YDOXH WKUHDWVDQGRSSRUWXQLWLHV - CORDIO€¦ · CORDIO team also thank all those who contributed to the study by providing the information required for the preparation of this Publication

Marine habitats of the Lamu-Kiunga coast: an assessment of biodiversity value, threats and opportunities

Kennedy Osuka, Melita Samoilys, James Mbugua,Jan de Leeuw, David Obura

Marine habitats of the Lamu-Kiunga coast: an assessment of biodiversity value, threats and opportunities

Kennedy Osuka, Melita Samoilys, James Mbugua, Jan de Leeuw, David Obura

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LIMITEDCIRCULATION

Correctcitation:OsukaK,MelitaSamoilysM,MbuguaJ,deLeeuwJ,OburaD.2016.MarinehabitatsoftheLamu-Kiungacoast:anassessmentofbiodiversityvalue,threatsandopportunities. ICRAFWorkingpapernumberno.248WorldAgroforestryCentre.DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5716/WP16167.PDF

TitlesintheWorkingPaperseriesaimtodisseminateinterimresultsonagroforestryresearchandpractices,andstimulatefeedbackfromthescientificcommunity.OtherpublicationseriesfromtheWorldAgroforestryCentreinclude:TechnicalManuals,OccasionalPapersandtheTreesforChangeSeries.

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©WorldAgroforestryCentre2016

WorkingPaperNo.248

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Abouttheauthors

KennedyOsukaisresearchscientistatCORDIOEastAfrica.Email:[email protected]

MelitaSamoilysisadirector,CORDIOEastAfrica.Email:[email protected]

JamesMbuguaisaresearchassistantatCORDIOEastAfrica.Email:[email protected]'sEasternandSouthernAfricanteam.HeiscurrentlyanecologistatBakuStateUniversity.Email:jan45leeuw@gmail.comDavidOburaisthecoordinatorforCORDIOEastAfrica.Email:[email protected]

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Acknowledgements

The publication is an outcome of an activity of marine biodiversity assessment, which wascommissionedbyICRAFandimplementedbyCORDIOEastAfrica.SpecialgratitudegoestoEUthroughIGAD for funding the activity. CORDIO team also thank all those who contributed to the study byprovidingtheinformationrequiredforthepreparationofthisPublication.TheauthorswouldalsothankDr.MaarifaWakumanya, Pwani University, Grace Koech and Josephat Nyongesa for reviewing themanuscript.Finally,theauthorswouldliketothanktheICRAFcommunicationteamforproofreadingandpublishingtheworkingpaper.

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TableofContents

Abouttheauthors....................................................................................................................................iiAcknowledgements.................................................................................................................................iiiListoffigures...........................................................................................................................................viListoftables...........................................................................................................................................viiListofabbreviations..............................................................................................................................viiiAbstract...................................................................................................................................................ixIntroduction.............................................................................................................................................1TheLamu-Kiungaseascape......................................................................................................................2

Physiographyoftheseascape..............................................................................................................2Geologyandoceanography.................................................................................................................3OutstandingfeaturesofLamu-Kiungaseascape..................................................................................3

Biodiversityofshallowmarinehabitats...................................................................................................5Introduction.........................................................................................................................................5Coralreefs............................................................................................................................................5

Coraldiversity..................................................................................................................................5Coralreefbenthos...........................................................................................................................6Coralmortalityandbleaching.........................................................................................................8Resiliencestatusofreefs.................................................................................................................9Coralreeffishdiversity....................................................................................................................9Trendsinfishabundance...............................................................................................................12

Seagrass.............................................................................................................................................16Mangroves.........................................................................................................................................16

Mangrovecover.............................................................................................................................16Mangrovediversity........................................................................................................................17Mangrovezonation.......................................................................................................................19

Biodiversityofpelagichabitats..............................................................................................................21Introduction.......................................................................................................................................21Marinemammalsandturtles.............................................................................................................21Sharksandrays..................................................................................................................................22

Biodiversityusesandthreats.................................................................................................................24Introduction.......................................................................................................................................24Useoffishandthreatstofisheries....................................................................................................25

Resourceutilizationandextraction...............................................................................................25Trendsinfishcatches....................................................................................................................27Fisheriesissues..............................................................................................................................28LamuPortandLamu-SouthernSudan-EthiopiaTransportCorridorproject.................................28

Threatstoseagrassbeds....................................................................................................................28Threatstomangroves........................................................................................................................29

Communityutilization...................................................................................................................29

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LAPSSETproject.............................................................................................................................30Useoffishesandthreatstothepelagicmarinesystem....................................................................30

Opportunitiesforimprovedmanagement.............................................................................................31Introduction.......................................................................................................................................31Governmentinstitutions....................................................................................................................34

StateDepartmentofFisheries.......................................................................................................34BeachManagementUnits.............................................................................................................34KenyaWildlifeService...................................................................................................................34KenyaMarineFisheriesResearchInstitute...................................................................................35

Policyandinstitutionsformanagementofmangroves.....................................................................35Non-governmentinstitutions............................................................................................................36

FisheriesCooperatives...................................................................................................................36WorldWideFund...........................................................................................................................36CORDIOEastAfrica........................................................................................................................36

ProtectedAreaapproaches...............................................................................................................37LocallyManagedMarineAreas.....................................................................................................37

Recommendations.................................................................................................................................39References..............................................................................................................................................41Appendices.............................................................................................................................................49

Appendix1.CoralgeneraandspecieslistrecordedinPate-Kiunga2015.........................................49Appendix2.Datatreatmentandanalysis..........................................................................................53Appendix3.FishspecieslistrecordedinPate-Kiungain2015..........................................................54

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Listoffigures

Figure1:MapofcoastlineshowingKiungaMarineNationalReserveandtheconservancies................2Figure2:SpatialextentofcoralreefsoftheKenyancoastandthe200m-depthcontour......................3Figure3:ChangeinthecoverofbenthicvariablesintheLamu-Kiungaarea..........................................7Figure4:Mapofin-situcoralreefsurveysitesconductedbyCORDIO....................................................8Figure5:Fishabundanceof11selectedfamiliesinKiunga-Pateseascape...........................................14Figure6:MeandensityandbiomassoffishfamiliessurveyedatsixsitesinPateIsland-Kiunga..........15Figure7:SpatialdistributionofmangrovesalongtheKenyancoast.....................................................17Figure8:Zonationofmangrovesalongtheland-seainterface..............................................................20Figure9:TrendsinthenumberoffishermeninLamuCounty..............................................................26Figure10:DistributionoffishinggearsinLamuCounty........................................................................26Figure11:NumberofillegalgearsinuseinLamuCounty.....................................................................27Figure12:Locationof24LMMAsinKenya............................................................................................38

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Listoftables

Table1:DensitiesofcoraladultsandrecruitssampledinKiungaMarineNationalReserve..................8Table2:Totalnumberofreeffishspeciesperfamilypersite...............................................................11Table3:CoralreeffishdiversityindexvaluesforLamu-KiungaandfromotherWIOcountries...........12Table4:NationallevelmangroveareaestimatesinKenyafrom1931to2010.....................................18Table5:MangrovespeciesofLamu-Kiungaregion................................................................................19Table6:SpeciesdistributionandcoverwithintheKiungaMarineNationalReserve............................19Table7:IUCNcategoriesofmarinemammalssightedinPateIsland-Kiungaarea................................21Table8:IUCNcategoriesofsharksandraysfishedandsightedinPateIsland-Kiungaarea.................22Table9:Meancatchperuniteffortfrom2001-2007ofgearsusedinLamuCounty............................27Table10:DPSIRanalysisofenvironmentalproblemsaffectingbiodiversityintheshallowandpelagic

marinehabitats..............................................................................................................................32Table11:ListofBMUsinLamu-Kiungaarea..........................................................................................34Table12:NationallygazettedMarineProtectedAreasinKenya...........................................................37

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Listofabbreviations

BMP BiodiversityManagementProgrammeBMU BeachManagementUnitCBD ConventiononBiologicalBiodiversityCFDI CoralFishDiversityIndexCORDIO CoastalOceansResearchandDevelopmentIndianOceanCPUE CatchPerUnitEffortDPSIR DrivingForce-Pressure-State-Impact-ResponseframeworkEACC EastAfricaCoastalCurrentEEZ ExclusiveEconomicZoneENSO ElNiñoSouthernOscillationEU EuropeanUnionFAO FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationsGBR GreatBarrierReefGoK GovernmentofKenyaICRAF WorldAgroforestryCentreIGAD IntergovernmentalAuthorityonDevelopmentIP ImplementingPartnerIUCN InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureIUU IllegalUnregulatedandUnreportedKFS KenyaForestServiceKMCC KiungaMarineCommunityConservancyKMFRI KenyaMarineFisheriesResearchInstituteKMNR KiungaMarineNationalReserveKWS KenyaWildlifeServiceLAPSSET LamuPortSouthernSudan-EthiopiaTransportLMMAs LocallyManagedMarineAreasMPAs MarineProtectedAreasMSP MarineSpatialPlanningNGO Non-GovernmentalOrganizationNRT NorthernRangelandsTrustPES PaymentforEcosystemServicesPMCC PateMarineCommunityConservancySDF StateDepartmentofFisheriesTNC TheNatureConservancyUVC UnderwaterVisualCensus VMS VesselMonitoringSystemWIO WesternIndianOceanWWF WorldWildlifeFund

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Abstract

The oceanography, geology, connectivitywithGulf of Aden, diverse ecosystems and culturalworldheritagearetheOutstandingUniversalValuesofLamu-Kiungaseascape.Theoceanographysupportsaproductivemarineecosystemthathostsavarietyofmarinespecies.Thecoralcoverin2015averaged16%, with a range of 35% inshore <5% on the deep offshore reefs. Globally, rare coral genera ofSiderastrea,Horastrea,Caulastrea,MoseleyaandendemicangelfishApolemichthysxanthotisaswellassixsharkandninerayspecies,Dugongs,turtles,whalesanddolphinoccurintheseascape.Mangrovecover and quality is good but has reduced over decades. Themain threats to marine biodiversityinclude;increaseinhumanpopulation,highpovertylevels,deforestationofmangroves,clayminingforpottery and land tenure. In response to these threats, public and civil institutionshaveengaged inprovidingsolutions.Enactmentofawiderangeofnational,coastalandenvironmentallegislationispartofthepolicyresponsetothethreats.Theadoptionoflocally-managedmarineareashasalsoimprovedmanagement ofmarine biodiversity. It is envisioned that integrating local knowledge, governmentregulations and science through a marine spatial planning approach has the potential to benefitecosystemsandcommunitieslivingaroundthisuniquepartofKenya’scoast.Keywords:marineecosystems;marinespecies;coralcover;conservation

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Introduction

TheBiodiversityManagementProgramme(BMP)isanIntergovernmentalAuthorityonDevelopment(IGAD)initiativewhichaimstocontributetopovertyreductionbyimprovingthesocialandeconomicwellbeing of populations in the region, through better regional integration in the environmentalsector. Its purpose is the conservation and sustainable management of ecosystems in order tocontributetolastingecosystemgoodsandservices.ICRAFisoneofBMP’sImplementingPartners(IPs)andismanagingoneofthethreeprojectsaimedatdevelopingcollaborativemanagementinthreecross-boundary land and seascapes between Kenya-Somalia, Djibouti-Ethiopia and Ethiopia-SouthSudan.TheinitiativeisfundedbytheEuropeanUnion(EU).The ICRAF-ledproject (November2013-November2017) isbeing implemented in thecross-borderareaofnortheasternKenyaandsouthernSomaliainanareaextendingfromtheTanaRiverinKenyatotheLagaBadanaBushBushNationalReserveinSomalia.Thispaperaddressesoneoftheprojectaimsofsourcingbiodiversityinformationandprovidingasynthesisofthreatsandopportunities.Asapartner on the ICRAF project, CORDIO East Africawas taskedwith contributing to this activity byleadingthecompilationandsynthesisof informationonmarinebiodiversity inthenorthernKenyapartof theseascapefromLamutotheSomaliborderatKiunga.Withadditional fundingfromTheNatureConservancy(TNC),CORDIOEastAfricawasabletosurveythePatetoKiungacoastalmarinehabitatsin2015.Thepurposeofthestudywastoassessthenear-shorecoastalmarineenvironment,itscurrentandpotentialuseandbenefitsofecosystemservicestopeople,andthedriversandpressuresofchangeintheseascape,aswellasopportunitiesforimprovedmanagement.This study sought to determine the current status of themarine biodiversity in the area, with aparticularfocusoncoralreefsandmangrovesasthetwodominantmarinehabitatsinthisseascape.Currentmanagementofthenationalmarinereserves,andinformationonotherkeyaspectsofthisseascape such as coral health, ecologically valuable habitats, vulnerable and threatened species,ecosystemservicesandresiliencetoclimatechangewerealsoassessed.

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TheLamu-Kiungaseascape

The Lamu-Kiunga seascape is located in the northern part of Kenya’s coast between 1.6537°S,41.5598°Eand2.4776°S,40.7060°E.TheareabordersSomalia.Ithasmanyvaluablemarineresources,suchasmangroves,coralreefsandseagrasses,whichprovideanimportantsourceoflivelihoodandfoodsecurityforlocalcommunities.ManagementofPateIslandandKiungaareahasembracedtheuseofcommunityconservancies,anchoredintheWildlifeConservationandManagementAct2013,andestablishedthroughapartnershipbetweencommunities,government,TheNatureConservancyand Northern Rangelands Trust (NRT). Pate Marine Community Conservancy (PMCC) and KiungaMarineCommunityConservancy(KMCC)wereestablishedin2013:PMCCisinchargeofcoordinationofconservationmeasuresinfourmanagementunits(blocks)ofPethali,Rewa,UvondoandSiyuwhileKMCCisresponsibleforMkokoni,Kiwayu,Rubu,KiungaandIshakani(Figure1).Itisanticipatedthattheintegrationoflocaltraditionalknowledgeonenvironmentwithmodernscienceandresearchwillimprovethemanagementoffiniteresources.

Source:NRT-Coast

Figure1:MapofcoastlineshowingKiungaMarineNationalReserveandtheconservanciesPhysiographyoftheseascape

Theseascapehasacontinentalshelfspreadingabout4-6kmoffthemainland.Thecoralreeftypeischaracterizedbypatchyandfringingreefswithoffshoredeepreefterraces.Thedeepreefextendsabout4kmoffshoretotheedgeofthecontinentalshelf,whiletheraisedfossilreefonshorearemostlycoveredwithsanddunessuchas theKiwayu Island,whichsupporthalophytic shrubs,grassesandwoodland. The geology of the islands comprises the fossilized sand dunes and beaches of thePleistoceneage(Weruetal.2001).ThecoastlineofLamuseascapeandnortheastwardsalongSomaliais mostly rocky with few indentations and is rimmed by a narrow beach. The rocks consist of

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Quaternary sediments that are in contactwith Jurassic sediments and thePrecambrianbasement(PepperandEverhart1963).Geologyandoceanography

TheoceanfloorofLamu-KiungaseascapeliesontheIndianOceanBasinwithintheAfricanplate,whichbrokeupfromGondwanaland,thesupercontinent,about180millionyearsago(CandeandStegman2011,Oburaetal.2012).Theoceanfloorhasremainedrelativelyunchangedmakingitarefugefordifferentmarinespecies.ThebroaderLamu-KiungaarchipelagorepresentstheNorthernMonsoonCoastalCurrenteco-regionofKenya(McClanahan1988,Obura2012).TheLamu-Kiungaareaexperiencesmonsoonalwinds,EastAfrica Coastal Current (EACC) and Somali current that significantly influences the rainfall and seasurfacetemperatures(Schottetal.2009).TheinfluenceoftheSomalicurrentwithitscoldupwellingwatersishigherintheseascapecomparedtoKenya’ssoutherncoast,partlybecauseofitsproximityandduetothenarrowwidthofcontinentshelfinthenorthcomparedwiththesouth(Figure2).Theupwelling waters of the seascape enhance nutrient circulations for the primary and secondaryproductivityofthemarineecosystems,supportingmarinelifesuchasfish,crustaceans,molluscsandmigratoryspeciessuchasseabirdsandturtles(Samoilysetal.2015).

Source:CordioEastAfrica

Figure2:SpatialextentofcoralreefsoftheKenyancoastandthe200m-depthcontour

OutstandingfeaturesofLamu-Kiungaseascape

ThecoralreefsystemintheareahasauniquemixofcoralandfishspeciesrepresentativeoftheEastAfricanandtheRedSea/ArabianGulffauna.ConvergenceoftheEastAfricaCoastalCurrent(EACC)

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andthecoldupwellingoftheSomalicurrentcausethis.Forinstance,anendemicangelfishoftheRedSea/GulfofAden,Apolemichthysxanthotisisfoundinthearea.ThecoralragislandsofKiunga-Lamuarchipelago also act as key nesting grounds for 10,000 breeding pairs of roseate terns (Sternadougallii).Otherbirdsincludewhite-cheekedtern(Sternarepresa),bridledtern(Sternaanaethetus),whitepelicans(Pelecanusonocrotalus),andAfricanspoonbill(Plataleaalba)(Weruetal.2001).TherearealsoanecdotalreportsofsightingsoftheCriticallyEndangeredknifetoothsawfish(Anoxypristiscuspidate)andlongcombsawfish(Pristiszijron)southofLamuinthelowerreachesoftheTanaRiver(Samoilysetal.2011a).Thegeology,oceanography,connectivitywithGulfofAden,widerangeofecosystemsfromterrestrialandmarinehabitats,andculturalworldheritagearesomeoftheOutstandingUniversalValuesofthebroaderLamu-Kiungaseascape.Theseascapeisendowedwithuniquehabitats,extensivemangroveforestsandresidentandmigratoryspecies,makingitanimportantglobalbiodiversitysite(Weruetal.2001,Oburaetal.2012).

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Biodiversityofshallowmarinehabitats

Introduction

ThehabitatsofLamu-Kiungaseascapeofferawiderangeofecosystemservices fromthecomplexcarbonsequestrationservices,primaryandsecondaryproductivitytoprovidinghabitatandnurserygrounds fornumerous fishand shellfish (De LaCruz1979,Carlton1974). ShallowmarinehabitatsfoundinLamu-Kiungaseascapeincludecoralreefs,seagrassandmangrovesecosystemsthatprovidefourecosystemservicesofprovisioning,regulating,culturalandsupportingservices.Seagrassmeadowsprovidenumeroushighvalueecosystemservices.Theyarevitalhabitatformarineorganisms and form important foraging grounds for the endangeredmarine turtles and dugongs.Seagrassecosystemsarevitaltothefishingindustriesastheyserveasanimportanthabitatandsourceoffoodtolargefishspecies,foratleastapartoftheirlifecycle.Theystabilizebottomsedimentswiththeir dense roots and rhizomes especially during storms. Seagrass beds also represent enormouscarbonsinksandarebeingconsideredinbluecarbonschemes(Samoilysetal.2015).Coralreefs

Coralreefsareamongthemostproductiveanddiverseofallmarineecosystems.Theycontroltheecologyofnearshoremarineenvironmentsbyprovidinghabitatandsheltertoahighdiversityoffishfamilies,lobsters,octopus,dugongs,turtlesandwhalesharks.Theyactasabufferforoceanwavesreachingtheshore.Coralreefecosystemsupportsbothartisanalandcommercialfisheriesandhenceforms the backbone of coastal communities’ economies. Recreational activities in coral reefecosystems support the tourism industry,which subsequentlyengagesother stakeholders suchasboatoperators,tourcompanies,tourguidesandhoteliersinthehospitalitysector.CoralreefsinKenyaextendfromtheTanzanianborderinthesouthtotheSomaliborderinthenorthandcoveranareaof621.55km²representing0.2%oftheGreatBarrierReef(Figure2).Kenya’scoralcommunities conform to thoseof thewesternandcentral IndianOceanbiogeographic zone,withsome endemic species and others of wide Indo-Pacific distribution (Obura 2012). The reefs aretypically composed of hard substrate co-existing closely with extensive sea grass communities asdescribedbyRosen(1971).AcontinuousfringingreefdominatesthesouthernpartofKenyanreefswhilepatchyandinplacesmarginalizedreefscharacterizethenorthernpartincludingthePateIslandtoKiungaarea.Thesecontrastingformationpatternsbetweenthesouthernandthenorthernreefsisattributed to the uniquebiophysical characteristics of the northern coast notably the freshwaterdischargefromtheTanaandSabakiRiverscoupledwiththenutrientrichSomalicurrentrunningsouthfromSomalia(SurveyofKenya2009,Oburaetal.1998).

Coraldiversity

Thecoral reefsurvey in1998 in thePate Island-KiungaReservearea identified51generaand146speciesofcoralswiththereefsofSimbabaya,KuiandBomanibeingmorediversethanotherreefs(Oburaetal.1998).Surveysdonein2000sshowpresenceof180speciesofcoralsintheLamu-Kiunga

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seascape(Oburaetal.2012).TheuniquecoralsspeciesintheseascapeincludePoritesnodifera,P.columnaris,andCoscinaraea species (Hamilton and Brakel 1984,Obura 2008). Globally rare coralgeneraofSiderastrea,Horastrea,Caulastrea,andMoseleyahavealsobeenencounteredinpreviouscoral surveys (Obura et al. 1998). The rare and endemic corals comprise Horastrea indica andSiderastreasavignyana.Gonioporasp.isalsopresentespeciallyoffPateIsland(Samoilysetal.2011a).Forty-fourcoralgenerawererecordedacrossallthesites(Appendix1).Thesite-levelspeciesrichnessvariesfromhighsof26generaonmanyofthedeepreefsatChole,25generaatShimolaTewa,tolowsof16-17generaatKui,KupiandPethali,allinnerpatchreefs.Bycontrast,speciesrichnesswasgreatestontheshallowreefs(ShimolaTewa,Chole, Iweni)andlowestontwodeepreefs(MongoShariff,Ch.Rubu)andtwoinnerreefs(Pethali,Kui).ReefsiteswerestronglydominatedbyPoritesfollowedbyabout15generathatdecreasedprogressivelyinrelativeabundance,andincludedFavites,Goniastera,Coscinaraea,Favia.Eightgenerawerescarce,onlyfoundonceintheentiresurvey.ThisincludestheendemicgenusCraterastrea,whichuntilnowhadbeenreportedonlywithinthehighdiversitycentreinthenorthernMozambiqueChannel,aswellasfromChagos(BritishIndianOceanTerritory). Genus richness is generally low, compared to >50 genera recorded and >300 speciesexpectedatsitesinthenorthernMozambiqueChannel(Obura2012).

Coralreefbenthos

Coralreefsgloballyarefacingadeclineincoverandchangeinspeciescompositionduetostressorssuch as climate change, pollution, overfishing and harmful algal blooms. Estimates indicate thatgloballyapproximately34%ofthecoralreefshavebeendestroyedoraredeclining(Pandolfietal.2011).Globaltrendsshowadeclineinhardcoralcover,whichhasacceleratedinthelastfewdecades(Pandolfi et al. 2003, Carpenter et al. 2008). Coral reefs of thenorthernoffshoreKiunga area arepredominantlyalgalreefswithsomepatchcoralhabitats,particularlynearshore,withcoralcoverofaround4%ontheoffshoredeepreefslopesofKiungaMarineReserve(Samoilys1988).Hardcoralcoverestimatesin1987onthedeeperoffshorereefsofRubu,MkokoniandKiwayuwas<5%.In2006,the latest year surveyedduring thenine-yearWWF/CORDIOprogramme, the coverofhard coralsrangedwidely,from5-24%,dependingonthesitewithinthePate-Kiungaarea(Figure3a).Thecoverofsoftcoralsinthe1980srangedfrom2.9-5.6%comparedto0.1-8%in2006(Figure3b).Hardcoral,soft coralandcorallinealgaecoveralldeclinedsignificantly inall areasofKiungaMarineNationalReserve and around Pate Island following the 1998/1999 coral bleaching, and then graduallyrecoveredoversubsequentyears(Figures3a-c).In contrast, the brown macro-algae Sargassum sp., Turbinaria sp. and Hormophysa cuneiformis,increased after the 1998 bleaching event to the highest level recorded of >86% and then laterdropped,buttolevelsthatwerealwayshigherthanthepre-bleachinglevel(Figure3d).In2006macro-algae cover was between 42% and 79% in the Pate-Kiunga area. This increase in macro-algaecorrespondstoareduction inhardcoralcover.StudiesoncoralconditionsandrecruitmentwithinKiungaMarineNationalReserve,conductedsystematicallyfrom1998to2002furtherunderscorealow recruitment in 1999, likely due to mortality following the 1998 coral bleaching and reducedreproductiveoutputofsurvivingcorals(Table1).WhilethecoverofcoralsinthePateIsland-KiungaseascapeisgenerallywellbelowtheaveragecoverofKenyanreefs(20-30%),by2000thecoverhad

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stabilized, but on average at lower levels than pre-bleaching levels. However, some sites hadrecoveredtohigherlevelswithinthenearshoreKiwayuandPethaliareasandarewithintherangeofnationalcoralcover(Figure3a).

Figure3:Changeinthecoverofbenthicvariables:a)hardcoral,b)softcoral,c)corallinealgaeandd)brownmacro-algae,from1998to2006intheLamu-Kiungaarea(Datasource:CORDIO/WWF)Seeappendix2fordatatreatmentandanalysisFromthecoralreefsurveysconductedin2015todeterminethecurrentstatusofreefsinthearea(Figure4),thecoralcoverofPate-Kiungaareaaveraged16%acrossthesites,fromamaximumof35%atIwenitominimumof<5%onthedeepreefsatRubu,MongoShariff,ChanoandMvundeni.Thesemeasuresarenotmarkedlydifferentfrom2006,thoughthemeasureof35%atIweniishigherthananypreviousyears.Corallinealgalcoverwaslowatmostsites,butwithhigherlevelsatCh.Chano(>20%)andCh.Mvundeni(10%).However,thesearenothigherthanlevelsnineyearsago.In2015,turfalgaewerethedominantcoveracrossallsitesatanaverageof38%,followedbyhardcorals(16%)thenmacroalgae(13%).Macro-algalcoverisnowsubstantiallylowerthanitwasin2006.Macroalgalcover did vary between sites with higher cover at three deep reefs (Rubu, Mongo Shariff andMvundeni)andtwoshallowreefs(KuiandPethali).Reasonsforthesesitedifferencesarenotclear,possiblyduetositedifferencesinnutrientenhancementfromneighboringmangrovesorupwelling.

0 5

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Cor

al c

over

(%)

Year

a) Hard corals

Ishakani Kiunga Rubu Kiwayu Mkokoni Pethali

0 5

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Soft

cora

l cov

er (%

)

Year

b) Soft corals Ishakani Kiunga Rubu Kiwayu Mkokoni Pethali

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

100

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Cor

allin

e al

gae

(%)

Year

b) Coralline algae


0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

100

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Alg

ae c

over

(%)

Year

d) Algae


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Source:CordioEastAfrica

Figure4:Mapofin-situcoralreefsurveysitesconductedbyCORDIOthroughsupportfromTNCin2015intheconservanciesestablishedundertheNRTCoastprogramme.Table1:DensitiesofcoraladultsandrecruitssampledinKiungaMarineNationalReservefrom1998to2002

Source:OburaandChurch2003

Coralmortalityandbleaching

Increasesinseasurfacetemperaturecoupledwithvarioususeofcoralreefsbycoastalcommunitieshaveincreasedpressuresoncoralreefs.The1998/1999ElNinoledtobleachingofmorethan80%ofthecoralreefsintheLamu-Kiungaseascape(Oburaetal.2007).StressorssuchasharmfulalgalbloomsanddiseaseaswitnessedinJanuary-March2002,aswellasbleachingremaintheprimarycauseofcoralmortality in thearea (ChurchandObura2004).Other than that, theeconomicdevelopmentwitnessedinKenyaoverthepastfewyearshasseenmajorprojectscommenceinthenortherncoast,

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notably the Lamu Port Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET) project and oil explorations.Theseactivitiesare likelytofurtheraffectthecorals inthearea,butthe impactof theseactivitiesremainstobeassessed.

Resiliencestatusofreefs

Globallycoralreefshavedemonstratedsomeformofresilienceandresistancetobothphysicalandbiologicalstressorssuchasfluctuationsinseawatertemperature.Forexample, inthePersianGulf,reefs have demonstrated resilience by thriving under extreme conditions of fluctuating waterseawatertemperatures.SuchscenarioshavealsobeendocumentedinKenyawherethereefsshowedgoodrecoveryafterthe1997/1998bleachingandafterinstancesofcoraldiseasescausedbyharmfulalgalblooms in2002 (ChurchandObura2004).Following theElNiñoSouthernOscillation (ENSO)event, thecoral reefsof theKMNRshowedvarying levelsofresistanceandresiliencetobleaching(WestandSalm2003,Obura2004,2012).Bleachingwasevidenteverywherebutmortalitywasleastintheinnerchannelreefsdemonstratingresilienceandresistancetobleachingasaresultofinfluenceon turbidity and water flow (Obura and Church 2004). However, resilience in the overall systemdeclined dramatically in 2002 because of coral disease culminating in decreased coral cover andrecruitment.Withindicationsofarisingseawatertemperaturewithinthenext50yearsontheEastAfricancoast,managementmeasuresareurgentlyrequiredtoincreaseresilienceofcoralreefsalongtheLamu-Kiungaseascape.

Coralreeffishdiversity

Over30generaand150speciesoffishwerereportedintheKiungaReservein2001(Weruetal.2001).Deeperforereefsaswellas innerreefsofKui,BomaandRubureefsshowedhighdiversityof fishspecies. Notable fish species found in the Lamu-Kiunga seascape include Red Sea/Arabian GulfangelfishApolemichthysxanthotisandtheEndangeredNapoleonwrasseCheilinusundulatus.Atotalof189speciesofreeffishwereobservedduringthePatetoKiunga2015survey(Appendix3),outofatotalnumberfortheWIOof>350inthe19familiessurveyed(SamoilysandAlvarezFilip2012).Thisdiversityislow,comparedwithreefsfurthersouthinTanzaniaandMozambique,buttobeexpectedforthesenorthernmosteastAfricanreefs,whicharemarginal.Speciesrichnessbasedonthelistof19families ranged from 45 at Chongo Chachano/Mvundeni (combined sites) to 81 at Kui (Table 2).FamiliesthatwerenotablypoorlyrepresentedwerethePomacentridaeandLabridae,twooffivemostspeciosefamiliesthatareconsideredthebestindicesforassessingreeffishdiversityandareusedintheCoralFishDiversityIndex(CFDI)byAllenandWerner(2002).NumbersofspeciesofthesefamiliesandthechaetodontidswereverylowatChongoChachano,Mvundeni,RubuandMongoShariff(Table2). These are the offshore deep plateau type reefs dominated by algae. Clearly species richnessimprovesontheinnerreefsandbayswherethereismorecoralformation,asseenintheCFDIfamiliesandthetotalspeciescountsattheseotherinnersites.ComparisonswithotherreefsystemsfurthersouthontheeastAfricancoastlineandinMadagascarhelpputthesevaluesinperspective,withtotalspeciescountsinNEMadagascarat271andnorthernMozambiqueat263(Table2).SpeciesdiversityforbalistidsandhaemulidsisrelativelyhighattheLamu-Kiungasiteswhilethespeciesdiversityforscaridsandserranidsisverylow.

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TheCFDIdiversityindexprovidesarelativeglobalindexforassessingreeffishdiversityasameasureofreefhealth.TheoverallCFDIforthePate-Kiungareefswas122,considerablylowerthanthatofreefselsewhereintheWIO(Table3).FawachoandRasMabiyuinPateConservancybothscoredthehighestCFDIat55,withKuiat51andIweniandPethalibothwith42.OtherinnersitesinKiungascored<36(Table2).

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Table2:Totalnumberofreeffishspeciesperfamilypersite Pethali Fawacho Ras

MabiyuKiwaiyu Kiw/Rubu Rubu Kiunga

Family Madag-ascar2010

NorthMozamb2015

AllsitesLamu-Kiunga

Iweni* Pethali Fawacho RasMabiyu

ShimolaTewa*

UsoWatafau*

Chano/Mvund

Chole* Rubu/Sharif

Kui

Pomacentridae* 38 40 30 13 10 20 13 5 11 4 6 6 13Pomacanthidae* 6 7 4 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 0 2 2Labridae* 57 50 40 12 15 16 19 11 12 15 12 18 15Chaetodontidae* 22 21 17 6 4 7 2 2 1 4 2 5 6Scaridae* 20 26 9 3 3 6 4 6 2 1 3 2 6Acanthuridae* 28 23 22 4 7 6 9 10 5 6 7 11 10Serranidae 14 18 8 0 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 2 4Lethrinidae 10 9 3 2 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 1 1Lutjanidae 11 10 7 4 1 2 2 2 5 1 3 1 6Caesionidae 7 8 7 2 2 3 5 2 1 1 3 1 3Haemulidae 6 8 9 1 2 3 3 4 3 0 2 3 8Nemipteridae 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0Mullidae 8 6 6 1 4 1 0 1 2 1 2 3 4Siganidae 6 6 4 2 2 1 1 1 1 0 2 1 1Balistidae 12 9 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 10 1Monacanthidae 7 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Ostraciidae 2 5 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0Tetraodontidae 8 8 4 2 1 1 1 0 3 0 1 1 1Carangidae 7 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1Total 271 263 189 57 58 68 72 48 53 45 48 75 81

ValuesfromMadagascarandMozambiqueareprovidedforcomparison.*=5familiesusedtocalculatetheCoralFishDiversityIndex(CFDI).Blue=Pate;pink=Kiungasites

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Table3:Coralreeffishdiversityindex(CFDI)valuesforLamu-KiungaandfromotherWIOcountries

Location CFDI Source/dateofsurveyLamu-Kiunga

122 CORDIO-TNCsurvey/2015

Mozambique–MocimboaandPalma

167 Samoilysetal.2015/2015

NortheasternMadagascar 172 Samoilys and Randriamanantsoa2011/2010

NorthwesternMadagascar 176 Allen2005/2002Comoros-GrandeComoreandMoheli

147 Samoilysunpubl.,2010

CFDI=totalno.speciesin6families:Chaetodontidae,Pomacanthidae,Pomacentridae,Labridae,ScaridaeandAcanthuridae.Source:AllenandWerner2002

Trendsinfishabundance

Comparisonsofthefishsurveysconductedusingstandardunderwatervisualcensus(UVC)methods(SamoilysandCarlos2000) from1999to2008(surveysbyWWF/CORDIO),revealvariability infishdensitiesof11selectedfamiliesacrosstheyearsandmanagementareas(Figure5).Thedensitiesofsevenfamiliesin1987atthreeareasofRubu,MkokoniandKiwayuwereaddedasreferencepoints.Thedensitiesofacanthurids,haemulids,lutjanids,lethrinidsandscaridsweresignificantlydifferentwithrespecttoyearsandareas(p<0.05).Chaetodontids,serranidsandsiganidsshowedsignificantdifferences across years. The density of Acanthuridae remained low after the 1997/8 El Niño.However,in2001asharpincreaseintheirdensitieswaswitnessedinRubu.Thismaybearesultofthepresenceofschoolingfishfeedingonthehighalgalcoveronthereefs.The Balistidae have shown stable densities in all areas since 1998 (Figure 5). The high numbersexperiencedin2001couldresultfromincreasedseaurchins,whichhadinvadedthedegradedreefsafter the El Niño event. Balistids feed on sea urchins and may be important in controlling theirpopulations.Carangidae,whicharepiscivoreshaveremainedrelativelylow.Chaetodontidae,whicharegoodindicatorsofcoralreefhealthwerelowin1999,likelyduetolossofcoralcoverfollowingthe El Niño event. Their continuous presence in Mkokoni, Rubu and Kiunga management areas,although in lowdensities,suggestsagradualrecoveryofcorals.Popular foodfish in local fisheries(Siganidae, Lethrinidae, Lutjanidae, Scaridae, Haemulidae) showed variability in density over theyears.Thepresenceofomnivores(Haemulidae,Lethrinidae)mayindicaterelativelydiversecoralreefhabitatduetotheirdietofsmallfish,invertebratesanddeadanimals.Decadaltrendssuggestthat,lethrinidsdensitydeclined in the2000swhencompared to the1980s.On theotherhand, scaridsshowedhigherabundancesinthe1990scomparedto1980sand2000s.Fromthe2015survey,thedensitiesandbiomassoffishvariedbysiteandfamily(Figure6).Bysite,Mongo Shariff showed the highest densities of fish but strongly dominated by balistids (164±441000m2),specificallytheplanktonicOdonusniger.ThelowestdensitiesoffishwerefoundatChongoMvundeni, which was dominated by acanthurids (30±6 per 1000m2) (Figure 6). Acanthurids,chaetodons,pomacanthidsandscaridswerepresentinallthesurveyedsiteswhiletheotherfamilies

13

wereeithermissingorpresentinafewsites.ThebiomasswashigheratKuithanothersitesmainlyduetolargesizedlutjanids(103.8±100.9kg/1000m2),scaridsandacanthurids.Alsoobservedatthissitewasajuvenilegiantgrouper,Epinepheluslanceolatus,estimatedat86cminlength.Incontrast,Chongo Rubu, Shimo la Tewa and ChongoMvundeni had the lowest biomass of fish families. Insummary,acrossallsitesandfamilies,densitiesweregenerallylowerin2015thanin2006(Figures5and6).

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Datasource:WWF/CORDIO

Figure5:Fishabundanceof11selectedfamiliesinKiunga-Pateseascape

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Figure6:MeandensityandbiomassoffishfamiliessurveyedatsixsitesinPateIsland-Kiungaareain2015

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Seagrass

Seagrassaresubmergedfloweringplantsfoundinshallowmarinewaters,suchasbaysandlagoonsalongcontinentalshelves.Theyaredistributedfromintertidaltosubtidalsoftandhardbottoms,comprisingcoralreefpatches,mudflats,lagoons,sandybays,estuaries,andshelteredandexposedreefplatforms.Theyshowclearzonationpatternswithwaterdepth,sedimentstructureandexposuretoairandsunlightduringlowtide.Theyareanimportantcarbonandnutrientsink;actasahabitatformigratingcoralreefspecies,waterbirds,fish,dugongsandturtles;andarecriticaltofisheriesandcoastlineprotection(Nagelkerken2009).Seagrassmeadowsalsoplayaroleinattenuatingthecurrentsandwaves.Indoingsotheytrapsuspendedorganicmatterinthesediment.Provisioningservicesofseagrassbedsincludesupportingcommercial,subsistenceandrecreationalfisheries. TheseagrassbedswithintheLamu-Kiungaareaareextensive,butlittlestudied,andformsoneofthemostimportanthabitatsformarinefaunasuchasturtlesanddugongs(ChurchandObura2006).Thestatusofthesespeciesistreatedlateroninthisreport.ThedominantseagrassinLamu-KiungaareaisThallasodendronciliatum(ChurchandObura2006),thoughSyringodiumisoetifolium,Cymodoceaserrulata,C.rotundata,Halodulewrightii,H.uninervis,EnhalusacroroidesandZosteracapansisarealsopresent(WWF1996,Samoilysetal.2011a).SeagrassbedshavenotbeenquantifiedoveryearsintheLamu-Kiungaseascape,andonlyrecentlyin2015haveKenyaWildlifeServiceinitiatedsurveysoftheseagrassbedsofthisarea;dataarenotyetavailable.Mangroves

Mangrove ecosystems are characteristically dominant features along the tropical and subtropicalcoastlineandareamong themostproductiveecosystemswithameanproductionof8.8 tC/ha/yr(Jennerjah and Ittekkot 2002). Kenya’smangroves are found along the entire coast, which spansapproximately 640km from latitude 1°40’ North at Somali border to latitude 4°40’ South at theTanzanianborder(Figure7).Twocommunitiesofmangrovesformation,fringeandcreek,occuralongthecoastlinewiththe largestformationbeing inLamuandTanaDelta(Ferguson1993,Kairoetal.2001).

Mangrovecover

TheLamu-Kiungaseascapehosts the largest standsofmangrove forests representingover60%ofKenya’smangroves(Kairo1995,GoK2009).Thestandingmangrovebiomassoftheseascape(MlangowaChanotoKiunga)wasabout480t/hainthelate1990s(Weruetal.2001)andastanddensityofover80%andheightgreaterthan10mwasreportedin2002(Kairoetal.2002).TheextentofmangrovecoverinKenyahasbeenestimatedonmultipleoccasionswithvariablevaluesreported(Table4).Earlierestimatesof1981reported52,000ha(Douteetal.1981),whilethemostrecent cover of 2010 determined from Landsat satellite imagery estimated the total mangrovecoverageof45,590ha(Kiruietal.2013).Themethodsusedinestimatingthecoverandpossiblelossofmangroves due to increased exploitation rates are the likely reasons for this variability in theestimatedmangrovecoveroveryears.

17

Studies at single sites have shown reduction in coverage and quality depicting a scenario whereKenyanmangrovesareconformingtotheglobaltrendsofdecliningcover.ComparisonofmangrovecoverinLamu-Kiungaareain1995and2014showsadeclineincover(Okelloetal.2015).However,theoveralllossofmangrovecoverinLamu-Kiungawashighestbetween2000and2005when2,046.17haofmangroveswas lost.Thecurrentmangrovecover intheNRT-CoastconservancyareaswithinPateandKiungawereestimatedat11,277ha,which representsa22.6%cover lossover19years(Okelloetal.2015).

Figure7:SpatialdistributionofmangrovesalongtheKenyancoast

Mangrovediversity

The global distribution of mangroves indicates a tropical dominance with major latitudinal limitsrelating best tomajor ocean currents. There are 9 orders, 20 families, 27 genera and roughly 70speciesofmangrovesoccupyingatotalestimatedareaof181,000km2(Spaldingetal,1997).However,theexactnumberofspeciesisstillunderdiscussionandrangesfrom50to70accordingtodifferentclassifications.ThehighestspeciesdiversityisfoundinAsia,followedbyeasternAfrica(Maitietal.2013).

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Table4:NationallevelmangroveareaestimatesinKenyafrom1931to2010

Year Area(ha) Methodologyandremarks Source

1931 64,427 Secondaryreference,noprimarysourceprovided

FAO1993

1971 50,000 Roughestimate.Secondaryreference,noprimarysourceprovided

FAO1993

1980 45,000 Estimationandupdating FAOandUNEP1981

1981 54,325 Remotesensing Douteetal.1981

1983 62,380 Citedin:FAO1991

ForestDepartmentKenya1983

1988 96,100 Mapanalysis Spaldingetal.1997

1989 63,783 Secondaryreference,the“Year”isthepublicationyear

FAO1991

1992 58,700 The"Year"isthepublicationyear Semesi1992

1995 52,980 Remotesensing Gang1995

1996 57,300 Secondaryreference,noprimarysourceprovided

The"Year"isthepublicationyear

WRI,UNEP,UNDP,TheWorldBank1996

2000 61,000 Secondaryreference,noprimarysourceprovided.The"Year"isthepublicationyear

WorldResourcesInstitute2000

2010 45,590 Landsatsatelliteimagery Kiruietal.2011Source:FAO,UNEP1981

MangrovespeciescompositioninLamu-KiungaareaisdiversewitheightoftheninespeciesknowninKenyapresent(Table5;Weruetal.2001).ThedominantspeciesareRhizophoramucronata,Ceriopstagal and Avicennia marina (Table 6). Others are Xylocarpus granatum, Xylocarpus molluccensis,Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia alba and Lumnitzera racemosa (Table 5).Worth noting is thepresenceoflargestandsofHeriterialittoralisauniquemangrovespeciesmostlyfoundsouthofLamuintheTanaRiverDelta.Thisspeciesisoneofthetallest,anddevelopsbroadcanopies.Italsosupportsthegrowthofshrubsthatattractelephantstoforageinmangroveecosystems,auniquephenomenoninthecoastalregion(Samoilysetal.2011a).Thedistributionofmangrovespecies issignificantly influencedbybothhumanandnatural factors(Felleretal.2010).Thezonationpatternofmangrovesis,forexample,dynamicallyinfluencedbythelevelof inundationandsaltconcentrationinthesurroundingenvironment(VanSpeybroeck1992).Studiesofoilspills(anthropogenic) intheCaribbeanhaveshownthatmangrovesexhibit increasedmutation rates and long (approximately 20 years) recovery timesmaybe required after repeated

19

exposure(Burnsetal.1993,Klekowskietal.1994)thusreducingtheirgeneticvigorthroughdeathand retardation. Such impacts are likely to happen upon full operation of the Lamu Port andconsequentlychangethespeciesdistributionhighlightedinTable6.Table5:MangrovespeciesofLamu-Kiungaregion

Family Species Localname Geographicalrange

Avicenniaceae Avicenniamarina(Forskål)Vierh. Mchu WIO,RedSea,AGulftoWPacificOcean

Rhizophoraceae Bruguieragymnorrhiza(L)Lamarck Muia Indo-PacificRhizophoraceae Ceriopstagal(Perr)C.B.Robinson Mkandaa WIOtoWPacificRhizophoraceae RhizophoramucronataLamarck Mkoko WIOtoWPacificCombretaceae LumnitzeraracemosaWilld Kikandaa WIOtoWPacificSonneratiaceae SonneratiaalbaJ.E.Smith Mlilana WIOtoWPacificMeliaceae XylocarpusgranatumKoenig Mkomafi WIOtoCentral

PacificOceanSterculiaceae Heritieralittoralis*(L.)Dryander Msikundazi WIOtoCentral

PacificOceanaFoundinTanaDelta,southofLamu

AdaptedfromSamoilysetal.,2011a

Table6:SpeciesdistributionandcoverwithintheKiungaMarineNationalReserve

Species Area(Ha) Coverage(%)

Ceriopstypeforests 2465.77 15.38MixedCeriopstypes 445.05 2.78Ceriops-Rhizophoratype 1264.22 7.88Avicenniatype 2673.17 16.67MixedAvicenniatype 560.97 3.50Rhizophora 3871.11 24.14MixedRhizophoratype 3646.45 22.74Sonneratia-Rhizophoratype 507.98 3.17Sonneratiatype 601.22 3.75

Totalarea 16035.94 100Source:Kairoetal.2002

Mangrovezonation

Mangrovesaretypicallydistributedfrommeansealeveltohighestspringtide,andperhapsthemostconspicuous feature at first glance is the sequential zonationof tree speciesperpendicular to theshore (Smith, 1992).Mangrove zonation in Kenya, has been typically considered to follow similarpattern,developingfromtheseaandprogressivelyextendingtothelandasfollows:Sonneratiaalba,

20

Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Avicennia marina, Xylocarpusgranatum,Lumnitzeraracemosa(Wild)andHeritieralittoralis,whichshowsalotofvariability(Figure8;Kairo2001,Dahdouh-Guebasetal.2002).BruguieragymnorrhizadoesnotformadistinctzonationbutoccursinterspersedwithRhizophoraandCeriopswhileAvicenniashowsadisjointedanddistinctzonationdisplayedattwozones,one landwardandoneseaward.Generally,otherspeciesmaybefound growing within mangrove forests and the zonation pattern may vary depending on thebiophysicalcharacteristicsofthelocationaswellashumaninterference.

AdaptedfromLang'atandKairo2013

Figure8:Zonationofmangrovesalongtheland-seainterface

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Biodiversityofpelagichabitats

Introduction

Pelagichabitatsareofconservationimportanceastheyareusedbymigratoryspeciessuchaswhales,sharksandseaturtles. Incontrasttotheshallowcoastalhabitats,pelagicenvironmentsoverdeepwaterarelessproductiveandlessdiverse,butneverthelesssupportimportantoffshorecommercialfisheries(FAO2009).Somehighvaluespeciesofconservationimportanceoccurinthesehabitatsbutarenottypicallyrestrictedtothem,andthesearedetailedbelow.Keythreatstothesehabitatsincludeoverexploitationthroughcommercialandartisanalfishingandahighpotentialforoccurrenceofalienor invasivespecies.Severalhighandmediumbiodiversityvaluefishspeciesmayoccur, includinganumberofthreatenedmammalsandelasmobranchs(sharksandrays).MarineMammalsandTurtles

Dugongs,turtles,whalesanddolphinoccurintheLamuarchipelago(Table7).Ofthese,onespeciesisCriticallyEndangered,threeareEndangered,threeareVulnerableandoneNearThreatened,undertheIUCNRedListcategories(Table7).Populationsofdugongs(Dugongdugon)areknowntohaveoccurredinthePateIsland-KiungaareaespeciallyintheseagrassbedsaroundtheZiwaiyucoralreefsystem.However,recentsightingsareveryrareandthespeciesislikelytohavebecomeextinct.Inaddition,theseagrassbedsaroundtheislandsarefeedinggroundsforgreenturtles(Cheloniamydas)whiletheIslandsofMandaandLamuprovidenestingbeachesforfourendangeredturtles:hawksbill(Eretmochelys imbracata), green (C. myda), loggerhead (Carretta caretta) and leatherback(Dermochelyscoriacea).Table7:IUCNcategoriesofmarinemammalssightedinPateIsland–KiungaareaCommonName Species IUCNRedListcategoryDugongsDugongs Dugongdugon VulnerableA2bcdTurtlesGreenturtles Cheloniamydas EndangeredA2bdHawksbill Eretmochelysimbricata CriticallyEndangeredA2bdLoggerhead Carettacaretta EndangeredA1abdLeatherback Dermochelyscoriacea VulnerableA2bdWhales Humpbackwhale Megapteranovaeangliae LeastConcernSeiwhale Balaenopteraborealis EndangeredA1adSpermwhale Physetermacrocephalus VulnerableA1dShort-finnedpilotwhale Globicephalamacrorhynchus DataDeficientDolphin Indo-Pacifichumpbackeddolphin

Sousachinensis NearThreatened

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CommonName Species IUCNRedListcategoryBottledolphin Tursiopstruncatus LeastConcernPantropicalspotted Stenellaattenuata LeastConcernSpinnerdolphin Stenellalongirostris DataDeficientStrippeddolphin Stenellacoeruleoalba DataDeficientShort-beakedcommondolphin

Delphinusdelphis LeastConcern

AdaptedfromSamoilysetal.2011a,2015

LocalresortsandlocalcommunitieshavereportedthepresenceofwhalesanddolphinsinthePatearea. Humpback (Megaptera novaengliae), sei (Balaenoptera borealis), sperm (Physetermicrocephalus)andpilot(Globicephalamacrorhynchus)whaleshavebeensightedintheregionandareknowntobreedandfeedintheoffshorewaters(Oburaetal.2012).Thewhalepopulationinthisareaisvulnerableduetotheirrarityandthreatsofthedriftinggillnetfishery.In1996atotalof500dolphinswereobservedinareasoutlyingMandaandPateIslands(Wamukoyaetal.1996).MostofthedolphinsarerelativelycommonduringtheNortheastmonsoonwiththecommonthreatbeingincidentalcapturebythegillnetfishery.Sharksandrays

Thereare137speciesofsharksandraysintheWIOregion,ofwhich15areendemictotheregion(Smith and Heemstra 1991). The highest diversity of sharks and rays has been recorded inMozambique’swaterswith73sharksand35rays(Samoilysetal.2015).InKenya,sharksaretargetedforsharkfinsandliveroil.SharkfishingisatraditionalpracticeinthePateIsland-Kiungaarea,whichhasoperatedforcenturies,thoughthedeclineincatchrateshasbeenveryhigh:estimatedat85%overthepast40years(SamoilysandKanyange2008,Samoilysetal.2015).SixsharkspeciesandninerayspecieshavebeenconfirmedasfishedandsightedinthePateIsland-Kiungaarea(Table8),butthislistisfarfromexhaustive.LittleisknownaboutthestatusofthesespeciesandtheiroccurrenceinKenyanwaters.Table8:IUCNcategoriesofsharksandraysfishedandsightedinPateIsland-Kiungaarea

Species Commonname IUCNRedlistcategory

Sharks

Rhincodontypus Whaleshark VulnerableA2bd+3d

Carcharhinusmelanopterus Blacktipreefshark NearThreatened

Triaenodonobesus Whitetipreefshark NearThreatened

Galeocerdocuvier Tigershark NearThreatened

Sphyrnalewini Scallopedhammerhead EndangeredA2bd+4bd

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Species Commonname IUCNRedlistcategory

Sphyrnamokarran Greathammerhead EndangeredA2bd+4bd

Rays

Mantabirostris Giantmantaray VulnerableA2abd+3bd+4abd

Rhynchobatusdjiddensis Giantguitarfish VulnerableA2d+3d+4d

Aetobatusnarinari Spottedeagleray NearThreatened

Taeniuralymma Ribbontailedstingray NearThreatened

Taeniuropsmeyeni Blotchedfantailray VulnerableA2ad+3d+4ad

Neotrygonkuhlii Bluespottedstingray DataDeficient

Himanturauarnak HoneycombStingray VulnerableA2bd+3bd+4bd

Torpedofuscomaculata Blackspottedtorpedo DataDeficient

T.sinuspersici Marbledelectricray DataDeficient

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BiodiversityusesandthreatsIntroductionCoralreefs,mangrovesandseagrassaswellasthepelagichabitatsarevulnerablecoastalhabitatsthatprovide economic goods and services, contributing to the livelihoods and food security ofcommunitieslivingintheLamu-Kiungaarea.Coralreefsprotecttheshorelinefromerosionwavesandstormsurges,bothofwhicharelikelytoincreaseinthefaceofsea-levelrise.Coralreefsaresourcesof livelihoods of local people through subsistence and semi-commercial fishing, tourism andrecreationalactivities(Oburaetal.2012,ConservationInternational2008).

Thepresenceandabundanceofseagrassesareregardedasindicatorsoftheoverallenvironmentalqualityofthecoastalzone(TerradosandBorum2004).Seagrassprovidehabitatsforawiderangeoforganisms and also fix carbon dioxide using light energy, thus promoting local biodiversity andbiologicalproductivity.Seagrassmeadowsproduceanarrayofgoodsandservicesincludingprovidinghabitat for finfishandtrapssedimentparticlestoenhancewater-quality,maintainthebiodiversityandshorelineprotection.

Mangroves provide valuable ecosystem services including habitat functions such as breeding,spawning and nursery grounds for commercial fish; provision of timber, fuelwood, and charcoal;regulationoffloods,stormsanderosion;andpreventionofsaltwaterintrusion.ArangeofenvironmentalthreatsoccurintheLamu-Kiungaarea.Theyincludeincreasingpopulationgrowth, high poverty levels, deforestation of mangroves, clay mining for pottery, unclear landownership and insecurity that has decimated opportunities in tourism, overfishing due to anincreasingpopulationsizeanddestructivefishing,unsustainableandillegalfishingparticularlytheuseofbeachseinesandpoachingof turtles (Samoilysetal.2011a).Anotherpending threat tomarinehabitats is theLamuPortandLamu-SouthernSudan-EthiopiaTransportCorridor (LAPSSETproject)thatislikelytoleadtooilspills,urbanizationandindustrializationofLamu.Numerousexistingocean-relatedactivitiesoccurringintheLamu-Kiungaareaarealreadythreateningthemarineandcoastalhabitats and resources. These activities include artisanal fisheries, offshore commercial fisheriesincluding those by foreign fishing vessels in Kenya’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), mangroveharvesting, boatmaking, coastal tourism, offshore oil and gas exploration and port development.Theseocean-relatedactivities,combinedwiththeeffectsofglobalwarmingandtheenvironmentalthreatsmentionedabovecanaffectmarinehabitatsandcommunitiesinavarietyofways.Mangrovescontinuouslyfacebothnaturalandanthropogenicthreatsandpressure(FAO2007),withtheirglobalcoveragereducingby23%withinaspanoftwodecadesfrom1990to2010(Spaldingetal.2010).Anever-growingpressureoncoralreefresourcesposesagreatthreattothesurvivalandconservationofcoralreefhabitatsglobally(Ginsburgetal.1994,Oburaetal.1998)andthisistrueofthenorthernKenyacoast.Fishinghasimpactsonhabitatandonthediversity,structureandproductivityofbenthiccommunitiesandtheirassociatedfisheryresources,includingfinfishandcrustaceans.Itisoneofthemain activity affectingmarine habitats and communities in this northern region and is discussedfurtherbelow.

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Useoffishandthreatstofisheries

ThefisheriesofLamu-Kiungaaretheprimarysourceoflivelihoodof70%to75%ofseascaperesidentseither directly or indirectly (Ochiewo et al. 2009). These fisheries are threatened by the use ofdestructiveandillegalfishinggearssuchasbeachseinesandever-increasingfishingeffortduetoverylimitedalternatives,whichhaveresulted inoverexploitationof fisherystocks.Anumberof factorsinstigateoverexploitationinthesefisheries:

• Inadequateenforcementoflegislation(StateDepartmentofFisheriesregulationsandKenyaWildlifeServiceregulationsintheReserve)

• Highpopulationgrowthrates,whichintheabsenceofalternativelivelihoodsincreasesthenumberoffishersandconsequentlyfishingpressure

• Highpovertylevelsandpovertytrapslimitthepossibilitiesforschooling,whichmaintainslowliteracylevelsandcompetencies,whichlimitspossibilitiestodevelopalternativelivelihoodsoutsidefisheries

• Inadequatecommunityinvolvementinresourcemanagementandinadequatesensitizationandawarenessontheimportanceofbiodiversityasabasisfortheirlivelihoods

• Increasingmarketdemandforfishandshellfishcommodities,whileimprovedpricesareabenefittofisheries,improvedaccesstomarketcanincreasepressureonresources

Resourceutilizationandextraction

Thenumberof fishers inLamuCounty isabout3,100and isprojectedto increaseatarateof127fishers/year(Figure9).Thesefishersusedifferentfishinggearsandvessels.Commongearsincludegillnets,handlines,beachseines,longlines,fencetrapsandbaskettraps.Longlineswithdrophooksareby far themost deployed gear in LamuCounty representing 60%of all gears (Figure 10). 881monofilaments gillnet and 97 beach seines, both illegal, are in use in the area (Figure 11).Monofilamentnetshaveincreasedenormouslysince2008,thoughbeachseineshavedeclined(Figure11).Norecordsofspearguns,theotherillegalgearcommonlyusedfurthersouth,werefoundinLamuduringtherecentframesurvey(GoK,2012).BeachseineuseishighestinLamuCountyaccountingfor45 % when compared to other coastal counties (GoK, 2012) despite their damaging impacts onbreeding and nursery grounds of fish. The gear is associated with high by-catch, which includescatchinglargequantitiesofjuvenilefish(68%)andturtles(MangiandRoberts2006).

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Source:GoK2012

Figure9:TrendsinthenumberoffishersinLamuCounty

Source:GoK,2012

Figure10:DistributionoffishinggearsinLamuCounty.“Other”gearsincludesprawnseinenets(0.9%),trollinglines(0.2%),trammelnets(0.1%)andcastnets(0.1%).

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Source:GoK,2012

Figure11:NumberofillegalgearsinuseinLamuCounty.

Trendsinfishcatches

Fishlandingsfrom2000to2008rangedbetween1,500and2,000metrictonsperyear,ofwhichabout40%ofthecatchwassoldtoareasoutsideLamuCounty(Ochiewoetal.2009).Mostfishingactivitiesare undertaken during the Northeast monsoon when the sea is calm (Wanyonyi et al. 2011). Ingeneral,thecatcheshavebeenrelativelystablefrom2001to2008rangingfrom9-14.3kg/fisher/daywithameanofapproximately10.2kg/fisher/day.Thecatchperuniteffort(CPUE)from2001to2007variedconsiderablyacrossthefishinggearswithspeargunsrecordingthelowestmeanCPUE(Table10). The average daily income derived from fishing is Ksh. 398 (~$4) but income varies betweenvillages.KiungarecordshighermeanincomesofKsh.580thanMkokoniatKsh.200(Ochiewoetal.2009).NotablefisheriesthataremorevaluableintheLamu-Kiungaareaincludethelobsterandcrabfisheries.LobstersandcrabsaremainlyfishedinKizingitini,Faza,KiwayuandKiunga(Ochiewoetal.2009;MainaandSamoilys2011).Table9:Meancatchperuniteffortfrom2001-2007ofgearsusedinLamuCountyGear MeanCPUE(kg/fisher/day)Speargun 3.2Gillnet(jarife) 7.9Handline 8.6Beachseine 9.8Gillnet(nyavu) 10.7Baskettrap 11.2Fencetrap 15.7

SourceOchiewoetal.2009

Fish species taken by the local artisanal fisheries comprise rabbitfish (Siganidae), sweetlips(Haemulidae), mullet (Mugillidae), surgeonfish (Acanthuridae), milkfish (Chanidae), emperors(Lutjanidae),parrotfish(Scaridae),snappers(Lutjanidae),kingfish(Scombridae),eels,sharksandrays

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(Samoilys, 1988; Obura, 1998; Weru et al., 2001, Samoilys et al., 2011a). Catfish, cavalla jacks,mackerel,barracuda,mullets,queenfish,sailfish,tuna,prawns,crabs,sardines,oystersandoctopusarealsocaptured.Sharksaretargetedfortheirfinsandliveroil.

Fisheriesissues

TheuseoftheillegalbeachseineinsitessuchasFazaandKizingitiniisexacerbatedbytheinabilityofthe local fishermen to purchase appropriate fishing gears to venture offshore. Beach seines andmonofilamentnetsareillegalduetotheirdestructiveimpactsandhavebeenamajorcauseofconflictbetweenlocalfishermenandtheStateDepartmentofFisheriesandconservationagencies(Ochiewoetal.2009).Theythreatenthesustainabilityofthefisheriesresourcesespeciallysincethegearsaredeployed in the Kiunga Marine National Reserve. Other fisheries-related issues include over-exploitation,uncontrolleddevelopment,pollutionandclimatechange.

LamuPortandLamu-SouthernSudan-EthiopiaTransportCorridor(LAPSSET)project

The$24.5billionLAPSSETprojectispoisedtoseverelyimpactartisanalfishingandconservationareasin the Lamu-Kiunga seascape. The construction and operationalization of the 32 berth port willinterruptthelivelihoodsofthefishersworkinginthehighlyproductivefishingareasofKizingitiniandFazabyrestrictingaccesstofishinggrounds,increasetherisksofinjuryanddeathforlobsterdiversaswellasincreaseboattrafficwhichislikelytoincreasetheriskofaccidentsatsea.Thedredgingwillalsodestroycoralreefsandmangrovehabitatsthatrepresentimportantbiodiversityareasaswellasprovidebreedingandfeedinggroundsforfish.Inthelong-termthedredgingactivitieswilllimitthecapacityoffishregenerationalongthechannel.Withportdevelopment,competitionforprimelandsurroundingtheportareaisprojectedtoincreaseleading to loss of beach access routes by fishers. A potential impact of oil spills due to shippingactivitieswill cause destruction of localmarine species and the ecosystem through pollution andphysical processed, depletion of fish stocks and thus damage the fishing industry (Valarie 2014).Spillageanddumpingof industrialchemicalsandrefusewillcontributetotheintroductionofalienmarinespecies.Portmanagementroutinesshouldthereforeincludeballastwatermanagementplanstoabateintroductionofinvasivemarinespecies.TheoutcomeofthiswillbethelossofrarespeciesintheareasuchastheendangeredDugong,turtlesandkeyfishspecies.Threatstoseagrassbeds

Growingcoastalpopulationscoupledwithhumandisturbancesuchaspollution,eutrophicationandsedimentationdue toportconstruction, fishingactivitiesandcollectionofmollusks for the touristtrade,poseabigthreattoseagrassbeds.Thesehuman-relatedactivitiessignificantlyreducewaterclarity,whichaffectsthedepthatwhichseagrassescangrow.Highabundancesofseaurchinsthatincreasethepredationonseagrassareanotherthreattotherecoveryseagrass.

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Threatstomangroves

Despitetheaccumulatedbenefitsfrommangroveecosystems,threatstomangroveforesthavebeenontheincreasefrombothanthropogenicaswellasnaturalpressures(AbuodhaandKairo,2001)aswitnessedbytheeverdecreasingtrendsintheirglobalcoverage(Spaldingetal.,2010).Thelossofmangroves for pond aquaculture (i.e. prawn farming) is considered one of the largest threats tomangroveforestsworldwide(Alongi,2002).However,naturalfactorscannotberuledout,forinstanceintheSunderbansofBangladesh,nearly20%ofHeritierafomestreeswereseverelyaffectedby‘topdying’diseasethatslowlykillsthetreesbymovingfromleaves,branchesandtwigstothemainstem(Spaldingetal.,2010).ThreatstoKenyanmangrovesandbyextensiontothoseintheLamu-Kiungaareaincludehighratesofconversionforalternativeusesparticularlyforthesaltextraction,andmostrecently fromrapidmega structure construction such as the Lamu Port Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport (LAPSSET)infrastructureaswellaspoorandselectiveenforcementofpolicies(NEMA,2013).Morethan10,310haor20%ofthetotalmangroveareainKenyahavebeenlost(KairoandAbuodha2001)inthepastthrough:

a) Dredging–whereupto100hawaslostinLamu;b) Conversion–100haofmangroveconvertedformaricultureatNgomeni,c) Fuelwoodexploitation,e.g.,inGaziwhere100hawaslost;d) clearance–about10,000haofmangroveclearedforsaltextractionbetweenNgomeniand

Karawa;e) Oilspill–where10haofmangrovewerelostinMakupa

Communityutilization

Mangroves are heavily used traditionally and commercially worldwide (Kathiresan and Bingham,2001). They provide a resource base that is ecologically, economically and socially important topeople,eitherdirectlyorindirectly.Economically,mangrovesforestservesasanavenueforimportantproductsandby-productstothecoastalpopulationaswellastothenationaleconomies(Kairo2001).IntheEastAfricaregion,mangroveshavehistoricallyplayedimportanteconomicrolesnotably:theyformedpartoftheslaveandivorytradeinthe9thcentury(Rawlins1957).Bythen,houseconstructionin theArabcountriesdependedon thepoles from theEastAfricancoast,particularly fromLamu-Kiunga.Bythebeginningofthe20thcentury,Kenyawasexportinganannualaverageof24,150scoresofmangrove poles from Lamu, equivalent to 483,000 poles per year (Grant 1938). To date, localcommunitieswithintheLamu-Kiungaareacontinuetothriveontheeconomicsofmangroveproductsfor trade, boat making as well as for the sustenance of the ever growing construction industry(AbuodhaandKairo2001,Samoilysetal.2011a,Mainaetal.2011).UtilizationofmangrovesbycoastalcommunitiesofKenyaisspecies-specific.RhizophoramucronataandCeriopstagalareconstantlybeingtargetedforconstructionofhouseswhileSonneratiaalba isused in boat construction. The preferential cutting of certain mangrove species may favor otherspeciessuchasAvicenniamarinaandthusaffectspeciescomposition,ecosystemfunctionandspeciesrichness(Kairo2001).

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LAPSSETproject

Port construction will involve dredging of shallow inland channels and logging and clearing ofshoreline-stabilizing mangrove forests. The excavation process and siltation caused by dredgingactivitieswilldramaticallyreducefishbreedingsitesandthecoverofmangroveforestsinthearea.Manypoor localswill therefore lose their primary sourceof livelihood– fishing and/ormangroveharvesting.Theimpactonmangrovesisimminentbutfurtherassessmentisrequiredtoascertaintheseverityofthedamage.Moreimportantly,mangroveconservationshouldbeconsideredinlanduseplanningofLamuCounty.

Useoffishesandthreatstothepelagicmarinesystem

Thereislittleinformationonthenatureoftheecosystemservicesinthepelagicmarineenvironmentof the Lamu-Kiunga seascape. Nevertheless, pelagic ecosystems generally offer services such asenergydevelopment,commercialfishing,shippinglanesandrecreationaluses(Rogersetal.2014).ThepelagicmarinesystemofLamu-Kiungahostsinvertebrates(e.g.squid),fish(e.g.tunas,sharksandrays),largemarinemammals(e.g.whales,dolphins),seaturtlesandseabirds.Planktonicorganisms,phytoplanktonandzooplankton,areabundantbutnodetailedstudiesfromthisareaareavailable.Theseorganismsarevitalelementsofthefoodchainandforsupportingrichoffshorefisheries.Operationsoftheportwillnecessitateclosingtraditionalfishinggroundsusedbyasignificantnumberof fishermenwhodependon thewaters for their livelihood. It is likely that theywillbe forced toabandonthesaferandmoreshelteredfishinggroundsandventureinthehighseaorincreasefishingpressureonotherfishinggrounds.Moreover,portconstructionwillchangethewaterflowaroundManda and Lamu islands that may result in silting of the key channel used in transport andcommunication fromLamu to thenorth.Clearly, ifoil andgasextractionandexcavationproceed,marinetrafficandpollutionofthesewatersisinevitable.

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Opportunitiesforimprovedmanagement

Introduction

TheDrivingForce-Pressure-State-Impact-Responseframework(DPSIR)providesanoverallmechanismforassessingenvironmentalproblems, therebydefiningpotentialopportunities.TheDriving forcesexertPressures,leadingtochangesintheStateoftheenvironment,whichthenleadtoImpactsonecosystemgoodsandservicesthatwillinturnrequireasocietalResponse.TheDPSIRanalysisoftheshallowandpelagichabitatsoftheLamu-KiungaseascapearesummarizedinTable9.In response to the impacts of natural and anthropogenic events on marine ecosystems, severalinstitutionshaveengagedinprovidingsolutionstothependingthreats.Theprincipalinstitutionswitha mandate of management of marine and coastal resources comprise government agencies,communitygroupsandNGOs.Enactmentofawiderangeofnational,coastalandenvironmentallegislationispartofpolicyresponseto the pending problems. Several pieces of legislation governingmanagement of the coastal andmarineenvironmentincludeEnvironmentalManagementandCoordinationAct,FisheriesAct,WildlifeConservationandManagementAct,ForestsAct,Agriculture,FisheriesandFoodAuthorityAct,TheLandAct,ThePhysicalPlanningAct,TheUrbanAreasandCitiesAct,TheDevolvedGovernmentAct,KenyaMaritimeAuthorityAct,MaritimeZonesActandContinentalShelfAct(Samoilysetal.2011c).These regulationshavebeenpivotal in themanagementof resourcesalong theKenyancoastandprovideanexcellentbaseforfuturemarinespatialplanningandintegratedcoastalzonemanagement.Worth noting is the adoption of co-management structures for fisheries through the BeachManagementUnits,enactedin2007andunderthemandateoftheStateDepartmentofFisheries,toimproveresourcemanagement.Whilsteffortshave increasedcommunityparticipation inresourcemanagement,anumberofbarriershavereducedtheireffectiveness,notablytheinabilitytoenforceby-lawsandstrongtraditionalandculturalattitudes.Moreisstillrequired,especiallywithregardstoenablingcommunitiestobemoreresilienttothependingthreats,particularlyofclimatechange.

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Table10:DPSIRanalysisofenvironmentalproblemsaffectingbiodiversityintheshallowandpelagicmarinehabitatsoftheLamu-KiungaareaHabitat Drivers Pressures State Impact Response

Shallowm

arineha

bitats

• Climatechangeandvariability

(ENSO,watertemperature,

oceanacidification)

• Populationgrowth• Pooreducationandilliteracy• Insecuritydecimating

opportunitiesintourism

• Increasingpoverty• Destructivefishingtechniques

• Landuse,riversedimentload

andeutrophication

• Introductionexoticspecies• Risingdemandformarine

commodities

• LAPSSET:openingAfricanhinterland,developmentof

Lamuportandshipping

• Fishingpressure• Habitatdamagefrom

destructivefishing

techniques

• Temperaturestresscausing

coralbleaching

• Mangroveoveruse

• Pollutionandturbidity• Harmfulalgalbloomsand

disease

• Potentialoilspills• UrbanizationandindustrializationinLamu

• Damagedbenthichabitats

frombottom-contacting

fishinggears

• Decliningcoverofhardcoralandmangroves

• Decliningpopulationsoffisherystocks

• Coralmortality

• Increasedcoraldiseases• Increasedalgalcover• Inadequatescientificinformationonstateof

seagrassbeds

• Reducedfishcatchandbenefitsfromfisheries

• Reducedincomefrom

tourism

• Reducedbenefitsfrom

otherecosystem

servicesincluding

ecologicalproductivity

fromhighbiodiversity

• Conflictbetweenfishersandotherreef

users

• Conflictbetweenresidents/local

communitiesandoil

andgasbusiness

• Lossofendemic,rare

andthreatenedspecies

(corals,fin-fish,sharks,

dugong)

• Improvecomplianceto

fisheriesandNational

Reserveregulations

• Improvecompliance

withbiodiversity

conservationpolicies

• Implementeffective

regulationsforport

andshippingindustries

• PlanlanduseofLamu

county

• Developtourism

• Supportmarine

conservanciesor

locally-managed

marineareas(LMMAs)

• Buildmarineresource

managementcapacity

infishingcommunities

33

Habitat Drivers Pressures State Impact ResponsePe

lagicmarineha

bitats

• Climatechangeand

variability(CO2,ENSO)

• Risingdemandformarine

commodities

• Introductionmodernand

foreignfishingequipment

• Introductionexoticspecies• LAPSSET,openingupAfricanhinterland

• Inadequateenforcement

• Oceanacidification(CO2)

• Fishingpressure• Destructivefishingtechniques(by-catch

mortality)

• Pressuremarineshipping

lanes

• Oilspills• IllegalUnregulatedandUnreported(IUU)fishingin

EEZwaters

• Reducedmarineproductivity

andfoodwebs(acidification)

• Reducedstocksofcommercialfishspecies

• Reducedpopulationsofprotectedmarinefauna(e.g.

sharks,rays,whales,turtles)

• Inadequatescientificinformationonpelagic

environments

• Reducedbenefitsfromfisheries

• Reductionintheprovisioningofother

ecosystemservices

suchasbiodiversity

• Poorcomplianceto

international

conventions

• Supportacquisitionofdeepseavessels

• Improvecompliance

biodiversity

conservationand

pollutionregulations

34

Governmentinstitutions

StateDepartmentofFisheries

StateDepartmentofFisheries(SDF)isthemanagementbodymandatedtoprovidefortheexploration,exploitation,utilization,management,developmentandconservationoffisheriesresources.SDFinpartnershipwiththeprivatesectorhasbeenakeyplayerinstrengtheningco-managementofmarinefisheriesresourcesthroughrollingBeachManagementUnits(BMUs).Theyhavealsobeeninvolvedinactivitiesgearedtowardspromotingfishqualityassurance,valueadditionandmarketing,facilitationoficeproductionandcoldstorageatlandingsitesinLamu-Kiunga.

BeachManagementUnits

TheBeachManagementUnits (BMU) isaco-management institution legallyanchored in theBMUregulationsof2007oftheFisheriesActCap378,2001andhavingadministrativeoversightoverawell-definedareaofjurisdiction.Thereare13BeachManagementUnits(BMUs)inPateIslandcomparedtonineinKiunga(Table11).NoneoftheBMUshaveaworkingcoldroomforfishstorage(GoK2012).

Table11:ListofBMUsinLamu-Kiungaarea

Pate area Kiunga area Faza Mvundeni Pate Rubu Kizingitini Kiunga Tchundwa Ishakani Mtangawanda Mwambore Mbwajumwali Chandani Nduweni Mkokoni Kibaoni Kiwayu Kiangwe Ndau Siyu Magilini Shanga Ishakani Shanga Rubu

KenyaWildlifeService

TheoverallmandateoftheKenyaWildlifeService(KWS)istoconserveandmanageKenya’swildlifeand enforce related laws and regulations. An Act of Parliament, Cap 376, (revised edition 1985),establishedKWS. In thenorthcoast region,KWS is involved in themanagementofKiungaMarineNationalReserve(gazetted1979),whichissituatednorthofPateandextendstotheSomaliborder.ItisadjacenttotheBoniandDodoriNationalReservesinland.KWShasthefollowingfunctions:

a. Solejurisdictionovernationalparksb. Supervisoryroleinthemanagementofnationalreserves,localandprivate

sanctuaries,license,controlandsuperviseallwildlifeconservationandmanagementactivitiesoutsidetheprotectedareas

c. Conservation,educationandtrainingd. Wildliferesearch

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KenyaMarineFisheriesResearchInstitute

TheKenyaMarineFisheriesResearchInstitute(KMFRI)istheresearchbodymandatedtocarryoutresearchonmarineandfreshwaterfisheries,aquaticbiology,aquaculture,environmentalchemistry,ecological, geological and hydrological studies, as well as chemical and physical oceanography.KMFRI’sresearchmandateisenshrinedinarticleNo.4oftheScienceandTechnologyActof1979,Cap250.

Policyandinstitutionsformanagementofmangroves

As a demonstration of policy and management failure, in 1982, the government, through apresidentialorder,bannedfurthermangroveexportduetolackofproperaccountingbytheForestDepartmentonwoodproducts leaving the forest (Box 1). This banhowever,wasnot effective asproved by a series of successive forest inventories, notably the 2nd national mangrove survey of1992/3.Thisledtoafurtherbanonlocalmangroveexploitationin1997andsincethentherehasbeennoformalmanagementplaninplace.Under the Forest Act of 2005, the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) ismandated to protect all forests,woodlandsandmangroveforestsundertheirjurisdiction.TheratificationoftheKenyanconstitutionin2010gaverisetothefederalformofgovernanceelsereferredtoascountiesleadingtodevolutionof services including revenue generation.With this, conflicts of interests are bound to emerge innaturalresourcemanagementwithinlocalandnationalsetup.Whereasthelatterwillbeadvocatingfor conservation measures, the former (local government) would be targeting such resource forrevenuemaximizationleavingthefutureofmangroveecosystemonthemercyofpoliticalgoodwill.Box1:Chronologyofmangrovemanagementfrompre-colonialeratopostcolonialperiod

• 1891 Earliest registration

• 1932 Gazettement of mangroves

• 1949/50 1st national mangrove survey

• 1965/67 Survey of Lamu mangroves

• 1981 2nd survey of Lamu mangroves

• 1982 Ban on mangrove exportation

• 1993/95 2nd national mangrove survey

• 1997 Ban on local mangrove exploitation

• 1998/99 3rd survey of Lamu mangroves (Kiunga)

• Today NO MANAGEMENT PLAN

AdaptedfromKairoandDahdouh-Guebas2004

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Non-governmentinstitutions

FisheriesCooperatives

LamuhassomefishermencooperativesocietiesincludingtheRasiniFishermenCooperativeSociety,KizingitiniFishermenCooperativeSociety,andKiungaFishermenCooperativeSociety(Ochiewoetal2009).EstablishmentofthesecooperativeisenshrinedintheCooperativeSocietiesAct(CAP490.Thecooperativesfaceseveralchallengesnotably:

• Lackfinancialresourcestoprovidecreditforthememberstoacquirenewfishingequipment.• Lackof education to fishermenabout thebenefits of having aplatform forbargaining for

betterpricesforfish;• Theneedtominimizeexploitationbyfishdealers;and• Theneedtocushionthemselveswithopportunitiesforcreditthatcanbeveryusefulduring

hardseasons.

WorldWideFund

TheWWF, in partnershipwith KWS, havebeen involved in programmes geared towards effectivemanagement of Kiunga Marine National Reserve (KMNR) for over 15 years, by initiating theimplementationofaseascapemanagementapproach.WWFisinvolvedinresearchandmonitoringactivitiesoncoralreef,fisheriesandothermarineresources,withanaimofsafeguardingbiodiversityandtheintegrityofphysicalandecologicalprocessesofthemarineecosystem.Otherareasinclude:

• Carryingouteducationandawarenessprogrammes• Developmentofwomen’slivelihoodproject• CollaboratingwiththeMinistryofHealthandcommunitygroupstoimproveaccesstohealth

care• Supportingdevelopmentofcommunityconservationareas

CORDIOEastAfrica

CORDIOEastAfricaisaregionalresearch-basednot-for-profitorganizationestablishedin1998,whichisfocusedonmarineandcoastalecosystemsintheWesternIndianOcean(WIO).CORDIOgeneratesandsharesscientificallysoundknowledgefordevelopingsolutionstotheproblemsandchallengesfacingcoastalandmarineenvironmentsandpeopleintheWIO.InnorthernKenyaCORDIOhasbeenactivethroughthefollowingactivities

i) Coral reef research and monitoring in Kiunga Marine National Reserve (since 1998) andaroundLamu.

ii) Researchoncoralreefresiliencetoclimatechangeiii) Fisheries research and management projects (lobster fisheries, fish genetics), livelihood

opportunitiesiv) BMUcapacitybuildingincollaborationwiththeStateDepartmentofFisheries

37

ProtectedAreaapproaches

Marine ProtectedAreas (MPAs) are awell-recognized approach to conservingmarine biodiversitywhilemanagingfisheriesforthebenefitoffishersandthewidercommunity.MPAsareestablishedtoprotect marine species and habitats and are an effective tool for maintenance or restoration ofbiological diversity and abundance or marine resources as well as for fisheries management,particularlyintropicalcoralreefecosystems(Kelleher1999,IUCN2004,Govanetal.2009).MPAisagenerictermusedtocovernationally-gazettedmarineparksandreservesaswellasLocally-ManagedMarineAreas(LMMAs),alsodubbedcommunityconservationareasorconservancies(Kawakaetal.2015). InKenyathereareninenationalmarineparksandreserves,establishedbetween1968and1995,coveringanestimated10.4%ofterritorialwaters (Table12).Theparksareno-takezonesorareaclosureswherenoextractionisallowedatall,andatleastsincethe1990shasbeenwellenforced(SamoilysandObura2011).Thesenationalparkshaveprovedeffectiveatrestoringfishabundance(McClanahan and Graham 2005, Samoilys et al. in press). However, the reserves are having littleimpact on fish populations, because the legislation around Reserves, which allows for traditionalfishingmethods,isnotbeingenforced.KiungaMarineReserve,whichwasestablishedin1979,isthelargest Reserve in Kenya, covering 250 km2 (Table 12) and therefore this poor effectiveness is ofconsiderableconcern.Table12:NationallygazettedMarineProtectedAreasinKenyaSite IUCNCategory Size(km

2) Dateestablished Managementtype

Malindi II 6.3 1968 ParkWatamu II 10 1968 ParkMalindi-Watamu

VI 245 1968 Reserve

Kisite II 28 1978 ParkMpunguti VI 11 1978 ReserveKiunga VI 250 1979 ReserveMombasa VI 200 1986 ReserveMombasa II 10 1986 ParkDiani-Chale VI 75 1995 Reserve

Source:IUCN,2004

LocallyManagedMarineAreas(LMMAs)

The adoption of LMMAs by local fishing communities, primarily though the BMUs, has increasedexponentiallyinKenyainthelast10years(Kawakaetal.2015)withatotalof24LMMAsestablishedby2015(Figure12).TheestablishmentofLMMAsalongtheKenyancoasthasbeenmotivatedbytheneedto improvethehealthoftheecosystem,toreduceoverexploitation, livelihooddevelopment,eco-tourism and habitat and species protection. They are a spatially-based conservation andmanagement approach that is now well recognized as suitable for shallow coastal habitats withdependentfishingcommunities(Govanetal.2009,Rocliffeetal.2014)suchasthoseoftheLamu-Kiungaarea.TheformationofcommunityconservanciesaroundPateIslandin2015hasbeenledbyTNCandNRT-Coast.TheyareanchoredintheWildlifeConservationandManagementAct2013.Theywereestablishedtointerweaveconservationeffortswithimprovinglocallivelihoods.It isexpected

38

thattheconservationmeasureswillreversethedecliningtrendsinthenumbersofmarinewildlife,particularlyfin-fishaswellasvaluablemacro-invertebrates(e.g.lobsterandcrab)thusboostingeco-tourismprojects,whichwill bring income to the community. The formationof theKiungaMarineCommunityConservancyproposedwithintheKiungaMarineNationalReserve(KMNR)isdesignedtosupporttheReserveandimprovetheintegrationoflocaltraditionalknowledgeonenvironmentwithmodernscienceandresearch.

Source:Kawakaetal.2015

Figure12:Mapshowingthelocationof24LMMAsinKenya,outofwhich5aremangroveboardwalks

39

Recommendations

Inrecognizingthebroadrangeofdrivers,frompooreducation,toportdevelopmenttooverfishing,webelievethereisahighriskinonlyinvestingincommunity-basedconservationapproaches.Theserecommendationsthereforespanhigher-levelpolicyeffortsaswellascommunity-driveninitiativesandareallofequalimportance.Theyinclude:

• Instigatefullenforcementofexistingregulationsandpoliciessothatmarinebiodiversity is

managedproperly.ThisrequireseffectiveenforcementoftheManagementPlanoftheKiungaMarineReserve.

• Introducemarinespatialplanning(MSP)approachesinLamuCountyplanningthatincludesresilience-basedmanagementofcoralsreefs(e.g.focusedprotectiononmostresilientreefs)andtargetedconservationofhighvalue,rareandendemicspecies.

• Improvemanagementofmangroveforestssothatharvestingisstrictlysustainable.• Conduct research on the integrity of the marine ecosystems to ensure the habitats are

consideredinzoningofcommunityandgovernmentMPAs.Thereisneedtoresearchonthediversefisheriesinthepelagicenvironmenttoestablishthethreatandopportunitiesinthearea.

• Conductresearchonsharkandrayspeciesdiversityandpopulationstatusurgently.ThereisminimalinformationavailableintheLamu-Kiungaarea,andinKenyagenerally.

• Encourageongoingmonitoringandresearchonkeyecosystemsparticularlycoralsreefssothatfutureimpactsofinterventionsaremeasuredandunderstood.

• Improve compliance with international Conventions including reporting based on currentscienceandstatusofresources,particularlytotheCBD.

• Instigatefullenforcementofexistingregulationsandpoliciessothatfisheriesaremanagedproperly.Thisrequireseffectiveenforcementpatrolsandtheremovalofillegalfishinggearsnamelybeachseinesandmonofilamentgillnets.

• Introducenewfisherieslegislationwhichaddressotherdestructivegearssuchassmallmeshsizesof gill netswhich capture juvenile fish;policies forminimizingbycatchof threatenedspeciessuchassharks,dolphinsandturtles;andmarket-basedresearchtopromotefishingoflarge-sizedfish.

• EnsureVMS(vesselmonitoringsystems)areinplace,observersareonboard,andlicensesarecorrectlyadministeredforforeignfishingvesselsinEEZwaterstocombatIllegalUnregulatedandUnreported(IUU)fishing.

• EnsureapercentageofgovernmentincomefromlicensedforeignfishingvesselsisreturneddirectlytoLamuCountyforvisiblebenefitstofishingcommunities.

• Considerpaymentforecosystemservices(PES)chargestoforeignfishingvesselsthatbenefitfromthegoodmanagementofcoastalmangrovesystemsthatsupportproductiveoffshorefisherystocks.

• Influence the development of the Lamu Port so that its construction is environmentallyconsiderateandlocalcommunitiesarefullyinformedandinvolvedinmitigationprocesses.

40

• IncreasegovernmentsupporttoartisanalfishingcommunitiestomitigatenegativeimpactsfromthedevelopmentoftheLamuPort.Compensationduetoforeseenlossofcustomaryfishinggroundsisneeded.

• ProtectmangrovestothesouthandnorthoftheMandachannel(proposedportaccess)inorder to maintain some of the ecological function and hence productivity of the naturalecosystem.

• SubstantiallyimproveaccesstoeducationinallcoastalcommunitiesintheLamu-Kiungaarea,withadditionalemphasisongirlswhoaretraditionallyneglected.

• Introducelong-termeducationprogrammesthataddressenvironmentalmanagementinallcoastalcommunitiesforchildrenandadultssothebenefitsofwisemanagementtomaximizeecosystemgoodsandservicesareembraced.

• Introduce other coastal enterpriseswith local communities to reduce pressure onmarineresources.

• Empower fishing communities in co-management approaches to marine resourcemanagement(e.g.throughBMUs)sothattheycanengageasequalplayersinmanagingtheirownfisheryresources.

• Integrate local knowledge with government regulations, including in the Kiunga NationalReserve,andscience, tobenefit theecosystemsandpeopleof thisuniquepartofKenya’scoast.

41

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Appendices

Appendix1.CoralgeneraandspecieslistrecordedinPate-Kiunga2015

CoralGenera

1. Acanthastrea2. Acropora3. Alveopora4. Astreopora5. Caulastrea6. Coeloseris7. Coscinaraea8. Craterastrea9. Cycloseris10. Cyphastrea11. Echinophyllia12. Echinopora13. Favia14. Favites15. Fungia16. Galaxea17. Gardineroseris18. Goniastrea19. Goniopora20. Heliopora21. Herpolitha22. Homophyllia23. Horastrea24. Hydnopohora25. Leptastrea26. Leptoria27. Leptoseris28. Lobophyllia29. Micromussa30. Millepora31. Montipora32. Oulophyllia33. Pavona34. Platygyra35. Plesiastrea36. Pocillopora37. Porites38. Psammocora39. Pseudosiderastrea40. Scolymia41. Siderastrea42. Tubastrea43. Tubipora44. Turbinaria

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Coralspecies

Family Genus Species Family Genus SpeciesAcroporidae Acropora anthocercis Alveopora tizardi

appressa Astreopora listeriarabensis myriophthalmabranchi Montipora aequituberculatadigitifera calcareadivaricata cryptusdonei efflorescenseurystoma foveolatagemmifera informisgrandis monasteriatahyacinthus nodosainsignis tuberculosaintermedia undatalatistella zplutkeni Agariciidae Leptoseris glabramillepora incrustansnasuta mycetoseroidesnatalensis Pavona duerdeniretusa explanulatarosaria frondiferasubulata maldivensisvalida variansverweyi venosa

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Family Genus Species Family Genus SpeciesCoscinaraeidae Coscinaraea columna Favites abdita

crassa acuticolisexesa complanatamonile flexuosazpA halicora

Horastrea indica pentagonaDendrophylliidae Tubastrea zpp russelli

Turbinaria mesenterina vastapeltata Goniastrea australensisstellulata columella

Faviidae Caulastrea connata deformisCyphastrea chalcidicum edwardsi

serailia palauensisEchinopora gemmacea peresi

hirsutissima retiformislamellosa Leptastrea aequalispacificus pruinosarobusta purpurea

Favia danae Leptoria phrygiafavus Oulophyllia crispahelianthoides Platygyra acutalizardensis contortamaritima crosslandimatthai daedaleapallida pinirotumana sinensisspeciosa verweyistelligera Plesiastrea devantieritruncatus versipora

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Family Genus Species Family Genus SpeciesFungiidae Cycloseris costulata Pectiniidae Echinophyllia aspera

cyclolytes echinataexplanulata Pocilloporidae Pocillopora damicornispatelliformis eydouxiwellsi indiania

Diaseris fragilis ligulataFungia granulosa verrucosa

paumotensis Poritidae Goniopora albiconusrepanda columnascutaria djiboutiensis

Herpolitha limax lobataweberi planulata

Hydrozoa Heliopora coerulea somaliensisMillepora exesa stokesi

platyphylla zp.Merulinidae Hydnophora exesa Porites annae

pilosa ColumnarisMussidae Acanthastrea echinata cylindrica

hemprichii harrisoniregularis lobata

Homophyllia australis luteaLobophyllia corymbosa nodifera

hemprichii rusrobusta stephensoni

Micromussa indiana Siderastreidae Psammocora contiguaSclerophyllia maxima Pseudosiderastrea tayami

Oculinidae Galaxea astreata Siderastrea savignyanafasicularis

53

Appendix2.Datatreatmentandanalysis

MethodsSiteswereselectedbasedontheyearsofmonitoring;thosemonitoredformorethan7years(Table111).SitesusedinanalysisofcoralreefhealthinKiunga-Patearea

Block Selectedsites

Samoilysetal.

1987sites

(distance) Reasons

Ishakani Shili Surveyedfor8yearsKiunga Bomani Surveyedfor9years

Ch.Boso Surveyedfor7years Boso Surveyedfor10years Kijiweni Surveyedfor9years Kishanga Surveyedfor9years Kui Surveyedfor10years Kupi Surveyedfor8years Mw.Mkuu Surveyedfor10years

Kiwayu Ch.ChanoKiwayuKnolls(7,000m) Surveyedin1987andlatercontinuouslysurveyedfor10years

Mike'sInner Surveyedfor10years Mike'souter Surveyedfor9years

Mkokoni_Coral

Garden Surveyedfor9years ShimolaTewa Surveyedfor9years

Mkokoni Ch.Mvundeni Arlett(2,200m) Surveyedin1987andlatercontinuouslysurveyedfor2years KwaRadi Surveyedfor10years Ml.Hindi Surveyedfor8years

Rubu Ch.magogoniSimbayaLedge(1,000m)

Ch.MongoShariff Surveyedfor7years Chole Surveyedfor10years

Pethali Iweni Surveyedfor3years PezaliRock Surveyedfor4years

Lamu Kinyika Kinyika(1,700m) Surveyedin1987andlatercontinuouslysurveyedfor4years

AnalysisDatawereanalysedbyfirstdetectingoutliersontheannualdataof11fishfamiliesusingGrubbstestandthereafterremovingtheoutliers.ThesiteswerethencategorizedintomanagementblocksaspresentedinTable111.Thedensitydatawerelog(x+1)transformedbeforerunningaone-wayANOVAtesttocomparetheyearsandmanagementblocks.

54

Appendix3.FishspecieslistrecordedinPate-Kiungain2015

Colourcodedfamiliesarethe5familiesusedtocalculatetheCFDIdiversityindex.Family SpeciesPomacentridae A.sexfasciatus

Pomacentridae A.sparoides

Pomacentridae A.vaigiensis

Pomacentridae Amblygl.indicus

Pomacentridae Amphiprionakallopisos

Pomacentridae C.atripectoralis

Pomacentridae C.dimidiata

Pomacentridae C.lepidolepis

Pomacentridae C.ternatensis

Pomacentridae C.viridis

Pomacentridae C.weberi

Pomacentridae Chry.biocellata

Pomacentridae Chry.brownriggii

Pomacentridae D.trimaculatus

Pomacentridae D.carneus

Pomacentridae Dascylusaruanus

Pomacentridae N.cyanomos

Pomacentridae Neoglyphid.melas

Pomacentridae Neopom.azysron

Pomacentridae Neopom.sp.1

Pomacentridae P.baenschi

Pomacentridae P.caeruleus

Pomacentridae P.pavo

Pomacentridae P.sulfureus

Pomacentridae P.trilineatus

Pomacentridae Pl.lacrymatus

Pomacentridae Plectroglyphid.dickii

Pomacentridae Pomacentruscaeruleopunctatus

Pomacentridae Pomacentrussp.2

Pomacentridae S.nigricans

Pomacanthidae C.multispinis

Pomacanthidae P.imperator

Pomacanthidae P.semicirculatus

Pomacanthidae Pomacanthuschrysurus

Labridae A.melanurus

Labridae A.twistii

Labridae An.lineatus

Labridae B.axillaris

55

Labridae B.bilunulatus

Labridae B.diana

Labridae C.caudimacula

Labridae C.freiri

Labridae C.oxycephalus

Labridae C.trilobatus

Labridae C.undulatus

Labridae Cheilinusbimaculatus

Labridae Cheilinuschlorourus

Labridae Cirrhilabrusexquisitus

Labridae Corisaygula

Labridae Epibulusinsidiator

Labridae Gomphosuscaeruleus

Labridae H.hortulanus

Labridae H.iridis

Labridae Halichoeresmarginatus

Labridae H.nebulosus

Labridae H.scapularis

Labridae H.zeylonicus

Labridae Halichoerescosmetus

Labridae L.dimidiatus

Labridae Labrichthysunilineatus

Labridae Labroidesbicolor

Labridae Macropharyngodonbipartitus

Labridae Oxycheilinusdigrammus

Labridae Oxycheilinusmentalis

Labridae Pseudocheilinusevanidus

Labridae Pseudocheilinushexataenia

Labridae Pseudodaxmoluccanus

Labridae S.bandanensis

Labridae T.hardwicki

Labridae T.herbracium

Labridae T.lunare

Labridae Thalassomalutescens

Labridae Thalassomaamblycephal

Labridae Thalassomasp.1-genivittatum?

Chaetodontidae C.bennetti

Chaetodontidae C.falcula

Chaetodontidae C.guttatissimus

Chaetodontidae C.interruptus

Chaetodontidae C.kleinii

Chaetodontidae C.leucopleura

Chaetodontidae C.lineolatus

56

Chaetodontidae C.lunula

Chaetodontidae C.madagaskariensis

Chaetodontidae C.melannotus

Chaetodontidae C.meyeri

Chaetodontidae C.trifasciatus

Chaetodontidae C.xanthocephalus

Chaetodontidae Chaetodonauriga

Chaetodontidae F.longirostris

Chaetodontidae Heniochusacuminatus

Chaetodontidae Heniochusmonoceros

Scaridae Calotomuscarolinus

Scaridae Chlor.sordidus

Scaridae Chlor.atrilunula

Scaridae Hipposcarusharid

Scaridae S.frenatus

Scaridae S.ghobban

Scaridae S.niger

Scaridae S.rubroviolaceus

Scaridae S.russelli

Acanthuridae A.blochii

Acanthuridae A.dussumieri

Acanthuridae A.leucocheilus

Acanthuridae A.leucosternon

Acanthuridae A.lineatus

Acanthuridae A.mata

Acanthuridae A.nigricaudus

Acanthuridae A.nigrofuscus

Acanthuridae A.tennenti

Acanthuridae A.triostegus

Acanthuridae A.xanthopterus

Acanthuridae C.striatus

Acanthuridae C.truncatus

Acanthuridae Ctenochaetusbinot

Acanthuridae N.brachycentron

Acanthuridae N.brevirostris

Acanthuridae N.elegans

Acanthuridae N.unicornis

Acanthuridae Nasoannulatus

Acanthuridae Paracanth.hepatus

Acanthuridae Z.vellifer

Acanthuridae Zebrasom.desjardinii

Balistidae Balistapusundulatus

Balistidae Balistoid.conspicillum

57

Balistidae Melichthysindicus

Balistidae Melichthysniger

Balistidae Odonusniger

Balistidae P.fuscus

Balistidae Rhinecanth.aculeatus

Balistidae S.chrysopterum

Balistidae S.fraenatus

Balistidae Sufflamenbursa

Caesionidae C.lunaris

Caesionidae C.xanthonota

Caesionidae Caesiocaerulaurea

Caesionidae Caesioteres

Caesionidae Pterocaesiomarri

Caesionidae Pterocaesiopisang

Caesionidae Pterocaesiosp.(cftrilineata)

Carangidae C.ferdau

Carangidae C.fulvoguttatus

Carangidae C.sexfasciatus

Carangidae S.lysan

Carangidae Carangoid.sp1

Haemulidae Diagrammapicta

Haemulidae P.gaterinus

Haemulidae P.gibbosus

Haemulidae P.plagiodesmus

Haemulidae P.playfairi

Haemulidae P.schotaf

Haemulidae Plectorhinchusalbovittatus

Haemulidae Plectorhinchusflavomac.

Haemulidae Plectorhinchussordidus

Lethrinidae L.harak

Lethrinidae L.obsoletus

Lethrinidae Monotaxisgrandoc

Lutjanidae L.bohar

Lutjanidae L.ehrenbergi

Lutjanidae L.fulviflamma

Lutjanidae L.fulvus

Lutjanidae L.gibbus

Lutjanidae L.monostigma

Lutjanidae Lutjanusargentimac.

Monacanthidae Pervagorjanthinosoma

Mullidae Mulloidi.flavolineatus

Mullidae P.cyclostomus

Mullidae P.indicus

58

Mullidae P.macronema

Mullidae P.rubescens

Mullidae Parupeneusbarberinus

Nemipteridae S.ghanam

Ostraciidae O.meleagris

Ostraciidae Ostracioncubicus

Serranidae C.leopardus

Serranidae Cephalopholisargus

Serranidae Dermatolepisstriolatus

Serranidae E.caeruleopunctatus

Serranidae E.fuscoguttatus

Serranidae E.lanceolatus

Serranidae E.malabaricus

Serranidae Plectropomuslaevis

Siganidae S.luridus

Siganidae S.stellatus

Siganidae S.sutor

Siganidae Siganusargenteus

Tetraodontidae C.valentini

Tetraodontidae Canthigasterbennetti

Tetraodontidae Canthigasterpetersii

Tetraodontidae Canthigastersmithae

Total 189

59

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YDOXH WKUHDWVDQGRSSRUWXQLWLHV - CORDIO€¦ · CORDIO team also thank all those who contributed to the study by providing the information required for the preparation of this Publication