophical tool?
2 What are the big three philosophical questions?
3 Why are the writings of philosophers like Socrates
important?
4 In what form do philosophers express their views?
5 In what form do philosophers challenge the views of other
philosophers?
6 What is an argument?
7 How would you respond to each of the three philosophical
arguments above?
Assignment 4 Socrates Video Part 1
1 Where was Socrates born?
2 How do we know what Socrates said?
3 When was Socrates born?
4 What did Socrates try to help us do?
5 Humans sometimes act like what other creature?
6 Why do we do this?
7 What did Socrates do in the market place?
8 What did Socrates discover?
9 What motivated Socrates?
10 What do we all have a duty to do?
Assignment 5 After the video
What were the Big Questions people were asked in the
programme?
How could people respond to these questions?
Assignment 6 Socrates Video Part 2
1 To what did Socrates compare thinking?
2 What kind of beliefs did Socrates examine first?
3 What happens to a belief if you can find an exception?
4 What is a “water-tight” thought?
5 Who did Socrates believe had a duty to philosophise?
6 Of what has the death of Socrates become a symbol?
7 What achievement of ancient Athens has survived the best?
8 How can philosophy transform an individual?
Assignment 7 After the video
1What examples of “common sense” beliefs can you think of?
2What common sense ideas do you agree with? Why?
3What common sense ideas do you disagree with? Why?
The Market Place – Ancient Athens Eukidame meets Ikidaou
E:Did you hear about Socrates?
I:The scruffy little guy who asks a lot of stupid questions?
E:That’s him. Well actually, that was, him.
I:What do you mean, WAS?
E:He’s dead!
I:Well, it was only a matter of time. Not washing and not
dressing properly and going round with those other troublemakers –
very unhealthy lifestyle if you ask me. Bound to end in tears..
E:No, no, no! It wasn’t a disease. (In shocked whispered tones)
He took his own life! (Draws his hand across his throat)
I:Poor chap. Now that is a surprise. He always seemed such a
happy, little fat fellow. Smelly, and a complete pest but happy,
well, in his own way of course.
E:He didn’t commit suicide because he was depressed. He chose to
die rather than leave the city.
I:Really. Not a country lover then. Well, I suppose the schools
are quite good here and the shopping is very convenient and we all
know what country toilets are like…
E:(Getting exasperated) He wasn’t bothered by these things. He
committed suicide because he believed that it was the right thing
to do. If felt that if he was forced to leave Athens he wouldn’t be
able to ask questions and seek the truth.
I:So he died for the truth?
E:Yes!
I:Not for money or power or even, ahem, a woman?
E:No! God no. Socrates wasn’t really, you know.
I:Oh yes. Well each to his own. (Chuckles) Get it? Each to his…
Whatever. You know, I never thought he was right in the head. All
that questioning it’s just not good for one you know!
E:Well it makes you think.
I:Exactly! Too much thinking!. Where does that get you? And,
stirring up trouble amongst the youngsters and other riff raff when
he should have been telling them to show more respect for their
elders and betters.
E:Plato thinks that Socrates is a hero. He said that Socrates
would never be forgotten.
I:He would. He’s another nutter if you ask me. He’s probably got
some sort of book deal out of all this. I really don’t know what
people see in these thinkers. Thinking is not what men do. It’s
just not heroic – thinking. Doing is what heroes do. Fighting in
wars, saving countries and killing enemies. That’s real heroism.
Not thinking. Thinking is for fools.
E:Well, Plato thinks that Socrates will be remembered.
I:I’m telling you now, in hundreds of years from now, no one
will ever have heard of that vertically challenged, malodorous,
scruffy beggar called Socrates. You mark my words!
Assignment 8
1 Why do you think Socrates was popular with young people?
2 Why might some one think Socrates was a hero and others, a
zero?
3 Why would a lot of people be glad that Socrates was gone?
4 Does the story of Socrates remind you of another story?
Philosophers – No Common Sense!
So according to Socrates, nothing is taken for granted. In
philosophy there is no common sense!
Most people would agree that it is wrong to kill but a
philosopher would say ‘why?’ “What makes an act wrong?” and ‘What
does wrong mean?’
Many of the beliefs we take for granted do have firm
foundations, others, do not. Philosophy allows us to examine what
we think we know and believe and why we think and believe the way
we do.
This skill of analysing and evaluating arguments and counter
arguments is transferable. We can apply it to any part of life.
Examples of Philosophical Questions:
Is there knowledge which is so certain that it is impossible to
doubt?
Can I be sure that other people experience colour and pain in
the same way as I do?
Is punishment ever justified? Is the unborn child a person?
Why should we obey the law? Do animals have rights?
What is ‘knowing’?
Could a computer be a person?
These are all very difficult questions some of which have been
discussed for at least 2500 years. This struggle is still going on
so do not worry that you will be expected to come up with answers
yourself but you will be expected to be able to evaluate some of
the answers to these questions for their strengths and
weaknesses.
What do philosophers actually do?
This usually takes the form of a question.
For example - if we take the question ‘Is the unborn child a
person?’ –
The first problem we must clear up is what do we mean by a ‘
person’?
This can be a definition.
For example - “A person is a human being.”
What a philosopher will do next is look for weaknesses in this
definition or exceptions to it. And this is where your critical
thinking comes in.
Assignment 9
In groups of no more than 4, try to find weakness in the
definition of a person given above.
Philosophy or, Philosophies?
There are an infinite number of philosophical questions but only
three basic types.
1
Questions about what really exists
2
Questions about how we should act
3
Questions about what can be known
These basic types of questions have created three of the major
branches of philosophy.
1Metaphysics= Questions about what really exists
2Ethics
= Questions about how we should act
3Epistemology= Questions about what can be known
In other words the three basic questions are –
Assignment 11
Make up three examples of each of the different questions
What is Real? Plato and Socrates
Metaphysics – concerns what is real
The common sense position is that you/we can tell when something
is real. The planet Earth is real, your body is real (whether you
like it or not!), this piece of paper you are reading from is real
as is the classroom you are in.
Plato challenged our common sense view. He pointed out that the
Earth, your body, paper, classrooms and all material things are
constantly changing. No physical thing lasts, so physical things
are not real.
Plato’s argument is that to be real, something has to BE. If
something is changing constantly it isn’t BEING anything it is in a
constant state of BECOMING something else.
Becoming something else and something else and something else
and…...
But never ever becoming any THING because it is becoming
something else and so on…….
Assignment 12 (Pairs - if you want)
Can you think of anything physical that does not change? In
other words can you think of an exception to Plato’s argument?
Plato’s argument seems to be very strong but it also seems to go
against our deepest intuition. Material things seem so real.
Getting hit on the head by a hammer seems very real!
When we smell, touch, taste, see and hear stuff it all seems
very real.
Plato says that getting our heads round this idea is very
difficult and he wrote a story to explain this. The story is called
the Allegory of the Cave. An allegory is an example of a story with
a meaning in which each element represents some thing.
Plato’s Allegory of the Cave
Imagine prisoners who have been chained since childhood deep
inside a cave. Not only are their limbs immobilized by the chains;
their heads are chained as well so that their eyes are fixed on the
wall in front.
Unknown to the prisoners, behind them is an enormous fire, and
between the fire and the prisoners is a raised walkway, along which
shapes of various animals, plants, and other things are carried by
people passing overe the walkway. These shapes cast shadows on the
wall, which hold the prisoners' attention. When one of the
shape-carriers speaks, an echo against the wall causes the
prisoners to believe that the words come from the shadows in front
of them not from the actual source behind them.
The prisoners discuss the shapes and sounds - naming the shapes
as they come by. This shadow display is the only reality.
A prisoner is released, stands up and turns around.
At first his eyes will be blinded by the firelight, and the
shapes passing will appear less real than their shadows but
painfully and gradually he begins to see the real objects.
He begins to claw his way up and out of the cave into the
sunlight. At first he is again blinded by the sun and not be able
to see anything.
Eventually he will be able to see darker shapes such as shadows
and, only later, brighter and brighter objects.
The last object he would be able to see is the sun, which, in
time, he would learn to see as that object which provides the
seasons and the courses of the year, presides over all things in
the visible region, and is in some way the cause of all these
things that he has seen
Once he realises what is real he wants to return to the cave to
free his fellow prisoners. The other prisoners' do not want to
escape captivity. The freed prisoner's eyes cannot adjust again. He
tries to explain their plight to them but he stumbles around in the
dark as seems completely mad. Eventually they feel threatened by
him and kill him.
What does the story mean?
This story is an allegory. In an allegory, each element has a
meaning and the whole story has an important point. Plato is saying
–
“Wake up to reality”!
We often take things at face value. We have a habit of accepting
things without thinking and checking. If we don’t wake up to
reality then we will be living an illusion. We will value the
valueless, believe what is false and do what is wrong.
Plato is saying that we frequently go by appearance. We do not
use our ability to think critically.
Socrates, Plato’s teacher, said “The unexamined life is not
worth living”. In other words to be full human we must be
philosophers – we must establish the truth for ourselves.
However this is not an easy path, it may not bring wealth, fame
nor prosperity and it could mean sacrifice. But these things don’t
last anyway!
Assignment 13
In the Cave Allegory who/what represents ……..
Plato believed that relying on sense experience made us into
pleasure-seekers not truth-seekers. We are drawn to entertainments
not knowledge.
Assignment 14
Is Plato right? Give reasons for your answer.
What would Plato think of “Big Brother”?
The Truman Show – Hollywood’s Version of Plato’s Cave
The Truman Show is set in a world, called Seahaven, where an
entire town is dedicated to a continually running television
show.
All but one of the participants are actors.
Only the central character, Truman Burbank (Jim Carrey), is
unaware that he lives in a constructed reality for the
entertainment of those outside.
The film follows his discovery of his situation and his attempts
to escape.
Along his path to truth and escape, Truman encounters obstacles
created to prevent him from discovering reality like traffic jams,
vehicle breakdowns and industrial accidents.
For example,Truman has been made afraid of water after
witnessing the tragic "death" of his father in a fake boating
incident.
Assignment 15
Compare and contrast the meaning of the Allegory of the Cave
with The Truman Show.
Assignment 16
How have your views and beliefs changed over the past 5
years?
How Should We Act?
This is the next Big Question in philosophy – many would say
this is THE Big Question.
So we are now in the area of what is right and wrong.
Firstly let’s assume that we should act according to some view
of what is right and wrong.
What did Plato say?
Plato’s view was that philosophers would do the right thing
because they would know what the right thing was.
Glaucon, a relative of Plato’s argues that people only act well
from fear of the consequences. He uses a story to illustrate his
point.
The Ring of Gyges
According to the legend, Gyges of Lydia was a shepherd in the
service of King Candaules of Lydia. After an earthquake, a cave was
revealed in a mountainside where Gyges was feeding his flock.
Entering the cave, Gyges discovered that it was in fact the tomb of
an enthroned corpse who wore a golden ring, which Gyges
pocketed.
Gyges then returned to his fellow shepherds, and began fumbling
with the ring that he now wore. Gyges discovered that when he
turned the collet of the ring to the inside of his hand, he became
invisible to the other shepherds, and they began to marvel as if he
had vanished. He turned the ring the other way, and he reappeared;
after several trials, he determined that the ring was indeed very
magical, and gave him the power to turn invisible at will.
Gyges then arranged to be chosen one of the messengers who
reported to the king as to the status of the flocks. Arriving at
the palace, Gyges used his new power of invisibility to seduce the
queen, and with her help he murdered the king, and became king of
Lydia himself. King Croesus, famous for his wealth, was Gyges'
descendant.
Assignment 17
1Who do you agree with most, Plato or Glaucon, and why?
2Some people argue that we only ever act for ourselves. What do
you think? Why?
3Imagine you discovered the Ring of Gyges. How would you use
it?
The Cider House Rules
Homer Wells (Tobey Maguire), an un-adopted orphan is the film's
central character. Homer grew up in an orphanage directed by Dr.
Wilbur Larch (Michael Caine). Dr. Larch is also secretly performs
abortions. Dr Larch believes that he is doing "What is right"
because otherwise there would be more unwanted babies and women
dying from back-street abortions. Dr Larch trains Homer to be his
replacement. Homer refuses to take part in abortions but has no
objection to Dr Larch performing them.
Assignment 18
1 Why does Dr Larch say he performs abortions?
2 Why does Homer say that he will not perform abortions?
3 What action did Dr Larch take with the girl with the botched
abortion?
4 What other examples of immorality does Dr Larch exhibit?
5 Why does Homer change his view on abortion?
6 For Dr Larch what do the terms “right” and “wrong” mean?
7 Do you think Dr Larch is a good man? Why?
8 What do you think makes an act either right or wrong?
Assignment 19
What would be the arguments for and against using the atomic
bomb in WWII, eating meat, combining animal and human tissue
together in cloning and legalising all drugs?
What Can Be Known?
This is the third Big Question in philosophy and links strongly
with the other two – what is real and how should we act?
What does it mean to know some thing? What do you know? How do
you know you know?
Here are some knowledge statements:
Assignment 20
1 Can you challenge any of these statements?
2 Are they all basically the same sorts of statements or are
they different?
3 Look at each – how is knowledge achieved or how can it be
demonstrated?
Epistemology
Epistemology = a big word for the study of knowledge.
In philosophy we firstly have to distinguish between knowing
that and knowing how. There is a difference between knowing how to
drive a car – a skill, and that a car is a kind of vehicle – a
fact.
We are not concerned with knowing how. We are only concerned
with facts or statements that claim to be factual. Later we will
call these propositions – statements that can either be true or
false.
In philosophy we also have to distinguish between two different
kinds of statements (propositions).
Statements based on sense experience are called a posteriori
statements.
For example - The sky is blue, sugar is sweet and he can’t sing
are all a posteriori statements. They are true or false depending
on your senses.
There are other types of statements that are not based on sense
experience. These are called a priori statements.
For example - 2 + 2 = 4. The shortest distance between two
points is a straight line, triangles have angles equal to 180
degrees, and bachelors are unmarried men.
Look at the a posteriori statements above. How do you know these
to be true?
Seeing is believing! Show me! We would probably claim that know
our world through our senses.
Now look at the a priori statements. How do you know that these
are true?
These statements are true by definition. They cannot be false
because they would contradict themselves. The definition of a
triangle is an object with internal angles adding up to 180 degrees
and you just don’t get married bachelors!
Some philosophers have claimed that only a priori knowledge is
dependable. They reject knowledge based on sense experience.
Remember Plato? He claimed that sense experience did not result in
real knowledge. These philosophers are called Rationalists.
Other philosophers who claim that rationalism is not really
informative about the world and that our senses provide us with
real knowledge about the world. These philosophers are called
Empiricists.
Assignment 21
Which of the following statements are a priori and which are a
posteriori? Put them into separate columns
2 + 2 = 4 In fourteen hundred and ninety-two, Columbus sailed
the ocean blue
I exist You exist The sun will rise tomorrow Right now I am
perceiving this page Barking dogs bark Humans have evolved from
lower animals Every event must have a cause Edinburgh is the
capital of Scotland Red is Red Murder is wrong
Seeing is Believing?
What do you think is happening when you look at this
pattern?
All these illusions point out a problem with the empirical
approach to knowledge. Sometimes our senses can deceive us. So the
argument against empiricism is….
Assignment 22
What do you think of this argument?
Assignment 1
What do you think of the answer above and why?
Assignment 2
Why is the above answer unhelpful?
Philosophers deal with arguments. They either invent them or
criticise other peoples’ arguments or both.
Philosophers often question what we take for granted about what
the world is made of, how we should behave and what is true.
So philosophy is concerned with arguing about philosophical
questions – examining the reasoning on which beliefs are based and
revising the belief if necessary in the light of this process.
1They try to make clear what the problem is in each case.
2The answers which people come up with for this question/problem
will also be analysed.
Assignment 10 (Pairs if you want)
What are the issues, arguments or problems raised by
The Genetic Modification of plants and animals
The debate over Capital Punishment
The internet
What is there? How should I act?
and
How do I know what there is and how I should act?
I know my name I know that Friday follows Thursday I know how to
count I know 6 X 6 = 36 I know the sun will rise tomorrow I know
stealing is wrong I know that sugar is sweet I know that the London
is the capital of England I know that vinegar tastes sour I know
how to ride a bike I know that WWII started in 1939 I know I am
reading this
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An argument is a series of connected statements which try to
convince us to believe something.
Our senses sometimes deceive us.
When we are deceived we do not know we are being deceived.
We could be deceived right now.
Conclusion
We can never trust sense experience.
Only physical objects are real because only physical objects can
be seen, smelled, touched, tasted or heard.
We can only know something that can be sensed – seen, touched,
smelled, touched, tasted, or heard.
The only good act is one that is performed from unselfish
duty.
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Symbol Meaning
False Beliefs
The Philosopher
Critical Thinking
Common Sense Belief
Thinking is Difficult
Ignorance leads to Injustice
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TrumanCave Meaning
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