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7/27/2019 Yemen/USA: License to Kill; Why the American Drone War on Yemen Violates International Law
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License to KiLLWhy h Amra Dr War Ym Vla iraal Law
www.alkarama.org
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AlkaramaHR
alkarama.foundation
www.alkarama.org
@AlkaramaHR
Alkarama is a Swiss-based, independent human rights organisaon
established in 2004 to assist all those in the Arab World subjected to,
or at risk of, extra-judicial execuons, disappearances, torture and
arbitrary detenon. Acng as a bridge between individual vicms in
the Arab world and internaonal human rights mechanisms, Alkaramaworks towards an Arab world where all individuals live free, in dignity
and protected by the rule of law. In Arabic, Alkarama means dignity.
Alkarama Foundation, 2013
Original in French
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License to KiLLWy t Amica D Wa Ym
Vilat Itatial Law
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ThAnks
Our thanks to the Yemeni National Organization for Defending Rightsand Freedoms (HOOD) for its collaboration in the preparation ofthis report.
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1. irdu 10
1.1.PolicalOverview 10
1.2.Astrugglingeconomy 11
1.3.Aweakstatefacingstrongchallenges 11
2. Al-Qada Ym 13
2.1.Early2000s:TheJihadistmovementindecline 13
2.2.2006-2009:Triggeringthedownwardspiralofviolence 14
2.3.2010:Statedecayleadstoincreasedacviesofarmedgroups 16
2.4.2011:ThedeploymentofAnsaral-ShariaintheshadowoftheArabSpring 17
2.5.2012:Ansaral-Shariadislodged,thepopularcommieesbegintheirreign 18
3. Ym Amra rhar 20
3.1.1990-2000:Aneraofstrainedrelaons 20
3.2.Theimpactofthe11September2001aacks 20
3.3.Fromsuspiciontocooperaon 22
4. th War trrr udr Prd Barak obama 24
4.1.TheUnitedStatesnewstrategyintheGlobalWaronTerror 24
4.2.Theinstuonalisaonoftargetedkillings 25
4.3.ThePresidentoftheUnitedStateslegalizestargetedkillings 26
4.4.WhichagenciesareimplicatedinthemilitaryintervenoninYemen? 27
4.5.Howtargetsarechosen 30
5. Bw cpra ad irv 33
5.1.TheTestPhaseof2002-2009 33
5.2.TheSpringoftheDrones 34
6. th Dr War Ym 37
6.1.Thelackofinformaononairstrikes 37
6.2.YemeniauthoriesclaimresponsibilityforAmericanaacks. 38
6.3.Americanintervenoninterferesinaninternalconict 39
6.4.Dronesversusnegoaon 40
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6.5.Whoarethesenioroperaves? 42
6.6.Drones:aninstrumentofterroragainstthepopulaon 44
6.7.DronesreplaceGuantanamo 45
7. Ym plal par ad mvm ra dr rk 47
7.1.Acomplexpolicalsystem 47
7.2.PosioningaertheArabSpring 48
7.3.TheHumanRightsMinistrycondemnsdronestrikes 50
7.4.ThecauousposionoftheYemeniParliament 50
7.5.TheNaonalDialogueConferenceadoptsaresoluon 51
7.6.CivilSocietyraisesitsvoice 52
8. targd kllg udr raal law 55
8.1.Armedconict,Self-DefenseorLawEnforcementOperaon? 55
8.2.Basicprinciplesofarmedconictarenotrespected 57
8.3.IstheAmericanintervenonlegimateself-defence? 59
8.4.Targetedkillingsunderinternaonalhumanrightslaw 60
8.5.TheextrajudicialexecuonofAmericancizens 61
9. clu 62
10. Rmmda 63
11. Ax: t xampl f Amra arrk 64
Annex1:TheaackonAl-Majalah(Abyan),17December2009 65
Annex2:ThetargetedkillingofJaberAl-Shabwani,Marib,24May2010 75
Annex3:TheaackonAzzan(Shabwa),30mars2012 77
Annex4:TheaacksonJaar(Abyan),15May2012 79
Annex5:TheaackonKhashamir(Hadramout),29August2012 82
Annex6:TheaackonRadaa(Al-Baydha),2September2012 84
Annex7:Al-Shihr(Hadramout)on24December2012 88
Annex8:TheaackonAl-Shihr(Hadramout),28December2012 90
Annex9:TheaackonKhawlan(Sanaa),23January2013 91
Annex10:TheaackonWusab(Dhamar),17April2013 94
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summary
Since2009,theUnitedStateshasregularlybombedYemen.Theseaerialaackshaveoccurredinalmosteveryprov-inceofthecountry.Inthepasttwoyears,thenumberofdronestrikeshasmulpliedandtheinfrastructurerequiredfortheseaackshavebeenexpanded,notonlyinYemen,butalsoinneighboringSaudiArabiaandDjibou.SincetherststrikesinNovember2002andunlthewringofthisreportinJuly2013,theUnitedStateshascarriedoutbetween134and234militaryoperaonsinYemen.Theseincludestrikesbyaircraanddronesaswellasmis-sileslaunchedfromwarshipslocatedintheGulfofAden.Accordingtovarioussources,esmatesofthenumberof
peoplekilledrangefrom1000to2000.However,tothisday,neithertheYemeninortheAmericanauthorieshaveputforwardocialstascsonthenumberofcasuales.
AlkaramacarriedoutanumberofeldinvesgaonsinYementhroughout2012and2013,inordertogatherwit-nessaccountsandvicmtesmoniesabouttheseaacks,aswellasinformaonfromtheirfamiliesandlawyers.Interviewswerealsoheldwithgovernmentocialsandmembersofcivilsociety.
ThisreportpresentstheresultsofourresearchandanalysisontheUSstrategyinitswaronterrorwithrespecttointernaonallaw.ItalsoexaminesthereaconsofUSaswellasYemeniocialsandcivilsocietyinlightoftheseri-ousviolaonscommied.Finally,thereportsetsoutrecommendaonstotheYemeniandUSauthories,aswellastotheUN,toaddresstheseissues.
Yemenscurrentpresident,Abdal-RabMansoural-Hadi,cametopowerinFebruary2012followingamassrevolu-onbytheYemenipopulaon.HereplacedAliAbdallahSalehwhohadruledthecountryfor33years.Sincethen,thecountryisintransion,withanaonaldialogueunderwaysinceMarch2013,encompassingYemensvariouspolicalgroups.ItshouldresultineleconsinFebruary2014.
Inthemeanme,thecurrentpresidenthasreinforcedYemenseswiththeUnitedStates,placinglargeregionsofYementerritoryatthedisposaloftheUSandencouragingitsmilitaryintervenoninthecountry,includingbyat-tribungtheresponsibilityofaackstotheUnitedStatesdirectly.ThishasincreasedtensionswithinthepopulaonwhichdoesnotsupportAmericanairstrikes.
Thisway,underthecoverofcounter-terrorismmeasures,theAmericanadministraonhasinvolveditselfdirectlyinanmul-dimensionalinternalconicttakingplacebetweenthecentralYemeniauthoriesandmulpleopposion
movementsincludingarmedgroupsofJihadisttendencynamelyal-QaedaandAnsaral-Shariabutalsothesouthseparastmovementanddierenttribesthatcontestthecentralgovernmentsauthority.
TheUnitedStateshasneverdeclaredwaronYemen,andinsteadreferstotheAUMF(AuthorizaontoUseMilitaryForce)resoluonof14September2001tojusfytheirintervenoninYemen,despitethefactthattheYemenigov-ernmentisconsideredanallyanddoesnotrepresentathreattotheUS.TheAUMFsetsoutmeasurestocombatthosewithesofanykindtotheaacksof11September2001.
Thishasbeeninterpretedtoincludeallthosethatareconsideredtobeassociatedforcesofal-Qaeda,althoughthisphrasedoesnotappearintheresoluonitself.ThisterminfactrstappearedinPresidentObamasspeechesandocialWhiteHousetextsandisusedtolegimizecombatagainstgroupswhoseeswithal-Qaedaarenotalwaysclearlyestablished.
ThequesonthatmustbeaskediswhethertheUnitedStatesareapplyingtherulesofwar,orlawenforcement?TheocialargumentputforwardbyAmericanocialsplaysontheconfusionbetweenthesetwonoonstojusfytargetedassassinaons.However,thedisnconbetweenthetwoisimportant,asifitisthelaer,thelawofarmedconictswouldapply,whileinthesecondcase,itwouldbethelawsgoverninglawenforcementthatapply,whichmustcomplywithinternaonalhumanrightslaw.
RegardlessofthecontextinwhichtheAmericanintervenoninYementakesplace,theAmericanmilitaryandtheC.I.Aconnuetousedrones,othertypesofmilitaryaircraaswellaswarshipstocommittargetedassassinaonsthatshouldbeconsidered,andqualied,asextrajudicialexecuons.
PresidentObamahimselfprovidedthecondionsrequiredforasuspecttobeassassinated;namelythattheperson
bedesignatedasbeingapersonofinterestunderUSlaw,thatheorsherepresentareal,directandimminentthreattotheUnitedStatesanditsinterests;thatitnotbepossibletocapturethepersonandthattheoperaondoesnottargetcivilians.Theadministraonceresthatonlytheleadersofal-Qaedaandassociatedforcesaretargeted,
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withoutclarifyingthecriteriarequiredtoplaceindividualsonkilllists.Whatiscertain,however,isthatthenumberoftheseleadersisverysmallcomparedtothehundredsofthosewhohavebeenkilledduringthesestrikes.
Inreality,theforcesimplicatedalsotargetunidenedcombatantswhodonotplayaleadershiprole,whoareanonymousanddonothavechargesheldagainstthem.CiviliansalsosuerduetothehumanandtechnicalerrorsthatAmericanpolicalandmilitaryleadersacceptasnecessarycollateraldamageinthepursuitoftheiraims.In
fact,YemenjustlikePakistanhasbecomeatesnggroundforrevoluonarynewmethodsofwarfare,notonlytechnically,butalsopolicallyandlegally.
Suay
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MAp o U.s. AIr sTrIkesIn YeMen
Sites of the attacks documented by Alkarama between 2009 and 2013
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1. irdu
1.1 plitical ovviw
TheRepublicofYemenwascreatedon15May1990whenthePeoplesDemocracRepublicofYemen(SouthYemen)andtheArabRepublicofYemen(NorthYemen)wereunited.AerthefalloftheOomanEmpirein1918,theNorthofthecountry,whichbecameanImamateandthenaRepublic,fellundertheinuenceofSaudiArabia.TheSouth, as a Brish protectorate, didnotgain its independence unl 1967,aer whichthe Marxist-leaning
governmentofthisnewlyindependentstateallieditselfwiththeSovietUnion.Thedicultrelaonsandregularconictbetweenthenorthandsouthofthecountry,whichpersisttothisday,cannothoweverbereducedsimplytoanideologicalopposionorevenaColdWarlegacy,althoughthislegacyhascertainlyleanimportantmarkontherelaons.
Thereunicaonprocess,startedin1990,cametoahaltascivilwarerupted,triggeredbytheleadersofSouthYemen.Theconictlastedfrom5Mayto7July1994andnishedbyconrmingtheruleoftheNortherngovern-mentbasedinSanaaoverthewholecountry.Sincetheendofthisinternalconict,thestrategicimportanceofthecountryhasconnuedduetoitsgeographiclocaonbetweenthetwoheavyweightsoftheregion:SaudiArabia,whichseesYemenaswithinitssphereofinuence,andIran,whichfeelsthreatenedbymilitaryencirclementbytheUnitedStatesanditsallies.
InYemen,stateinstuonsaresuperimposedontribalstructures,whichremainvery inuenalandsomemescontradicttheinterestsof thestate.These instuonsmust thereforeconstantlynegoatetheir inuencewiththedierenttribal,religious,andpolical(notablyIslamist)actorsthatmakeupYemenisociety,unabletoalwaysdominatethem,astheinstuonsarethemselveswroughtwiththesamecontradicons.Themostinuenalopposionpares,al-IslahandtheSocialistPartywhichhavebeen,organizedsince2000intotheCommonForum,competewiththeGeneralPeoplesCongress(GPC),chairedbyformerPresidentAliAbdallahSaleh,buttheyarealsotheproductofthesesameconictsandareoenforcedtomakealliancesthatatmesseemcounterintuive.Itisacomplexsystemthatisconstantlyinux,inwhichcronyismandcorruponplaybotharegulangandanimmobiliz-ingrole.TheregimeofAliAbdallahSalehstrengtheneditsauthoritariancharacteraerthecivilwarandwouldnothavebeenabletomaintainitspowerforoverthreedecadeswithoutasolidcontrolofthesecurityservices.Eventoday,thetransionalstateremainsstronglyundertheinuenceoftheauthoritarianismlegacylebytheoustedpresidentandhisfamilyin2012.Theprecariouspolicalbalanceofthecountryhasbeenlargelydisruptedbythe
UnitedStatesredenionofregionalpolicyfollowingtheaacksof11September2011.
ThepopularuprisingthatshookmanycountriesintheArabworldquicklyreachedYemenatthebeginningof2011.YemeniyouthseekingchangeandpolicalparcipaonandinspiredbytheregionalprotestmovementstooktothestreetsanddemandedtheresignaonofPresidentAliAbdallahSaleh.Astheweekswentby,agrowingnumberofpolicalparesandtribessupportedthesedemands.
Aer monthsofdemonstraonsandnon-violentprotestsorganizedthroughoutthecountryand suppressedbyforce,acompromisewasnallyreached.PresidentSalehacceptedtheproposionoftheGulfCooperaonCouncil:hewouldstepdownoncondionthathewouldbegrantedimmunityfromprosecuonandthatthesystemhehadestablishedduringhis33-yearreignwouldstayinplace.HisfamilyretainscontroloverallbranchesofthesecurityservicesandheremainsincontroloftheGeneralPeoplesCongress,whichcontrolshalfoftheministriesinthenew
governmentofNaonalUnity.On21February2012,VicePresidentAbdRabMansoural-Hadipresentedhimselfasthesolepresidenalcandidateandwaselectedtoatransionaltermoftwoyears.InSeptember2012heredseveralseniorocialsofthesecurityserviceswhowereconsideredclosetoSaleh,butmanytransionalmeasuresremainunresolved,includingtheoutcomeofthenaonaldialogue,thedraingofanewConstuon,thereor-ganisaonofthearmy,andtherevivaloftheeconomy.1Manyacvistsfeelasiftheirrevoluonwashijackedandthatanewdynamicmustbesetinmoon.Groupsrelatedtoal-Qaedahavetakenadvantageoftheinsurreconaryclimateandhaveoccupiedlargeterritoriesofthesouthofthecountryforclosetoayear.
ThetransionalagreementsignedinNovember2011includedanaonaldialoguebetweenpartyandtriballeadersrepresenngallsegmentsofYemenisociety.Thisdialogue,whichbeganinMarch2013,ismeanttodecideanagendaforthedraingofanewConstuonandtheholdingofeleconsinFebruary2014.Despitefacingmany
1) AprilLongleyAlley, Triagefora fracturingYemen, ForeignPolicy, October 31, 2012,hp://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2012/10/31/triage_for_a_fracturing_yemen(accessed28July2013).
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A suggg y
obstacles,thedialoguehasbroughttogetherover500delegatesandwassllongoinginJuly2013.
1.2 A tugglig cmy
Yemenfacesmanyseriousdiculesontheeconomicfront.Itlackssucientagriculturalland,especiallybecauseathirdofarablelandisdedicatedtotheculvaonofQat.2Hydrocarbonresources,whichprovideessenalnancial
relief, are indecline,unemployment ishigh,and close to35% ofthe populaon livesbelow the poverty line.Successiveinternalcriseshaveaggravatedthesituaon,parcularlyduetotheinternaldisplacementofthousandsofpeopleinthenorthandthesouthofthecountry.TheGulfcountriesalsoregularlyexpelYemenisthatworkintheircountries.Inthespringof2013,SaudiArabiadecidedtoexpelallillegals,aeuphemismforallthosewhodonotworkforasponsor.OnemillionYemenisthatremitcloseto$4billiondollarstotheirhomecountry 3couldbeaectedbytheseexpulsions.
Inthe1990s,theIMFimposedaStructuralAdjustmentProgramthatrequiredtheprivasaonofpublicenter-prises,areduconinpublicsectorjobs,andtheloweringofsubsidiesandtaris,measuresthathaveworsenedthesocioeconomicsituaonofmostYemenis.In 2002,theIMFandtheWorldBankgaveYemen$300millionatadonorsconferencethatgranted$2.3billioninaid. 4Inreturn,thegovernmentwasrequiredtoaccelerateitsreforms.InJuly2005,thegovernmentadoptedseveraleconomicmeasuresthatcreatedsignicantopposioninthepopulaon,includingthereduconofsubsidiesforpetroleumproducts,whichresultedinadoublingoffuelpricesandsparkedriots.
Theuprisingsof2011thatlastedmorethanayearledtoprofounddisruponsinanalreadyweakeconomy,withafallofGDPof-10.5%in2011and-0.5%in2012,rampantinaon(17.1%in2012),andadecitinthebalanceofpaymentsequivalentto10.2%ofGDPin2012. 5Yemenseconomyislargelydependentonexternalnancing.AtthedonorsconferenceinSeptember2012,$7.9billionwaspledged,ofwhich$2billionhasbeenallocatedtodate.ThenextdonorconferenceinSeptember2013shouldfacilitatethedeliveryoftheremainderonthecondionthatthegovernmentcommitsmorermlytopolicalandeconomicreforms,especiallythecreaonofjobsintheprivatesector.Sincethespringof2013,asmallbutposivechangetookplace:inaonhasbeenbroughtundercontrolandforeigncurrencyreserveshavebeguntoincrease,signallingthebeginningofeconomicrecovery. 6Improvementsin
thelivesofmillionsofYemenicizenscanbeachievediftargetediniavesintheareasofeducaon,health,andsocialservicescanbelaunched.Therststep,however,istheestablishmentofanaonalagreementthatallowsfor
advancesinboththepolicalandeconomicelds.
1.3 A wa tat acig tg callg
Yemensinternalconicts,aswellasotherfactorssuchastheauthoritariannatureofthegovernment,poverty,andsocialstructures,havehadanundeniableeectontheradicalisaonofcertainelementsofYemenisociety.TheAmericanandSaudiintervenonsinYemenhavestrengthenedinrecentyearsduetothestrategicposionofthecountry,especiallyintheGulfofAden,throughwhichalargepartoftheinternaonalpetroleumsupplypasses.
Severalpolicallymovatedconictshaveshakenthecountryforyearswithoutanylong-termsoluonsbeing
foundforthem.TheHouthirebellionthatbeganinthe2000sintheNorthofthecountryhaslongbeenrepressedwithairstrikesandmassarrests.Thestatehasnotrespectedthedierentpeaceagreementsthatwerereachedovertheyears.Between2004and2010,sixwars(astheyareknowninYemen)havebeencarriedoutagainstthe
2)AplantwhoseleavesarefrequentlychewedbyYemenisfortheirhallucinogenicandsmulanteects.
3)RadioFranceInternaonal,DestravailleursymnitesexpulssdArabiesaoudite(YemeniworksexpelledbySaudiArabia),3April2013,hp://www.r.fr/moyen-orient/20130403-travailleurs-yemenites-expulses-arabie-saoudite(accessed28July2013).
4)EuropeanCommunity,Yemen,EuropeanCommunityStrategypaperfortheperiod2007-2013,p.21,hp://ec.europa.eu/external_rela-ons/yemen/csp/07_13_fr.pdf,(accessed28July2013).
5)IMF,ArabCountriesinTransion:EconomicOutlookandKeyChallenges,12October2012,p.16,hp://www.imf.org/external/np/country/
notes/yemen.htm(accessed28July2013).
6)WaelZakout,LepointsurlatransionauYmen(ThepointonthetransioninYemen),WorldBank,20June2013,hp://menablog.ban-quemondiale.org/le-point-sur-le-yemen(accessed28July2013).
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idu
movement,whichseeksafairerdistribuonofwealthandgreaterpolicalparcipaon.Overtheyears,aconfes-sionalelementhasemergedintheconict,astheHouthisbelongtoabranchofShiismknownastheZaidiyyahsect.
Peacefulprotestshaveregularlybeenorganizedinthesouthofthecountryforyearstodenounceeconomicandsocialinequaliesbetweenthetwopartsofthecountry,aswellastheauthoritarianismofthecentralgovern-
ment.Theseprotestshaveoenbeenbloodilyrepressed.Inthefaceofrepression,severalpolicalgroupshavedemandedsecession.
Itisinthisexplosivecontextthatal-QaedaintheArabianPeninsula(AQAP)wascreatedin2009.Inthewakeoftherevoluonarymovementthatbeganinearly2011,armedgroupslinkedtoal-Qaedaoccupiedlargeswathesofthesouth.Clasheswiththestateweresoviolentthatseveraltownsweredestroyedandempedofinhabitants.TherevoltwascrushedbytheintervenonofSaudiArabiaandtheUnitedStates,whosupportedtheYemeniairforcebycarryingoutdronestrikes.
OneofthekeycharacteriscsofYemenipolicsistheabilitytointegratethevariouspolical,social,andreligiouscomponentsofsocietyintothestateapparatus.Themajordierencesbetweenthesecomponentsremainedunre-solved,buttheveryrealriskthatthisdelicatebalanceofpowerimplodeshasalwaysbeenavertedusingnegoa-on,co-optaon,andclientelism.Militaryclasheshaveneverthelessoccurred,butgrowingforeigninterferencein
internalaairs,especiallyfromtheUnitedStates7,hasledtoanexacerbaonandmilitarisaonofconictsinthesecondhalfofthe2000s.
InclashesinbothNorthandSouthYemen,themanagementofconictsbythecentralauthorieshasbeennothingbutrepressive.LaurentBonnefoy,aspecialistonYemen,states:Infact,theobsessionwithsecurity,imposedbythedominantdiscourse,constutestheprincipalsourceofinstability.ThepriorityaccordedtoWesternsecurityattheexpenseoftheYemeniswillprovetobealong-termmiscalculaon. 8Theseprophecwords,whichwerewrienin2006,fellshortofthesubsequentdevelopments:theintervenonofforeignpowerswhichhad,withfewexcepons,remainedindirecttothatpointhasintensiedtosuchanextentthatithasdeterminedthecourseofeventsinrecentyears.
7)Forexample,thesgmasaonoftheal-IslahpartysincethegovernmentcommiedtoghngterrorismalongsidetheUnitedStatesinthe1990sbyexcludingitfromthedecision-makingstructuresdespitethefactthatitrepresentsalargepartofthepopulaon.ThisledtotheconcentraonofpowerinthehandsofthePresidentandhispartybutalsoledtonegoaonsbetweentheopposionpares,whichcreatedtheJointForumin2002.Thisforumpresentedacommoncandidateinthe2006presidenalelecons.
8)LaurentBonnefoy,Entrepressionsextrieuresettensionsinternes,unquilibreinstableauYmen(Betweenexternalpressuresandinter-naltensions,anunstableequilibriuminYemen),October2006,hp://www.monde-diplomaque.fr/2006/10/BONNEFOY/14054(accessed28July2013).
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2.1 ealy 2000: T Jiadit mvmt i dcli
Fromthemid-1980sonwards,ghtersfromaroundtheArabworldjoinedthewaragainsttheSovietoccupaonofAfghanistan.Duringthisperiod,theYemeniauthoriesrecruitedvolunteersandassistedtheminreachingthefrontlines.ThisocialgovernmentposiontowardsthejihadinAfghanistancorrespondedwiththatofIslamistswhowereanintegralpartofmanysectorsofthestateinstuonssuchasthepolice,thearmy,theadministraon,
andtheeducaonsystem.ThiscommitmentbytheYemenigovernmenttotheAfghansstrugglewassupportedbylargepartsofthepopulaon,andallowedthemobilizaonoftheformercombatantsofAfghanistanaspartofthecivilwarof1994.Thisco-optaonofjihadistsavoidedconfrontaonwiththereturning,welltrainedghterswhoverywellcouldhaverebelledagainstthecentralgovernment.Thejihadists,however,didnottargetthestate,which,toacertainextent,sharedtheircricismsoftheUnitedStateswhichmanyoftheghtersnowexpressed,havingturnedagainsttheUSfollowingthewithdrawaloftheSoviets.TheviolentactswhichwerecommiedbyarmedgroupsinYementhereforetargetedforeigners,eithermilitaryortourists.9
ThisdelicatebalancebegantocrumbleaertheSeptember2001aacksontheUnitedStates.TheYemeniauthori-esralliedtotheAmericanposionintheglobalwaronterror,thoughnotforgengtoappeasecertainsegmentsoftheIslamistmovementinthecountry,toopowerfulandessenaltothecentralgovernment.TheAmericangov-ernmentcricizedYemeniauthoriesfornottakingmeasurestopreventSheikhAbdelmajidal-Zindanifromtravel-
lingandfreezinghisassets,amovethatissupportedbyUNsancons.10Al-Zindaniisawell-knownreligiousgureinthecountryandthepresidentofal-ImanUniversityinSanaa.TheUnitedStateshasneverbeenabletoprovetheaccusaonthathenancesterrorism,whichisthebasisfortheUNsancons.AmericanocialsbelievedtherewerecloselinksbetweenthoseresponsiblefortheaacksontheUSSColein2000(seeinfra,3.2)andtheaacksof11September2001,andtheytendedtoexaggeratetheimportanceofal-QaedainYemen.SomemeasuresweretakenbytheYemeniauthoriestocombatterrorismsuchastheexpulsionofforeignstudentsandimprisonmentofdozensofmilitants,buttheYemeniauthoriesdidnot,atthatme,believethattherewasanal-Qaedaorganiza-oninYemen.Thiswasnotcompletelyfalse,astheremayhavebeenvariousarmedgroupsacveinthecountrythatwerecomposedinpartbyAfghanistanveterans,andwhoundoubtedlyhavepolicalanitytoal-Qaeda,buttheyconsideredthemselvestobeautonomousanddidnotclaimanylinkstotheorganisaon.
Therebegantobewidespreadpublicoutcryagainstthearbitraryandprolongeddetenonofthesemenimprisoned
withoutconcreteevidenceorcriminalcharges.SincetheycouldnotbefreedwithoutaracngthecricismoftheUnitedStates,JudgeHamudal-HitardevelopedarehabilitaonprogrammetosasfythedemandsofboththepopulaonandtheAmericanadministraon.On11November2002,therstgrouppassedthroughtheRehabprogramme(36of104prisoners)andwasreleased. 11Severalweregivennancialaidandotherswereeveninte-gratedintomilitarystructuresinexchangeforanendtotheirmilitantacvies.Asthisprogrammewasunabletotransformtheideologicaloutlookofthedetainees,whowereoennotevenoperaonalelementsofanyarmedgroup,a sortoftacitnon-aggressionpactbetweenthegovernmentandthemilitantswaselaborated.Prisonersdidnothavetodisavowviolentjihad;theysimplyhadtopromisenottocommitaacksinYemen.12Severalwavesofreleasetookplace.On16November2003,92suspectedmembersofal-QaedaandtheAden-Abyanarmywerereleased,whiletheUnitedStatesapparentlyopposedthereleaseof150menonthelist.13On20November2004,112religiousextremists,formeral-Qaedasympathizers,werereleasedaerhavinggonethroughJudgeHamud
alHitarsprogramme14
.Then,on27May2006,securityforcesfreed315mensuspectedofbelongingtoal-Qaeda,
9)LaurentBonnefoy,Unebrvehistoiredelaviolenceditejihadiste(Abriefhistoryofso-calledjihadistviolence),inLaurentBonnefoy,FranckMermierandMarinePoirier:Ymen,letournantrvoluonnaire(Yemen,arevoluonaryturningpoint),CEFAS-Karthala,2012,p.93-113.
10)UnitedStatesDepartmentofStatePublicaonOceoftheCoordinatorforCounterterrorism,CountryReportsonTerrorism2007,April2008,hp://www.state.gov/documents/organizaon/105904.pdf,p.131(accessed28July2013).
11)GregoryD.Johnsen,ThelastRefuge,Yemen,AlQaeda,andAmericaswarinArabia,W.W.Norton&Company,2012,Chapter10,Rehab,(electronicbookwithoutpagenumbers).
12)GregoryD.Johnsen,ThelastRefuge,Yemen[],Chapter10,Rehab,op.cit.
13)MarcDugas,ChronologieduYmen2003(YemensChronology,2003),Chroniquesymnites(YemeniChronicles),30December2003,
hp://cy.revues.org/152,(accessed28July2013).
14)LaurentBonnefoyandNablSubay,ChronologieduYmen2004(YemensChronology,2004),Chroniquesymnites(YemeniChroni-cles),hp://cy.revues.org/191,(accessed28July2013).
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lackingsucientevidencetoimplicatetheminanyterroristacts.15
Accordingtoanumberofobservers,theacvejihadistmovementwhetheronecallsital-Qaedaornothadbeenreducedtoitsmostbasicincarnaonasof2004.16Infact,intheyearsbeforeitsdismemberment,itconsistedofnomorethanafewdozenghters(aswellasa fewhundredsupporters)andtheeliminaonofa leaderofagroupgenerallyledtothedisintegraonofthegroupitself,asdemonstratedbythedeathofal-Harithiandthe
exnconofhisIslamicArmyofAden-Abyan.ThepolicyofPresidentSalehseemedtopayo:themixofintegra-on,imprisonment,andphysicaleliminaons,hadensuredthatnoaacktookplaceinYemensincetheaackontheoiltankerLimburginOctober2002,theassassinaonofthesocialistleaderJarallahUmarlaterthatyear,andtheaackonahospitalrunbyAmericanBapststhatkilledfourpeopleinDecember.WheninAprilandMay2005threatsweremadeagainstseveral foreignestablishmentsin Sanaa,theauthoriesmade everyeortto arrestthoseresponsible.From2004on,themainpriorityofPresidentSalehaswellashisSaudineighbourswastheHouthirebellionintheNorth.
TheUSgovernmentcertainlydidnotappreciatethestrategyofleniencyadoptedbytheYemenigovernment,andina2007reportonterrorismstatedthatdespiteAmericanpressure,Yemenconnuedtoimplementasurrenderprogramwithlenientrequirementsforterroristsitcouldnotapprehend,whichoenledtotheirrelavelylaxincarceraon.17TheDepartmentofStatealsocricizesthefactthatGuantanamodetainees,uponreturntoYemen,
werereleasedaerashortperiodofevaluaonandrehabilitaoninaprogrammelackingstrictmeasuresofcontrol.
2.2 2006-2009: Tiggig t dwwad ial vilc
However, a succession of events was to lead to a renewed mobilisaon followed by a radicalisaon of manymilitants,includingtheassassinaonofal-Harithi(seebelow);theincarceraonofalargenumberofYemenisintheprisoncampatGuantanamoBay18;thearrestandprosecuonoftheverypopularSheikhMuhammedAliHassanal-MuayyadviewedasthevicmofaconspiracyintheUnitedStates 19;ortheextrajudicialexecuoninOctober2006ofFawwazal-Rabiioneoftheleadersofal-QaedainYemenwhohadgivenhimselfuptoauthories.Incertaincircles,theYemenigovernmentwasincreasinglycricizedasbeingonthepayrolloftheUnitedStates.Theaacksbymilitantsthusbegantotargettouristandeconomiclocaons,aimingtoweakenthecentralgovernment.
Newarmed militantcells cameinto being, especiallyfollowing thespectacular escapeof 26 inmatesfrom thePolicalSecuritycentralprisoninSanaainFebruary200620,includingNasseral-Wuhayshi,theformerpersonalsecretarytoOsamabinLadenwhohadedAfghanistanviaIran,wherehewasarrestandextraditedtoYemenin2003.HewasaccompaniedbyQasimal-Raymi,aformerleaderinatrainingcampinAfghanistan,andFawwazal-Rabii,whowouldbekilledfollowingtheescape.Furthermore,severalnotoriousjihadistswerereleasedbytheYemeniauthories,suchastheleaderofanarmedgroup,AliAlawial-Ahmar,alongwith16ofhisgroupsmembers.21Meanwhile,YemenightersheldinIraqwereextraditedbacktoSanaa,andothermilitantswerefreedfromSaudiprisons.Themajorityoftheseghtersdidnotrenouncearmedjihad,buttheydidnotnecessarilysharethesameideologies.AccordingtoGregoryD.Johnsen,thosethatfoughtinIraqcalledforthedefenceofMuslimlandsagainstforeigninvasion,butYemenhadnotbeeninvadedbyWesterntroops,sotheydidnotcallforresumingtheirarmedstrugglethere.Al-Wuhayshi,ontheotherhand,arguedthat,sincetheaacksof11September2001,theYemeni
15)GuilhemRoger,ChronologiedesvnementsauYmenen2006(ChronologyofEventsinYemenin2006),Chroniquesymnites(Ye-meniChronicles),18March2009,hp://cy.revues.org/1503(accessed28July2013).
16)GregoryD.Johnsen,ThelastRefuge,Yemen,AlQaeda,andAmericaswarinArabia,W.W.Norton&Company,2012,Chapter10,Rehab.
17)UnitedStatesDepartmentofStatePublicaonOceoftheCoordinatorforCounterterrorism,CountryReportsonTerrorism2007,April2008,hp://www.state.gov/documents/organizaon/105904.pdf,p.129(accessed28July2013).
18)InthemonthofApril2006,theMinisterofJusceconrmedthat137YemeniswereimprisonedatGuantanamoalthoughtheUnitedStatesputthisnumberat108.GuilhemRoger,ChronologiedesvnementsauYmenen2006(ChronologyofEventsinYemenin2006),Chroniquesymnites(YemeniChronicles),18March2009,hp://cy.revues.org/1503(accessed28July2013).
19)MuhammedAliHassanal-MuayyadwasarrestedinGermanyattherequestoftheUnitedStateson10January2003.Hewasidenedasanimportantmemberofal-Qaedaandanancerofinternaonalterrorismalthoughthesechargeswereneversubstanated.Sentencedto75yearsinprison,hewasnallyfreedaersevenyearsindetenon.
20)AmongtheseescapeeswereJamalal-Badawi,andAmericannaonal,Jabiral-Banna,twooftheFBIsmostsought-aerterrorists.
21)GuilhemRoger,ChronologiedesvnementsauYmenen2006(ChronologyofEventsinYemenin2006),op.cit.
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governmenthadsubmiedtothewilloftheUnitedStatesandthattheUSismoreandmorepresentinthecountrymakingYemenalegimatebalegroundforjihad.Hemanagedtoconvinceanincreasingnumberofghterswiththesearguments.22
Theninearly2007,hebegantoreorganizethejihadistmovementandcreatedTheBrigadeofYemeniSoldiers(kataibjoundal-Yemen).Between2006and2008,armedgroupsprimarilytargetedforeignintereststourists,
embassies,andpetrolfacilieswhiletheirrhetoricgrewincreasinglyradicaltowardstheYemeniregimeanditscooperaonwithWesternpowers.On2July2007inMarib,eightSpanishtouristswerekilledinasuicidecarbombaack.Al-QaedainYemenclaimedresponsibilityfortheaack,andnumeroussuspectswerequicklyarrested.In2008,severalaackswerelaunched,illustrangtherevitalisaonofarmedgroupsunderdierentnames:IslamicJihadinYementookresponsibilityforanaackagainsttheUnitedStatesembassyinSanaaon17September2008,which,thoughitfailedtohittheembassy,nonethelesscausedthedeathofsome16people.SeveralobserversbelievethatthesuicidebombwhichtargetedtheheadquartersofthesecurityforcesinSeyouninal-WadiHadramautinJuly2008markedashiinstrategybythearmedgroups,whichhadunlthispointonlytargetedocersconsideredtobecollaboratorswiththeUnitedStatesortorturers,butnotdirectlytargetedthestate.23
Finally,in January2009,an announcementwasmadethatal-QaedaintheArabianPeninsula(AQAP)hadbeencreatedandwascomposedoftwoSaudiandtwoYemenisurvivorsofthespectacularprisonbreakin2006,including
Nasseral-Wuhayshi.Sincethatme,aacksagainstthestateconnuedtomulply,thoughthisdidnotmeananendtoaacksonforeigners.On15March2009inShibam,agroupofSouthKoreanswereaacked,leavingfourofthemdead.Justthreedayslater,aSouthKoreancommissionarrivedtoinvesgatethecircumstancesoftheassault,andittoowasaacked.Severalotheroperaonswerelaunched,andthoughsomefailed,notablytheaackagainsttheightfromAmsterdamtoDetroit(USA)on25 December2009,theseledtoanincreaseinrepressionaswellasbombingsbytheUnitedStatesmilitaryindierentareasofYemenincludingAbyan,Shabwa,andArhab. 24Thisrepressionservedtofurtherradicalisenumerousmilitantsandpushedthemtojoinal-Qaeda,whileotherswentbythedozentoghtinIraq.
In2009,theoperaonsofarmedgroupsbegantomovefromtheregionofMaribtoAbyanandShabwa.TheseprovincesofsouthYemenhad,since2007,seenregulardemonstraonsorganizedtoprotestagainstthecentralgovernmentwhichtheyaccusedofneglecngtheregionsoftheformerSocialistRepublicofYemen.ThisSouthern
movement,knownasal-Hirak,waspeacefulinitsorigins,butconfrontaonswithsecurityforcesradicalizedmanyofitsacvistswho,beginningin 2009,begantotargetpeoplefromtheNorthaswellasthesecurityforces.25Insomeplaces,thepresenceofthestatewasbecomingincreasinglylight,andpoliceabandonedtheirpostsforfearofaacks.Eventhoughtheal-Hirakmovementconnuedtoadvocatenon-violence,aacksbyarmedgroupstintotheincreasinglygeneralclimateofrebellion.InMay2009,al-WuhayshigoesasfarastoannouncehissupportfortheSouthernmovement,contribungtoarapidmodicaonbytheauthoriesoftheiratudestowardsthejihadists.Unlthen,thecentralgovernmenthadnotconsideredthesegroupstobeaseriousthreat,unliketheSouthernorHouthirebellions.The laertwowerestrongsocio-policalmovementswiththepotenaltoresistthecentralpowersintwostrategicallyimportantregions. 26DierentleadersoftheSouthernopposionhoweverrapidlyexpressedtheirdistancefromal-Qaedaandrejectedanyrelaonwiththem.
As2009drewtoaclose,veryrealfearsofabreakupofthecountrywerevoicedfromvariousquarters.TheUnited
22)GregoryD.Johnsen,ThelastRefuge,op.cit.Chapter15.
23)StephenW.Day,RegionalismandRebellioninYemen,CambridgeUniversityPress,2012,Chapter8:TheReturnofYemeniRegionalism,secon:Aviolentyear.Seealso:LaurentBonnefoy,Unebrvehistoiredelaviolenceditejihadiste(Abriefhistoryofso-calledjihadistvio-lence),inLaurentBonnefoy,FranckMermierandMarinePoirier:Ymen,letournantrvoluonnaire(Yemen,arevoluonaryturningpoint),CEFAS-Karthala,2012,p.106.
24)AccordingtoacablefromtheUSembassyon21December2009,theAmericanmilitarycarriedout17aacks,amongthemtheaackonAl-Majalah,whichwediscussbelow.TheYemeniauthorieshavetriedtoconcealthisbytakingresponsibilityforaacks.See:TheGuardian,USembassycables:Yementrumpetsstrikesonal-QaidathatwereAmericanswork,4December2010,hp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/240955(accessed28July2013).
25)StephenW.Day,RegionalismandRebellioninYemen,CambridgeUniversityPress,2012,Chapter8:TheReturnofYemeniRegionalism,
secon:Lookingintotheabyss.
26)StephenW.Day,RegionalismandRebellioninYemen,CambridgeUniversityPress,2012,Chapter8:TheReturnofYemeniRegionalism,secon:Lookingintotheabyss.
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States,itsallies,andthestatesoftheArabLeagueconnuedtosupportthehighlycontestedAliAbdallahSalehtopreservetheterritorialintegrityofYemen,butalsotoensuretheconnuaonofthewaronterror.ItwasinthiscontextthattheaackontheFortHoodmilitarybaseinTexastookplaceon5November2009,killingthirteenandinjuringdozensofothers.ThemilitarypsychiatristMalikNadalHasan,whowasresponsiblefortheaack,wassaidtobeinrelaonswithAnwaral-Awlaqi,anAmerican-YemeniclericlivinginYemen.27ThiseventledtohysteriawithintheUnitedStatespolicalestablishmentandservedasjuscaonfortherstdroneaacks(withtheexcepon
oftheonethathadkilledal-Harithiandhiscompanionsthreeyearsearlier).When,lessthantwomonthslater,anaackontheUScityofDetroitwasuncoveredandfoiled,callsforanactualmilitaryinvasionofYemenweremade.
2.3 2010: stat dcay lad t icad activiti amd gu
As2010opened,awarlikeclimatehungovertheUnitedStateswithregardstoYemen.EversincetheBrishPrimeMinisterGordonBrownannouncedtheorganizaonofaconferenceinFebruaryinLondontodiscussthesecuritysituaoninYemen,rumoursthattheWestwasplanningamilitaryinvasionabounded,conrmedbythewordsofUSSenatorJosephLieberman,whospokeofYemenasAmericasnextwar.Herepeatedthesewordsseveralmesinthefollowingmonth,whichwasnotreassuringtoYemenis. 28InJanuary,nearly150leadersrepresenngthetribalandreligiousestablishmentsinYemenmetinSanaaforapublicconference,andpublishedadeclaraononthe
14thofthemonthinwhichtheythreatenedtocallforjihadifforeigntroopsweresenttothecountry.29
Inlate2009,twoAmericanair-strikes,rston17DecemberinAl-MajalahinAbyanprovincethatkilled54people,includingmanywomenandchildren,andsecondlytheaackof24DecemberonRainShabwaprovincethattargetedthehouseofAnwaral-Awlaqiandkilledthirtypeople,shockedtheYemenipopulaon.Theseaacksresultedinthehardeningofan-governmentandan-Americanatudesinallpolicalcirclesinaddiontothoseofthemilitantsandsupportersofthejihadists.2010wasmarkedbyaresurgenceofviolence,asmuchbyarmed
jihadistgroupswithsuspectedestoal-QaedaasbytheYemeniarmedforces.AsremarkedbyLaurentBonnefoy:Theadoponbyjihadistacvistsofguerrillataccsthroughtheuseofambushesagainstarmyconvoysorraidsonocialbuildingsispartofalargerconnuumofrepression,armedconict,andotherviolence:sectarian,social,andregionalsgmas,arbitrarydetenon,torture,militaryoperaons,aacksonfreedomofmovement,etc.30
AmericanarmedforcesintervenedmoreandmorefrequentlyinYemeniterritory.Accordingtothepress,between17December2009and31January2010,morethan20groundraidstookplace,butincreasinglydroneswerebeingused.31
Giventheclimateof insurrecon,armedghtersclaimingtobelongto al-Qaedamanagedto takepossessionofseveralareasinthesouthofthecountry.Between19and25August2010,amilitaryoensivewaslaunchedagainstthetownofLawdarinAbyanprovince,hometo80,000inhabitants.TheYemeniarmyforcedtheresidentstoeebeforebombardingthetownandconfronngtheghters.32
On20September2010,thetownofHuwainShabwaprovincewasoverrunbyarmedgroups,atthesamemeJohnBrennan,senioradvisortoPresidentBarackObamaforHomelandSecurityandtheghtagainstterrorism,andthecurrentDirectoroftheCIA,wasvisingYementodiscusscooperaonbetweentheUSandYemenintheghtagainstterrorism.Aerfourdaysofsiegeandtheightof15,000inhabitants,thearmyregainedcontrolofthecity,
27)SudarsanRaghavanandMichaelD.Shear,US-aidedaackinYementhoughttohavekilledAulaqi,2al-Qaedaleaders,TheWashingtonPost,25December2009, hp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/arcle/2009/12/24/AR2009122400536.html(accessed28 July2013).
28)SamStein,Lieberman:TheUnitedStatesMustPre-EmpvelyActInYemen,18March2010,hp://www.hungtonpost.com/2009/12/27/lieberman-the-united-stat_n_404241.html(accessed28July2013).
29)StephenW.Day,RegionalismandRebellioninYemen,CambridgeUniversityPress,2012,Chapter9:YemensPolicalMeltdown,secon:TheinterseconofAmericanandYemeniinterests.
30)LaurentBonnefoy,Unebrvehistoiredelaviolenceditejihadiste(Abriefhistoryofso-calledjihadistviolence),op.cit.,p.106.
31
)JeremyScahill,TheDangerousUSGameinYemen,30March2011,hp://www.thenaon.com/arcle/159578/dangerous-us-game-yemen?page=0,2(accessed28July2013).
32)Fawazal-Haidari,Yemenarmyregainscontrolofsoutherntown,AFP,25August2010,hp://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/ar-cle/ALeqM5jaSuALY9MdZ5WSyhaw8CmEBh4DTw(accessed28July2013).
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withoutaveryhighdeathtoll.33
Thesepreliminaryaacksbygroupslinkedtoal-QaedawereonlythepreludetoanoensivethatbeganseveralmonthslaterintheprovinceofAbyanwheretheywereabletooccupya largepartoftheregionforayear.Thisunstablesituaonwasnotonlyduetoal-Qaedaanditsaliates:itwasalsotheconsequenceofclashesbetweenregimeforcesandopposiongroupsinboththenorthandsouth,leavingthespaceforgroupslinkedtoal-Qaeda
toopenanewfront.ItisworthrememberingthatthejihadistmovementhadnearlybeeneliminatedaertheaacksofSeptember2001andthatthefewacvemembersremaininghaddicultyndingsympathizerswithinthepopulaon.
Embroiledinanarmedconictinthenorthandconfronngagrowinginsurgencyinthesouth,theregimeusedthethreatofal-QaedatoreceivemilitaryaidfromWashington.BoththeYemeniregimeandtheAmericanadministra-onexaggeratedtheimportanceofthisthreattojusfythemilitarisaonoftheconictandtheintervenonoftheUnitedStates.SeveralobserversspeculatedthatthedeploymentofarmedIslamistgroupswassupportedbytheregimeinSanaaitself,inordertomaintainAmericansupportintheghtagainstterrorism.Whateverthetruthmaybe,itisundeniablethatrepressionandthedirectintervenonoftheUnitedStatesinYemensinternalconictshavecontributedtothereinvigorangofal-QaedainYemen.
2.4 2011: T dlymt Aa al-saia i t adw t Aabsig
In2010,al-QaedasaacksontheYemeniarmedforcesmulplied,especiallyagainstmilitarybases,checkpoints,andarmypersonnel.InJanuary2011,theorganizaontookresponsibilityfor49operaonsinthesecondhalfof2010.34Theyear2011beganwiththeassassinaonsofseveraltopocersintheYemeniarmyinthesouthernprovinces,inparcularinAbyanandShabwa,controlledbygroupsedtoal-Qaeda.TheconfrontaonsinLawdarandZinjibareventuallyreachedtheformercapitalofSouthYemen,Aden,inMay2011aswellastheneighbouringprovincesofMaribandal-Baydha.
While the southern provinces were experiencing a slow disintegraon of state instuons, a revoluonarymovementwasspreadingthroughoutthecountryinJanuary2011inthewakeoftheuprisingsinTunisiaandEgypt,
furtherdeepeninganinstuonalvacuumandgivingarmedgroupstheopportunitytooccupywholeareasofthesouth.Anwaral-Awlaqi,oneofthemostwantedmenonUSlistsandwhowassubsequentlykilledbyadronestrikeinSeptember2011,declared:TheArabrevoluonshavegivenIslamicgroupsthechancetobreatheandhavetheirvoicesheard.35Thespreadingoccupaonoflandbyarmedgroupswasalsofacilitatedbythepolicalcrisisintheupperechelonsofthestatethatsparkeddivisionswithinarmyunitsthemselves.36
AlthoughthecallsforPresidentSalehsresignaonandregimechangewereheardthroughoutYemen,theSouthernal-Hirakmovement,whojoinedthesecalls,increasinglydemandedindependenceforthesouth.ThisclearbreakfromthecentralgovernmentworkedtotheadvantageoftheIslamistghterswhomanagedtorallyapartofthepopulaontotheircause.TheconnuingclashesbetweenthesegroupsandtheYemeniarmedforcesagainshowedthatthelaerwouldnothesitatetoshellresidenalareas,drivingtensofthousandsofpeoplefromtheirhomes.
Withunprecedentedspeedandwithoutmuchbloodshed,thesearmedgroupsmanagedtotakecontrolofamajorityofthetownsintheprovinceaswellassomeinitsneighbouringprovinces,whichtheycalledTheIslamicEmirates.On24March2011,theyoccupiedthetownofAzzan(Shabwa);on26MarchthecityofJaar(Abyan);thenextdaythetownofalHusn;andon27May2011theytookZinjibar,acoastaltowninAbyanwith20,000inhabitantsthatfellintothehandsofabout300armedmen.Lawdar,atownofcloseto90,000residents,alsocameundertheircontrol.
33) BBC, Up to 15,000 ee oensive in Yemens Shabwa province, 21 September 2010, hp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-11380625(accessed28July2013).
34) AQAP Announces Responsibility for 49 Aacks in Yemen During 2010, Yemen Post, 1 January 2011, hp://yemenpost.net/De-tail123456789.aspx?ID=3&SubID=2936(accessed28July2013).
35)AmjadKhashafa, ...(FromAzzantoZinjibar,15dayswithAnsaral-Sharia),6December2011,hp://kavkazcenter.com/arab/content/2011/12/06/8677.shtml(accessed28July2013).
36)Al-JazeeraCenterforStudies,:(al-QaedainYemen:Betweenoensivesandreplies),17June2012,hp://studies.aljazeera.net/posionesmate/2012/06/201262493531991735.htm(accessed28July2013).
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Ansaral-Sharia,thegroupwhicharoseasthecentralplayerinthisconquest,ismadeupofapatchworkofdisillu-sionedcombatantsthatbegantheirjihadistcareersinal-Qaeda,aswellasyoungIslamistsdisillusionedbyasystemofneposmandinjuscewhowanttoremaketheirlivesunderthereligiouspreceptsofSalasm.ForeignghtersfromSaudiArabiaandSomaliaaswellasAfghanistanandPakistanarefoundamongtheirranks.Theyarefundedpartlybybankstheyhaverobbed,astheydidinZinjibar,stealing2billionRiyals.Theystealweaponsandvehiclesfromransackedbarracksanddepotsofthearmyandpolice.37
Someofthepopulaonwelcomedthegroupwitha certainapprovalwhileothersfearedthem.IntheWest,thegroupsrigorousconceponofShariaisthemostwidelypublicizedaspectoftheirideology,notablytheuseofcorporalpunishment,therestriconofpersonalfreedoms,andotherreligiousconstraints.ManyreportsbyYemeni
journalists,however,explainthattheseregionshadbeenneglectedandunderservedinthepast,andgangshadter-rorizedinhabitantsandextortedmoneyfromthem. 38Corrupon,racketeering,andinsecurityreignedintheregionspriortothearrivaloftheoccupyinggroups,andcommerceandpublicserviceshadcollapsed.JournalistscitetheexampleofAzzan,where,oneyearaertheoccupaonbyIslamistgroupsbegan,thestreetshadbeencleaned,legalcasesthathadbeenon-goingfor10yearshadbeenclosed,securityhadenabledthemarketstobecomethesecondlargestinShabwa,shopshadreopened,electricitywasavailablemorewidelyandlongerthaneverbefore,andwaterwasgivenforfreetoneedyfamilies,etc.
Fornearlya yearAnsaral-ShariaoccupiedtheterritorybetweenAzzanandZinjibar,nearlyalloftheprovinceofAbyanandthebordercommuniesofShabwaaswellasal-Baydha.Manyobserversquesonedthelackofresis-tancefromsecurityforcesagainstthedisparatearmedgroups.Rumoursaboundedthatthestatewascomplicitinallowingthegroupstooccupytheregion.TheformergovernorofAbyanGeneralSalehHusseinal-Zuwari,whohadwitnessthefalloftheprovinceintothehandsoftheoccupiers,explainedthatthesecurityservicesandthearmyhadstooddownin thefaceofAnsaral-Sharia.CommunicaonbetweenhimandthemilitarywascutobeforeAbyanfell,andthemilitaryhadshowednoresistancetotheadvanceofthearmedgroups.39
SomeintheopposionarguethatPresidentSalehdidnotulizehisfullmilitaryforce,hopingtoshowtheoutsideworldthatheistheonlyhopeinthefaceofthethreatofal-Qaeda.Thearmy,especiallytheSpecialForcesandthecounter-terrorismunits,wereinfactdeployedtoSanaatoprotectthepresidentin thefaceofgrowingpopularprotests.40
2.5 2012: Aa al-saia dildgd, t ula cmmitt bgi tiig
ThecityofZinjibarhadbeen,sinceitsfalltoAnsaral-Sharia,thecentralarenaofconfrontaonsbetweenthearmyandtherebelsandwasthetargetofseveralbombardmentsbytheYemeniairforce.41Thecitysueredsignicantdestruconandthousandsofresidentsed.Hundredsofghtershaddiedonbothsidesoftheconict.Finally,inFebruary2012,the authoriespresentedthearmedgroupsoccupyingtheareawithanulmatum,summoningthemtosurrenderwithinaweek.42Inresponse,themilitantsaackedanarlleryunitstaonedinDufashon4March2012,causingthedeathofahundredsoldiersandinjuringahundredothers.Theghnginotherplacestook
37)2011:al-Qaidadanslapninsulearabe,annedervesetdecauche(2011:al-QaedaintheArabianPeninsula,ayearofdreamsandnightmares),12February2012,p.1,hp://www.shebacss.com/docs/PolicyAnalysis/scssapa003-12.pdf(accessed28July2013).
38)YemenPress,.. ,(AvisittotheIslamicEmirateofAzzan:AnsarShariatakestheplaceofthestatewiththeirlawsandservices)1April2012,hp://yemen-press.com/news7934.html(accessed28July2013).
39) (DangerousrevelaonsbytheGovernorofAbyanconcerningthefallofZinjibarintothehandsofAnsarSharia),15March2013,Yemensaeedhp://www.yemensaeed.com/news/news-local/6264-2013-03-14-23-42-52.html(accessed28July2013).
40)YemenSaeed,:,(al-QaedainYemen:Betweenoensivesandreplies),Al-JazeeraCenterforStudies,17June2012,hp://studies.aljazeera.net/posionesmate/2012/06/201262493531991735.htm(accessed28July2013).
41).. (AvisittotheIslamicEmirateofAzzan:AnsarShariatakestheplaceofthestatewiththeirlawsandservices),YemenPress,1April2012,hp://yemen-press.com/news7934.html(accessed28July2013).
42) ..(Abyan,thearmygivesAnsaral-ShariaoneweektoleaveJaarandZinjibar),YemenPress,28February2012,hp://yemen-press.com/news6827.html(accessed28July2013).
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manylivesand73peopleweretakenhostage.43Clashesextendedtoal-BaydhaandShabwaprovinces.
InApril2012,theauthoriesaemptedtoretaketheareasandbegantoputinplacepopularcommieestoassistthearmyinitsmilitaryoensiveagainsttherebels.TheSaudiArabianandAmericanair forcessupportedtheYemeniarmy.Theassaultbeganon12May2012andbymid-JunetheterritoriesoccupiedbyAnsaral-Shariahadbeenre-taken.Theaackscausedthousandsofinhabitantstoeeonceagain.AccordingtotheOceforthe
CoordinaonofHumanitarianAairs(OCHA)oftheUnitedNaonsinJune2013,closeto90%ofinternallydisplacedpersons(IDPs)havereturnedtotheirplacesoforigin.44YetsourcesonthegroundreportedtoAlkaramathattothisday,largenumbersofrefugeeshavenotreturnedtotheirhomes,largelybecauseofthedestruconofthese.
Thepopularcommiees,earliersupportedbythearmy,havetakencontroloftheareas,butaccordingtotheYemenipressinsecurityandarbitrarinessarewidespread,asthesecommieeshavetakenthelawintotheirownhandsandrevengeisfrequentlycarriedoutagainstthosesuspectedofsupporngtheinsurgents.Summaryexecuons,arrestsanddetenonoutsideanylegalframeworkarewidespread. 45Thedivisionswithinthegovernmentandarmyalsoaectthesemilias,astheytargetlocalocialsoftheadministraonandsoldiersinZinjibarandJaar.FollowingthewithdrawalofthearmyfromAbyanprovince,thepopularcommieesstrengthenedtheirpresence.TheheadofAbyanspopularcommiees,AbdelafSayyid,isadefectorofal-QaedaandAnsaral-Shariathatfoughthiscomradesaerbreakingapartfromthem. 46ThevisitoftheAmericanambassadorGeraldM.FeiersteintoZinjibar,alongsidea
seniorYemeniocial,didliletopacifytheregion47
andinsteadraisedquesonsabouttheroleoftheUnitedStatesintheconict.Tothisday,Yemeniauthorieshavenottakenfullcontroloftheregion,whichissllinthehandsofthepopularcommiees,indeedthecentralgovernmentscontrolovertheregionconnuestobeeroded.
43)Alkaramaplayedanacveroleinthereleaseofthesehostages.SeepressreleaseYemen:Therighttolifeof73soldiersheldbyarmedgroupsafeguarded,Alkarama,1May2012,hp://en.alkarama.org/index.php?opon=com_content&view=arcle&id=924(accessed28July2013).
44) More than 90 pct of internally displaced people in Yemen return home, Xinhua, 11June 2013, hp://www.globalmes.cn/con-tent/788122.shtml(accessed28July2013).
45)(PopularcommieesinAbyanaccusedofextrajudicialexecuons)AdenAlghad,hp://adenal-ghad.net/news/15862/#.UcY6y5yaYRs(accessed28July2013).
46)(PopularcommieesinAbyanaccusedofextrajudicialexecuons)AdenAlghad,hp://aden-alghad.net/news/15862/#.UcY6y5yaYRs(accessed28July2013).
47)(TheAmericanambassadortoSanaaappearsinZinjibar)AdenAlghad,22June2012,hp://adenalghad.net/news/13223/#.UcY8E5yaYRs(accessed28July2013).
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3.1 1990-2000: A a taid lati
DuringtherstGulfWar(1990-1991),YemendisapprovedofthewaragainstIraqbythecoalionforces,thoughdidnoteitherendorsetheannexaonofKuwait.ItabstainedfromvongonaUNResoluontoauthorizemilitaryintervenonagainstIraq.Inretaliaon,theUnitedStatesputanendtoitseconomicaidtoYemen48,andUSalliessuchasSaudiArabiaanditsneighboursexpelledamillionYemeniworkersfromtheirrespecvecountries.The
marginalizaonofYemenincreaseditsvulnerabilityanditsdependencevis--vistheUnitedStatesandSaudiArabia,whichconsidersYementobeitsbackyard.
MilitarycooperaonbetweentheUnitedStatesandYemengraduallyresumedattheendofthe1990s,inparcularfollowingaacksonAmericanembassiesinDares-SalaamandNairobiin1998.ThisincreasingcollaboraononsecurityissuesincludedUStroopstraininghundredsofpolice;sellingequipmenttoYemen;andaccompanytherestructuringofthesecurityservices.FBIexpertscloselyfollowedinvesgaonsbytheYemenisecurityservices,parcularlytheinterrogaonsofgroupsaccusedofhavingkidnappedsixWesterntouristsin1998,fourofwhomwerekilled.49
Then,theUSNavynegoatedacontracttousetheportofAdenfortherefuellingofitswarships.SeveralmilitaryocersvisitedSanaa,includingtheheadofUSCentralCommand,theregionalmilitarycommandcentreinchargeofoperaonsintheMiddleEast,CentralAsia,andtheHornofAfrica,todiscussfuturecooperaononjointmilitaryexercises.Theintensicaonofrelaonsbetweenthetwocountrieswasnotpopularwithpublicopinion,whichwasverycricaloftheperceivedhegemonicaimsoftheUnitedStatesintheregion.
On 12 October 2000, the USS Cole, an American warship overseeing the embargo against Iraq, was aacked.SeventeenAmericansailorswerekilledand50otherswereinjured.Thenextday,anexplosionoccurredattheUKembassyinSanaa,thoughleavingnocasuales.Followingthis,AmericaincreaseditspressureandPresidentSalehwasforcedtoacceptthecondionsimposed;anagreementtocooperateoncounter-terrorismwassignedinNovember2000betweenSanaaandWashington.Asaresult,nearly100agentsfromdierentUSagenciesincludingtheFBIweretoassisttheYemenisintheirinvesgaons.On7July2001,theAmericanembassyinSanaa,whichhadbeenclosedsincetheaackontheUSSCole,reopened.ThecooperaonbetweentheYemeniandAmericangovernmentswaswidelyresentedbytheYemenipeople,andexacerbatedlocaltensionsalreadyhighthroughout
thecountry.PresidentSalehthereforehadtodealwithboththeseexternalpressuresandinternalprotestsledbytheopposionandprofessionalorganizaons,whichcalledforaboycoofAmericanproducts.Despitethesesig-nicantconcessions,AmericanleadersdidnotbelievetheYemeniauthorieswerecooperangsucientlyandtheinvesgaonintotheaackontheUSSColestalled.TheAmericanswerenotabletointerrogatesuspectsarrestedbytheYemenisastheywouldhavelikedto,andtheysuspectedcollusionbetweenmembersoftheYemenisecretservicesandthearmedgroupthatclaimedresponsibilityfortheaacks,theIslamicArmyofAdenandal-Qaeda.50
3.2 T imact stmb 11, 2001
Aertheaacksof11September2001 ontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagon,theclimatechangedfun-damentallyandirrevocably.AstheUnitedStateselaborateditsnewdoctrineforthewaragainstterror,Yemen,accusedoftoleranggroupswithlinkstoal-Qaeda,washighonthelistofpriories.Severalofthemenaccusedof
plongtheSeptember11aackswereinfactYemenis.PresidentAliAbdallahSalehthusmadehischoicequickly:notwishingtorepeatthepainfulexperienceofthe1991GulfWar,heplacedhimselfatthedisposaloftheAmericansandpromisedfullcooperaon.HealsooeredtolaunchawaragainstterrorismsidebysidewiththeAmericansto
48)JeremyM.Sharp,Yemen:currentcondionsandU.S.relaons,CongressionalResearchService,12September2007RL34170,p.7,hps://opencrs.com/document/RL34170/2007-09-12/(accessed28July2013).
49)Muhammedal-Ahmady,Yemeni-Americanrelaonsaerthe11September2001aacks( -),hp://almos11lim.net/node/85268(accessed28July2013).
50)On5September,severaldaysaerthearrivaloftheFBIdelegaoninSanaa,PresidentSalehmetwithal-JazeerajournalistsregardingtheinvesgaonoftheaackontheUSSCole.HeexplainedthathewasdoingeverythinginhispowertolimitthescopeoftheFBIinYemen.Toexaggerate:TheyweredeniedaccesstoYemeniterritorybyourforces,ourplanes,andourships()Theyareplacedunderdirectsur-veillancebyoursecurityservices.FortheFBIagents,theself-praiseofSalehwasthesame.ElevenmonthsaertheaackontheUSSCole,theagentsconnuedtoturnincircles.GregoryD.Johnsen,ThelastRefuge,Yemen,A-Qaeda,andAmericaswarinArabia,W.W.Norton&Company,Inc.,2012,Chapter6.
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reinforcehisinternalpowerandbenetfromnewnancialandmilitaryaid.
InNovember2001,theYemeniPresidentvisitedtheUnitedStatestomeetwithhisAmericancounterpart.Relaonsbetweenthetwowouldfurtherintensify,alongwithYemeni-Saudirelaons,especiallywithregardtoprisonerexchanges.Manymilitantssuspectedofterroristacvieswerearrestedandbankaccountswereclosed.TheUSgovernmentprovided$400millioninassistancetobuildanewtrainingcampfortheghtagainstterrorism,which
wasrunjointlybytheCIA,theUSNavy,andtheUSSpecialForces.The Counter-TerrorismUnit of the Yemeni Central Security Forces wastechnically under the command of theMinistryofInterior,butwasinrealitycontrolledbythePresidentandrunbyhisnephewGeneralYahiaMuhammedAbdallahSaleh.51Itsclandesnemissionwastotrackdownandeliminatesuspectedterrorists52,anditreceivedAmericanequipmentandsupport53.BrishSpecialForceshavealsobeensenttoYemen.54Onaninternallevel,however,Salehconnuedtobothusean-imperialistrhetoricandcourtthevariousIslamistactorslikelytocricizehispro-Americanpolicies.
On6October2002,anaacktookplaceagainsttheLimburg,apetroltankeryingtheFrenchag,whichwastrans-porng400,000barrelsofpetrolintheGulfofAden.Onesailordiedandthousandsofbarrelsofpetrolowedintothesea.PresidentSalehagainfeltcompelledtoincreasehiscooperaonwiththeAmericanagencies,inparculartheFBIandCIA.TheUnitedStates,whichnowhadaround1,000soldiersinYemen,receivedauthorizaontoopen
anFBIbureauinSanaaandconnuetodelivermilitaryequipmenttotheYemenis,includinghelicoptersandfrigatesforthesurveillanceofthecoastlineandtheStraitofBabal-Mandab,astrategicpointbetweentheRedSeaandtheGulfofAden.55InSeptember2004,the1990GulfWarembargoontheexportofUSarmstoYemenwaslied.
PresidentSalehalsoauthorizedsurveillanceofYemeniterritorybyAmericandrones,whichtookofromabaseinDjiboutoidenfyandkillthosesuspectedofinvolvementintherecentterroristaacks. 56Thuson3November2002,AbouAlial-HarithiwasidenedasacommanderoftheaackontheUSSCole,andheandvecompanionstravellinginacarweretrackedandassassinatedbyanAmericandrone.Theaackwasaturningpointintheglobalwaronterror:itwastherstmethattheAmericanmilitaryopenlykilledpresumedterroristsoutsideaconictzoneinacountrywithwhichitwasnotatwar. 57TheYemenigovernmentauthorizedthisoperaon,butitpreferredtokeepitsapprovalsecret,andliedinitsversionofevents:accordingtotheregime,thepassengersofthevehicleweretransporngabombthatexploded.ItwasotherwiseimpossibletojusfysuchassassinaonstoapopulaonthatwasbecomingmoreandmoreopposedtoitssecuritypoliciesanditsalignmentwithUSposions.
TheUSauthorieslateracceptedpublicresponsibilityfortheaack,whichwasdevastangtothereputaonoftheYemenigovernment.Triballeaders,whowerebeginningtoprotestagainstforeignintervenonandthearbitraryarrestof youthswithoutchargesbeingbroughtagainst them,called thegovernmentscredibility intoqueson.ThisneworientaonoftheYemeniregimewouldrapidlyshowitslimits,asitmovateddozensofveteransofthewarinAfghanistanandothermilitantstotakeuparmsandorganizeaacks,anumberofwhichwerecommiedasretaliaonfortheexecuonofal-Harithi.58
51)Alkarama,Yemen,HumanRightsinDanger:CaughtbetweenInternalConictandExternalForces,ReportpresentedtotheCommieeagainstTortureinthecontextofthesecondperiodicreviewofYemen,16October2009,hp://en.alkarama.org/index.php?opon=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=147&Itemid=218(accessed28July2013).
52)JeremyScahill,TheDangerousUSGameinYemen,TheNaon,18April2011,hp://www.thenaon.com/arcle/159578/dangerous-us-game-yemen?page=0,1#(accessed28July2013).
53)JeremyM.Sharp,Yemen:currentcondionsandU.S.relaons,CongressionalResearchService,12September2007RL34170,p.7,hps://opencrs.com/document/RL34170/2007-09-12/(accessed28July2013).
54)RupertHamer,CrackSASteamtohuntal-Qaedaterrorists,Mirror,3January2010,hp://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/crack-sas-team-to-hunt-al-qaeda-191996(accessed28July2013).
55)LaurentBonnefoy,Betweenexternalpressuresandinternaltensions,anunstableequilibriuminYemen,loc.cit.
56)GregoryD.Johnsen,TheLastRefuge,op.cit.,Chapter9.
57)Ibid.
58)Muhammedal-Ahmady,Lesrelaonsymno-amricainesaprslesaentatsdu11September2001(Yemeni-Americanrelaonsaerthe11September2001aacks),op.cit.
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3.3 m uici t cati
Atthebeginningofthenewmillennium,PresidentSalehspolicyofmaintainingcloserelaonswithcertainsegmentsofthepopulaonwhowereopenlyhosletoanyUSpresenceinYemen,connuedtobecricizedbytheUnitedStates,whichpressuredthegovernmenttoincreaserepression,especiallyaertheprisonbreakof2006(discussedbelow).PresidentSalehconnuallydownplayedtheAmericanroleinYemenpublicly,andaributedresponsibility
forthedroneaackstotheYemeniairforce.However,asWikileakswouldlaterreveal,inconversaonsbetweenSalehandUSpolicalandmilitaryocialsheexplicitlyallowedtheAmericanstotargetsuspectedterrorists.59
Saleh,however,connuedonhispathofcompromisewiththeseinternalforcesduetotheimportanceofthetriballeaderswhowouldconnueprotecngmembersoftheirtribes,regardlessofwhattheydid.Withoutthesupportoftheseleaders,hispowerwouldbeunquesonablyandperhapsfatallyweakened.Hethusplayedadoublegame:playingupthethreatofal-QaedatoobtainfundsandsupportfromtheAmericansand,atthesameme,makingarrangementswithpeoplewantedbyWashington,suchasJamalal-BadawiandJabiral-Banna(aUScizen),twomenconsideredimportantterroristleadersthattheUnitedStateswantedtoextraditetotheircountry.60When,in2007,FrancesTownsend,HomelandSecurityadvisertoPresidentGeorgeW.Bush,metwithPresidentSaleh,sheaskedaboutal-Badawiscurrentstatus.PresidentSalehexplainedthatal-Badawihadbeenreleasefromprisonbutassuredherthathewasbeingcloselywatched,aresponsewhichcertainlydidnotpleaseTownsend.61
Duetotheuprisingswhichbrokeoutinearly2011andtheincreasingstrengthofarmedgroupsbothaliatedandnon-aliatedwithal-Qaeda,USforceswithdrewtheirtroopsstaonedinYemen,includingtheSpecialOperaonsforces,andsentthemtotheirmilitarybaseinDjibouwheretheyconnuetomanagetheirintelligenceacviesandcoordinateoperaonswiththeYemeniintelligenceservices.TheYemeniCounter-Terrorismunitcreatedin2003andtrainedbytheUSmilitaryforcesdoubledinsizetoreach300agentsin2011.62ThisunitandtheRepublicanGuardwerenolongerunderthecommandofAmericanmilitaryunits,ashadpreviouslybeencommonpracce. 63However,thesetroopswereincreasinglydeployednotagainsttheinsurgentsofal-QaedaorAnsaral-ShariathatoccupiedAbyaninMarch2011,butinsteadtoprotecttheregimeofPresidentSaleh,whowasfacingapopularuprisingthatwouldeventuallyforcehimtoresign.TheYemeniarmyandairforce,alongwiththeirAmericanandSaudiArabiancounterparts,carriedoutoperaonsinAbyananditsneighbouringprovinces.InformaonontargetswasoenprovidedtotheYemenisbyUSintelligence.TheapparentUSwithdrawalfromYemenwasthereforeonly
relave:themilitarybaseinal-AnadinLahjprovinceconnuedtobeoperaonal,andairraids,especiallybydrones,increasedinlate2011.64
SeekingtobeclosertoYemenwithoutbeingontheground,theUSbegantheconstruconofanewsecretairbaseinSaudiArabiabeginninginthesummerof2011.ItwouldprimarilyserveasabaseforCIAdrones.SaudiauthoriesalwaysdeniedanyinvolvementwiththeUSagenciesghngal-QaedainYemen.Ocially,USbasesinthecountrywereevacuatedin2003followingtheinvasionofIraq.Yetin2013,theWashingtonPostrevealedtheexistenceofthenewbase,whichhadbeenkeptsecretfromthepressfornearlytwoyearsattherequestoftheUSgovernment.65
Twomonthsaertheeleconon21February2012ofMarshalAbdal-RabMansural-Hadiasthepresidentof
59)PamBenson,U.S.roleinYemencoveredupbyitspresident,WikiLeakslereveals,CNN,28November2010,hp://arcles.cnn.
com/2010-11-28/us/wikileaks.yemen_1_yemeni-president-yemeni-american-president-ali-abdullah-saleh?_s=PM:US (accessed 28 July2013).
60)TherstwasaccusedofparcipangintheaackontheUSSColeandescapedin2006withJabiral-Bannaanddozensofothermen.BoththenwenttotheYemeniauthoriesandhavebeenlivingfreelyinYemeneversince.
61)JeremyScahill,DirtyWars:TheWorldisaBaleeld,SerpentsTail,April2013,Chapter20,PrisonBreak(electronicbookwithoutpagenumbers).
62)AssociatedPress,UStoexpandYemenicounter-terrorismtraining,TheNaonal,15February2011,hp://www.thenaonal.ae/news/world/middle-east/us-to-expand-yemeni-counter-terrorism-training(accessed28July2013).
63)JeremyScahill,WashingtonswarinYemenbackres,TheNaon,14February2012,hp://www.thenaon.com/arcle/166265/wash-ingtons-war-yemen-backres(accessed28July2013).
64)Ibid.
65)GregMillerandKarenDeYoung,BrennannominaonexposescricismontargetedkillingsandsecretSaudibase,TheWashingtonPost,5February2013, hp://arcles.washingtonpost.com/2013-02-05/world/36758638_1_drone-base-al-awlaki-brennan-nominaon (accessed28July2013).
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Yemen,formersecurityadvisertoPresidentObamaandcurrentCIAdirectorJohnBrennanvisitedYementomeetwiththenewpresident.Pentagonocialsreportedthat,sincethisvisit,theirsoldierswereredeployedinthecountryasthenewregimewasopentodirectcooperaonbetweenUSandYemeniforcesoutsideofthecapital.Inearly2012,althoughthelargestmilitaryoensiveagainstthearmedgroupsstrongholdshadyettobelaunched,thepressreportedthat:TheObamaadministraonsdirectmilitaryroleinYemenismoreextensivethanprevi-ouslyreportedandrepresentsadeepeninginvolvementinthenaonsgrowingconict.66
AccordingtomilitarysourcesreporngincondenalitytoAlkarama,18Predator-typedronesaswellasAmericanSpecialForcessoldiershavebeenstaonedatal-AnadairbasewiththeapprovaloftheYemenigovernment.Thedevicesapparentlyequippedtobeabletoidenfytargets.Accordingtotheinformaonprovided,therearetwocentresinYementoanalyzetheinformaoncollectedandtoguidedronestrikes:oneofthemislocatedintheUSembassyinSanaaitself,andtheotherisinalocaonwhichiskeptasecret.Accordingtooursources,thegroupthatdecidesonthedroneaacksiscomposedontheYemenisideoftheheadsofCounter-Terrorismunits,ocialsofthenaonalsecurityapparatus,ofthechiefsofstaandmembersoftheMinistriesofDefenceandoftheInterior,appointedbyPresidental-Hadi;andontheUSside,ateamofCIAagentscommissionedbyPresidentObama.
Inparallel, the number ofUS troops staoned in Yemen has increased signicantly since 2012. In June 2013,accordingtotheYemeninewspaperal-Charaa,some1,500soldiersweresenttotheal-Anadmilitarybase,and
another200were sent totheal-Deylamiairbasein Sanaa;these two baseshouse 5,800and 850US militarypersonnelrespecvely. 67
AsymboloftheincreasedUSmilitarypresenceinYemen,theSheratonhotelinSanaawascompletelyrentedoutbytheUSembassyinJanuary2013,andissinceincludedinwhatYemenisrefertoasathenewgreenzone,similartotheonecreatedinBaghdad.Theseheadquartersservediplomats,themilitary,and intelligenceagentsandisprotectedbyadetachmentofMarines.68
Militaryaidhasalsoregularlyincreased:between2006and2010,Yemenreceived$300millioninmilitaryandsecurityaidfromWashington,and$1.2billionhasbeenproposedforthenextsixyears.TheUnitedStateswascricized,bothinsideandoutsideYemen,forsendingthewrongsignalby rushinggreatermilitaryaidto Sanaa,aswellasmilitarytrainersandadvisors,whileoeringmuchlesssocialandeconomicassistance.ThemilitaryaidreinforcedtheideathatAmericansweremainlymovatedbymaersof highsecurity,insteadofYemensmoreprevalentproblemsofpoverty,governmentcorrupon,andinternalregionaldivisions.69
66)KenDilanianandDavidS.Cloud,U.S.escalatesclandesnewarinYemen,LosAngelesTimesBlog,16May2012,hp://lamesblogs.lames.com/world_now/2012/05/washington-escalaon-american-clandesne-war-yemen-us-troops-.html(accessed28July2013).
67)Ymen:loccupaonUS!!(Yemen:TheUSOcupaon!!),IribWorldService,18June2013,hp://french.irib.ir/analyses/commentaires/item/261732-y%C3%A9men-washington-renforce-sa-pr%C3%A9sence-militaire(accessed28July2013).
68) Sheila Carapico, A new Green Zone in Sanaa, Merip, 1January 2013, hp://www.merip.org/new-green-zone-sanaa?utm_source=merolist&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=sanaa(accessed28July2013).
69)StephenW.Day,RegionalismandRebellioninYemen,op.cit.,Chapter8:Lookingintotheabyss.
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4.1 T Uitd stat w tatgy i t Glbal Wa T
ThreedaysaertheSeptember11aacksonNewYorkandWashington,theWaronTerrorismorGlobalWaronTerrorism(GWOT)wasgivenanimportantboostbytheUSCongresssresoluonof14September2001knownastheAUMF(AuthorizaontoUseMilitaryForce),whichstates:thePresidentisauthorizedtouseallnecessaryandappropriateforceagainstthosenaons,organizaons,orpersonshedeterminesplanned,authorized,commied,
oraidedtheterroristaacksthatoccurredonSeptember11,2001,orharbouredsuchorganizaonsorpersons,inordertopreventanyfutureactsofinternaonalterrorismagainsttheUnitedStatesbysuchnaons,organizaonsorpersons.70Thisdocumentisexceponalinthatitdoesnotplaceamelimitonthewar.
Sincetheseaacks,thewaronterrorismhasbeencrucialtothestructuringofUSpolicsasmuchontheinternalasexternalfronts.FromtheabovemenonedAuthorisaontothePatriotActof25October2001,whichputsheavyrestriconsonthecivilandpolicalrightsofUSresidents;andfromtheBushdoctrine,thepresidentsnaonalsecuritystrategyannouncedon4September2002andbywhichtheUSgaveitselftherighttocarryoutpreventavestrikesorwaragainststatesinwhichterroristscouldgainaccesstoweaponsofmassdestrucon,totheopeningofGuantanamoBaydetenoncenter;fromthenetworkofsecretprisonstotheexternalisaonoftorturetocooperavestates;anenrelynewlegalandmilitaryarchitecturewascreatedandrened.Itwoulddeeplyaltertheglobalystrategicequilibrium,inparcularintheArabWorld,andwouldcontributetotheerupon
tenyearslaterofwhatwouldbecalledtheArabSpring.ItisimportanttonotethattheAUMFdocument,passedonlythreedaysaerSeptember11,wouldfromthenonserveasthelegalbasistojusfytargetedkillings.Asof17September2011,PresidentGeorgeW.BushauthorizedtheCIAtoarrest,detain,andkillmembersofal-Qaedaworldwide. 71Yemenwashitbyadronestrikein2002thatkilled6men,amongthemal-Harithi,andtheaackmarkedthelaunchingofthenewstrategyoftheUnitedStatesintheWaronTerror.72Itwasnotunl2009,however,thattheassassinaonsdramacallyincreased.
Meanwhile,Operaon Enduring FreedomwaslaunchedinOctober2001withthestatedaimofdestroyingal-QaedaaswellasTalibantrainingcampsinAfghanistanandtheHornofAfrica,andtopursuecombatantsinordertoarrestandtrythem.InMarch2003 Operaon Iraqi FreedomwaslaunchedunderthepretextthattheIraqipresident,SaddamHussein,hadcollaboratedwithal-QaedaandthreatenedtheUnitedStateswithweaponsofmassdestruc-
on,allegaonsthatwerelaterrevealedtobeuntrue.ThetwomilitaryintervenonswererecognizedasarmedconictsbytheUN(whichhadiniallyconsideredthattheprevenvewaragainstIraqwasnotincompliancewithitscharter,butwhichlaterrevieweditsdecision,sanconingthewar),butulmatelywereunsuccessfulastheirstatedobjecveshavenotbeenmet(includingtherestoraonofdemocracy)althoughthehumanandnancialcostshavebeenparcularlysteep.
UponthearrivalofBarackObamatothepresidencyin2009,contrarytocommonbelief,theUSstrategyinthewaronterrorthathadbeeniniatedbyhispredecessorconnuedandintensied.Asofitsarrival,thenewadminis-traonmadeeveryaempttoshowabreakwiththepastdoctrine,mainlybymodifyingitsrhetoric,forexampleeliminangthetermswaragainstterrorismandenemycombatants.Apartfromthissemancchange,concretemeasurestosignifyadrawdowninthewarweretaken:UStroopswerewithdrawnfromIraqin2011, 73andprepara-onsweremadeforapost-Afghanistanwithadramacdecreaseinthenumberoftroopspresentinthecountry
beginningin2014.Thesewithdrawalsdidnot,however,meanadisengagementofthegreatestmilitarypowerintheworldfromtheseregions.Rather,theywerethemostvisibleaspectsofthenewmilitarydoctrinebasedmoreonintervenonfromadistanceanduseofclandesneSpecialOperaonsthathadbegunundertheBushadministra-onbutthatwereconsiderablyexpandedunderObama.
70)TheCongress,Ajointresoluontoauthorizethe useofUnitedStatesArmedForcesagainstthoseresponsiblefortherecentaackslaunchedagainsttheUnitedStates,14 September2013,hp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-107sjres23cps/pdf/BILLS-107sjres23cps.pdf(accessed28July2013).
71)DanaPriest,CIAHoldsTerrorSuspectsinSecretPrisons,WashingtonPost,2November2005,hp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/arcle/2005/11/01/AR2005110101644_3.html(accessed28July2013).
72)DavidJohnstonandDavidE.Sanger,YemenKillingBasedonRulesSetOutbyBush,TheNewYorkTimes,6November2002,hp://www.nymes.com/2002/11/06/internaonal/middleeast/06YEME.html?pagewanted=print&posion=top(accessed28July2013).
73)Thisisarelaveretreat,given50,000AmericansoldiersremainstaonedinIraq.
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Duringtheperiodof2001-2008,theapproachoftheUnitedStateshadprivilegedthearrest,extraordinaryrendion,andsecretdetenonsinplacesunderthecontroloftheCIA,thenincarceraonwithouttrialatGuantanamo.Theexpressedgoalofthesetaccswastogatherintelligenceinabletomoreeecvelycombatal-Qaedasnetwork.ThemethodsulizedtoobtainthisintelligencewereseverelycondemnedbyorganizaonsdefendinghumanrightsandtheUnitedNaons,astheyconstutedtortureunderinternaonallaw.Thepracceofrendionshasbeenlargelystopped,andtheUSgovernmenthasbegunfavoringthephysicaleliminaonofsuspectedterrorists.
Cricsofthetaccofphysicaleliminaonofsuspectsconcentrateonthefactthatitiscounterproducve:notonlydoesitcreatehoslitytowardstheUnitedStates,butitfacilitatestherecruitmenteortsofarmedgroups,whichincreasesthethreatofterroristacts.Itseemsclearthat,ratherthanfocusonapolicalapproachtoitsproblems,theUSadministraonhasfavoredanapproachthatstrictly focusesonabsolutesecurity.By choosinga remotewar,theyaimtoeliminatetheterroristthreatwithoutconsideringthepossibleimpactonthepopulaon.AsnotedbythephilosopherGrgoireChamayou:Weareseeingarearrangingofprioriesintoasituaonwhereapolicythatseekstoterrorizeanderadicatehastakenprecedenceovertheconsideraonofitspolicaleectsonthepopulaon.74Aquesonworthaskingiswhethertheactualobjecveofthisinvisiblewaristoforceanenrecountryintoa stateofshock,aimingto breakdowntheverystructuresofsociety,weakeningan alreadyfragilestateinordertobeercontrolit.ThecaseofYemenseems,asweshalllatersee,toprovidestrongevidenceinthisdireconincludingthetargetschosen;thenon-discriminaonofstrikesleadingtothedeathofnumerouscivilians;theuseofdoubleaacks,whereastrikeisfollowedminuteslaterbyanotherstrike,obviouslyleadingtoalarger
numberofvicmsandstrikesonvehiclesinurbanareas.
4.2 T ititutializati tagtd illig
TheUnitedStateshasneverdeclaredwaronYemen,andtojusfyitsintervenoninacountrythatposednoconcretedangertothemandwhosegovernmentwasinfactanally,theAUMFof14September2001,whichclearlystatesitsauthorizaonfortheghtagainstthoseresponsiblefortheSeptember11thaacks,couldnotbeap-plicableinthiscase.AnimpercepbleslippingwasthereforeallowedintheapplicaonoftheAUMFtoincludethepursuitandtargengofalQaedaassociatedforces.ThistermdoesnotappearanywhereintheAUMFitself,butappearsintherhetoricofPresidentObamaandocialWhiteHousedocuments.75Ithasbecomepredominant
intheeortstolegimizethewaragainstgroupswithoutestablishedlinkstotheoriginalal-Qaedaorganizaon,responsiblefortheSeptember11thaacks.
Manypeoplecricizethisextensionbecauseitfailstotakeintoaccountthepolicaleectsofitonthegroundandasit would leadtoUS interferencein localconicts.InYemen,theUShasinterfereddirectlyandmassivelyintheconictbetweenthegovernmentandpartoftheopposion,contribungtotheradicalizaonofposionsandcomplicangnegoaons.NumerousUSocialsarefullyawareoftheseproblems,suchasanocialwhorequestedanonymityandwhoseremarkswerereportedbytheWashingtonPost:al-QaedasaliateinYemenis
joinedatthehipwithalocal insurgencywhosemaingoal istooustthecountrysgovernment[]I thinkweriskbeingperceivedastakingsidesinacivilwar. 76
Thedenionofal-QaedaorTalibanassociatedforceswhoareengagedinhosliesagainsttheUnitedStatesor
itscoalionpartners,includinganypersonwhohascommiedabelligerentactorhasdirectlysupportedthesehos-liesinaidoftheenemyforcesappearedintheNaonalDefenseAuthorizaonActof31December2011.77Wecanthusidenfythreetypesofconguraons:armedgroupsworkingwithorunderthedireconofasubsidiaryof
74)GrgoireChamayou,Thoriedudrone(TheoryoftheDrone),LaFabrique,2013,p.106.
75)The WhiteHouse,FactSheet:U.S. PolicyStandardsandProceduresfortheUse ofForceinCounterterrorismOperaonsOutside theUnitedStatesandAreasofAcveHoslies,23May2013,hp://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-oce/2013/05/23/fact-sheet-us-policy-standards-and-procedures-use-force-counterterrorism(accessed28July2013).
76)GregMiller,CIAseeksnewauthoritytoexpandYemendronecampaign,WashingtonPost,18April2012,hp://www.washingtonpost.com/world/naonal-security/cia-seeks-new-authority-to-expand-yemen-drone-campaign/2012/04/18/gIQAsaumRT_story.html (accessed28July2013).
77)QuotedbythewebsiteDommagesCivils(CivilianDamages)inSurlAUMF:bienttuneextensiondudomainedelalue?(OntheAUMF:soon an extensionof the baleeld?), 21 March 2013, hp://dommagescivils.wordpress.com/2013/03/21/sur-laumf-bientot-une-exten-sion-du-domaine-de-la-lue/(accessed28July2013).
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al-Qaeda;groupsthatsupportandcommunicatewithal-Qaeda;andarmedgroupsthatareclearlyindependentbutthatarealsoextremistandSalastinnature.78TheAUMFanditsextensionserveasthebasisfortargetedkillings,inYemenasinothercountries,ofindividualsthatfallintothesecategories.Accordingtothepress,thegovernmentsoftheUnitedStatesandYemenagreedtoworktogethertokillorcapturemorethantwentymembersofal-Qaeda.Thiscooperaonreectedthenewapproach,whichaccordingtotheNewYorkTimes,aimstoemploysmallnumbersofSpecialOperaonstroops,CentralIntelligenceAgencyparamilitaryteamsanddronesagainstelementsofal-Qaeda
thatarecommiedtostrikingtheUnitedStates,whilearmingandadvisingindigenoussecurityforcesto tacklecostlierlong-termcounterinsurgencycampaigns. 79Accordingtothesamenewspaper,JohnO.Brennan,theformerHomelandSecurityadvisortoObamaandthecurrentDirectoroftheCIA,travelledtoSanaaafewdaysaertheeleconofAbdal-RabMansoural-Haditovisitthenewpresidentandworkonthisjointstrategy.
Theannouncedoperaonsarelaunchedwithatotallackoftransparency.Americanocialsrefusetodiscloseanyinformaonregardingtheindividualstargetedorthemeansusedtoeliminatethem.Theveryidentyofthetargetsoenremainsunknown.TheUnitedStatesgovernmentdidnot,foralongme,recognizethatsuchassassinaonswerebeingcarriedoutandifitwerenotforstatementsbyocialsintheadministraonandleaks,orchestratedornot,theywouldhaveremainedsecretforever.ItwasnotunlthemidyearWhiteHousereportwasreleasedinJune2012thattheadministraonociallyadmiedthattheAmericanarmyhastakendirectaconsagainstmembersofal-QaedaanditsassociatesinYemenandSomalia.ThereportfailstomenontheacviesoftheCIA.80TheYemeniauthories,fortheirpart,aresilentorworse,acceptresponsibilityfortheseoperaons.
4.3 T pidt t Uitd stat lgaliz tagtd illig
AscricismoftheUnitedStatesbegantomount,especiallyregardingthekillingofUScizensandofsuspectsincountrieswheretheUnitedStateswasnot involvedin anarmedconict,PresidentObamadeliveredahighlyancipatedspeechattheNaonalDefenseUniversityinWashingtonon23May2013 inwhichhepresentedhiscounter-terrorismstrategy. 81Thenoveltyofthestrategylaylessinthestrategyitself,butratherinitspublican-nouncement.ObamaconrmedthattheUnitedStateshadbeenatwarsince11September2001,butsoughttodistancehimselffromhispredecessorbydeclaringthatglobalwarwithoutlimitisnolongeraviablestrategy.Yetoneofhisadvisers,MichaelSheehan,thecounselfortheSecretaryofDefenseforSpecialOperaonsandLow-
IntensityConict,saidafewdaysearliertotheUSSenate:inmyjudgment,thisisgoingtogoonforquiteawhile,and,yes,beyondthesecondtermofthepresidentIthinkitsatleast10to20years.82
ThePresidentoftheUnitedStatesjusedthemethodsusedintheghtagainstterrorism,especiallyoutsideofconictzones,whilstreassuringpeoplethatouraconsareeecve[and]thesestrikeshavesavedlives.Headded:Americadoesnottakestrikestopunishindividuals;weactagainstterroristswhoposeaconnuingandimminentthreattotheAmericanpeople,andwhentherearenoothergovernmentscapableofeecvelyaddress-ingthethreat.83Concretely,thesewordsarmthePresidentsbeliefthattargetedkillingsarelegalandlegimateandthathehasnoobligaontorespecttheterritorialsovereigntyofastate.Hisargumentaonalsoreferonce
78)DommagesCivils(CivilianDamages)inSurlAUMF:bienttuneextensiondudomainedelalue?(OntheAUMF:soonanextensionof
the baleeld?), 21 March2013, hp://dommagescivils.wordpress.com/2013/03/21/sur-laumf-bientot-une-extension-du-domaine-de-la-lue/(accessed28July2013).
79)EricSchmi,U.S.TeamingWithNewYemenGovernmentonStrategytoCombatAlQaeda,TheNewYorkTimes,26February2012,hp://www-nc.nymes.com/2012/02/27/world/middleeast/us-teaming-with-yemens-new-government-to-combat-al-qaeda.html?=_r=6&(accessed28July2013).
80)RobertBurns,USdeclassifyingaacksinYemen,Somalia,AssociatedPress,15June2012,hp://news.yahoo.com/us-declassifying-aacks-yemen-somalia-190446984.html(accessed28July2013).
81)TheWhiteHouse,RemarksbythePresidentattheNaonalDefenseUniversity,23May2013,hp://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-oce/2013/05/23/remarks-president-naonal-defense-university(accessed28July2013).
82)MichaelSheehan,inanappearancebeforetheSenateCommieeontheArmedForces,16May2013,predicngthatthewaragainstal-Qaedawouldlastbetween10-20yearsmore,inDemocracyNow,VIDEO:FromBostontoPakistan,PentagonOcialsClaimEnreWorldisaBaleeld,hp://www.democracynow.org/blog/2013/5/16/video_from_boston_to_pakistan_pentagon_ocials_claim_enre_world_
is_a_baleeld(accessed28July2013).
83)TheWhiteHouse,RemarksbythePresidentattheNaonalDefenseUniversity,23May2013,hp://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-oce/2013/05/23/remarks-president-naonal-defense-university(accessed28July2013).
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againtotheaacksperpetratedagainsttheUnitedStateson11September2001,twelveyearsearlier:Americasaconsarelegal.Wewereaackedon9/11.Withinaweek,Congressoverwhelminglyauthorizedtheuseofforce.Underdomesclaw,andinternaonallaw,theUnitedStatesisatwarwithalQaeda,theTaliban,andtheirassoci-atedforces.WeareatwarwithanorganizaonthatrightnowwouldkillasmanyAmericansastheycouldifwedidnotstopthemrst.Sothisisajustwar--awarwagedproporonally,inlastresort,andinself-defense.ThisissignicantforitsreferencetotheAUMFresoluon,whichmakesnomenonofassociatedforces,thetermthat,
aswehaveargued,hasservedtojusfyakindofstateofemergencywithoutlimitinspaceorme.
AwareofnavigangalegalspacewhereneithertheAmericanConstuonnortheprincipalsofinternaonallawarerespected,ObamaemphasizedthatAmericadoesnottakestrikeswhenwehavetheabilitytocaptureindi-vidualterrorists;ourpreferenceisalwaystodetain,interrogate,andprosecute.Hewentontoarguethat,incertainsituaons,however,wherethepersonsconcernednot onlyendangerthesecurityof theUnitedStatesbut alsocannotbearrestedforavarietyofreasons,theuseofdeadlyforcewasjused.Aguideexplainingthesesituaonswasreleasedthesameday.84ObamasoughttopersuadehisaudiencethathisadministraonremainedverystrictinitsrespectforthelawwhilstatthesamemeprotecngthesecurityoftheUnitedStates.Inthiscontext,theuseofdrones,whennecessarytoremovetheenemy,wouldappeartobethebestmethodinparcularduetoitsprecision.
TheeorttoensuretransparencywhichmanynotedinthisspeechwasmaybemademostclearlybytheadmissionfromthePresidentthathehadorderedthetargetedkillingofAnwaral-Awlaqi,anAmericancizenwhomhepresentedasthechiefofexternaloperaonsofAQAPeventhoughthisfunconhasneverbeenconclusivelyestablished.HealsoadmiedtothekillingoffourotherUScizensinYemen(inreality,thenumberisatleastve)withoutdescribingtheexactreasonfortheireliminaon.
Aswehaveseen,thestrategyofwithdrawingtroopsfromconictzonessuchasIraqandAfghanistanandreplacingthemwithtargetedoperaonsisnotnew.ItwasbornundertheBushpresidency,andgrewduringthersttermofPresidentObamawiththewithdrawalofa largeporonofUStroopsintheregion.Thisspeechremovedthetargetedkillingoperaonsfromsecrecytheyhad previouslybeeninandgavetheman acceptable,quasi-legalcharacter.Ulmately,itcontributedtotheinstuonalizaonoftargetedkillingsandensurestheconnuaonofawarwithoutend.
Thedayaerthespeech,whichmanyanalystshadunderstoodasthePresidentseekingtoreduceandregulatetheuseofdrones,Yemenwasthetargetofyetanotheraack,probablyadrone,andwastargetedagaininthefollowingmonths.85
4.4 Wic agci a imlicatd i t militay itvti i Ym?
MilitaryintervenoninYemenhasbeencarriedoutbytheYemeniarmedforcesaswellastheSaudiArabianandUSforces,whichinmanycasesassistwithplanningandsupervision.AlthoughitisonlyveryrarelyannouncedwhichUSagencyisresponsibleforeachoperaon,itappearsthattherearequiteanumberinvolved.InApril2012,theWashingtonPostwrotethatinrecentyearsinYemen,theCIA,theNaonalSecurityAgency,aswellasotheragencieshavelaunchedaacksthatpreviouslyfellundertheauspicesoftheJointSpecialOperaonsCommand
(JSOC)whichisundertheauthorityofthePentagon.UnlikeinPakistanwheretheCIAcarriesoutthemajorityofstrikes,aacksinYemen,inaddiontotheagencieslistedabove,havealsobeenlaunchedbytheUSNavystaonedoshore.86
AccordingtotheWashingtonPost,seniorUSocialshavesaidthatJSOCenjoysmoreautonomythantheCIAtotrackdownmilitantsinYemen,andthatitdoesnotneedocialauthorizaontocarryouttargetedkillings.Due
84)TheWhiteHouse,FactSheet:U.S.PolicyStandardsandProceduresforthe UseofForceinCounterterrorismOperaonsOutsidetheUnitedStatesandAreasofAcveHoslies,23May2013,hp://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-oce/2013/05/23/fact-sheet-us-policy-standards-and-procedures-use-force-counterterrorism(accessed28July2013).
85) Bureau of invesgave Journalism, Yemen: reported US covert acons 2013, hp://www.thebureauinvesgates.com/2013/01/03/yemen-reported-us-covert-acons-2013/(accessed28July2013).
86)GregMiller,CIAseeksnewauthoritytoexpandYemendronecampaign,WashingtonPost,18April2012,hp://www.washingtonpost.com/world/naonal-security/cia-seeks-new-authority-to-expand-yemen-drone-campaign/2012/04/18/gIQAsaumRT_story.html (accessed28July2013).
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tothespecicsituaonin Yemen,wherethereisaconictbetweenthegovernmentandtheinsurgency,droneintervenonsaremorecomplexbutthishasnotstoppedthembeingcarriedout.87
TheCIAalsocooperateswiththeSaudiArabianandYemeniintelligenceservicestobuildanetworkofinformantstobeercarryoutdronestrikes.Theexactlocaonofsuspectedindividualsisoenconrmedbyhumanintelligenceontheground.AsstatedbyGregMiller:TheagencyalsohasworkedwiththeSaudiandYemeniintelligence
servicestobuildnetworksofinformants.88
TherstaacksinYemenwerecarriedoutbyJSOCfromCampLemonnierinDjibou,themostimportantbasefordronesoutsidetheUnitedStatesthathouses3,200people,witharound300membersoftheSpecialForces.AnotherdronebaseislocatedintheSeychelles.89Inthesummerof2011,followingtheconstruconofthesecretAmericanmilitarybaseinSaudiArabia,90thenumberofdronemissionscarriedoutbytheCIAsignicantlyincreased.AdronelaunchedfromthenewbasecarriedouttheassassinaonofAnwaral-Awlaqi,anAmericancizen,bytheCIAon30September2011.ItmarkstherstmethattheCIAhaslaunchedadronestrikeinYemensince2002,andtherstindicaonthatthenewbaseisoperaonal.91
SeveralcommentatorshavearguedthatPresidentObamahasreducedtheroleoftheCIAinordertoincreasethelegalityandtransparencyoftheprogram.Accordingtothem,shiingcontrolofthedroneprogramtothePentagonwouldallowU.S.ocialstostreamlinedroneoperaonsundernormalproceduresinthelawofwar.92
ItisdiculttobelievethattheCIA,whichhas,tothisday,carriedoutthemajorityofstrikesoutsideAfghanistan,would trulybe marginalizedgiven theexpansion of itscapabilies since 2012. The agency not only has thenew base in Saudi Arabia93, but also, as reported bytheWashingtonPostinOctober2012,hasaninventoryof30-35 drones. Inorder toaugmentitsoperaons inYemen,italsoborrowsdronesfromJSOC.TheAmericanAir Force alone had an inventory, in October 2012, ofnearly 250 Predator, Reaper, and Global-Hawk drones.Analysts agree that over the past decade the CIA hasbeenexperiencingagradualconversiontoaparamilitaryforce.94
TheconnuedcooperaonoftheCIAandUSmilitaryinthisareaisconrmedinparcularbyWhiteHouseop-posion toan amendmenttothe2014 spendingbill thatwouldrequire any lethal militaryacon tobe under
87)GregMiller,CIAseeksnewauthoritytoexpandYemendronecampaign,op.cit.
88)GregMiller,CIAseeksnewauthoritytoexpandYemendronecampaign,op.cit.
89)GregMiller,Awlakiisrsthitfornewdronebase,TheWashingtonPost,30September2011,hp://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/aulaqi-rst-hit-for-new-drone-base/2011/09/30/gIQASF4eAL_blog.html(accessed28July2013).
90)FirstrevelaonconcerninganAmericandronebaseontheYemeniborder:SaudiocialsconrmthatSaudiArabiaencouragedtheUnitedStatestointensifytheirintervenoninYemenandreprisalsfollowingtheaemptedassassinaonofMohamedIbnNaefandYemen:TheeldofAmericanmilitaryoperaons,al-Oula,1June2013,hp://www.aloulaye.com/index.php?opon=com_k2&view=item&id=6446:0000-00-00+00%3A00%3A00&Itemid(accessed28July2013).
91)GregMiller,Awlakiisrsthit fornewdronebase,TheWashingtonPost,30September2011,hp://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/checkpoint-washington/post/aulaqi-rst-hit-for-new-drone-base/2011/09/30/gIQASF4eAL_blog.html(accessed28July2013).
92)Carlo Munoz,WhiteHousemove toletPentagon