MUNTR 2015

The San Francisco Conference 1945

Study Guide

LETTER OF THE SECRETARY-GENERAL

Dear Participants,

My name is Nezahat Yeşim YARGICI, and I as the humble Secretary-General of Model United Nations

Turkey 2015, would like to proudly welcome you to the MUNTR family, in the name of Director-

General Tolga Öner and each and every member of our Academic and Organization teams. This year’s

conference is built around the concept of change. Believing that change for the better can only be

realized through appreciation of the past, we have set the theme of the conference as ‘Legacy and

Reform’.

After celebrating the successful story of a decade, MUNTR 2015 will be the 11th session of the

conference. Starting a new decade, we feel the privilege of having space for creativity and change. We

not only want to give you a better MUN experience, but a new and different one. Working day and

night, our team wishes to create something more than a simulation, but a true platform of diplomacy

amongst young people where new ideas and insights are welcomed; where the world is shaped by day

and shaken by night.

The Secretariat has been working relentlessly for the past 7 months in fulfillment of this aim, which this

study guide is a result of. Before addressing the academic content, I would like to thank the members of

the Secretariat, and in especial, the Under-Secretary-General of the San Francisco Conference, Ms. Afra

Teren Gürlüler, for joining our team all the way from Istanbul but somehow managing to always be

there, be a true team player and good friend.

The San Francisco Conference is, in accordance with the conference theme, a highly significant

simulation. I advise all delegates to thoroughly read this academic material, and do extra research about

the United Nations for they will have the chance the reshape the biggest intergovernmental organization

in the world. Delegates should be reminded that, as the 70th

anniversary motto of the United Nations

goes, a strong UN means a better world.

King Regards,

Nezahat Yeşim Yargıcı

Secretary-General of MUNTR 2015

LETTER OF THE UNDER-SECRETARY-GENERAL

Honorable Delegates

I have the utmost pleasure and honor of welcoming you to 11th

annual session of Model United Nations

Turkey Conference . I am Afra Teren Gürlüler, a sophomore student in Koç University Law Faculty and

started my double major with International Relations this semester. It’s my honor to serve as the Under-

Secretary-General responsible for United Nations Conference on International Organization San

Francisco 1945, in 75th

Anniversary of United Nations and MUNTR provides you a chance to be part of

its roots.

I have been participating in several simulation conferences in last 5 years such as Model United Nations,

European Youth Parliament and court simulations.

While preparing the study guide I got a chance to learn very different aspects of the World War II and I

enhanced my knowledge. So I would like to thank to Secretary-General Miss Nezahat Yeşim Yargici

and Deputy-Secretary -General Gökberk Ekinci for giving me this opportunity.

I am looking forward to observing the debates in MUNTR. For any of you inquires please feel free to

contact with me.

Regards;

Afra Teren Gürlüler

Under-Secretary-General responsible for San Francisco Conference 1945

A. Introduction

(Figure 1: San Francisco Conference 1945) i

The San Francisco

Conference will be

commenced in order to

create an International

Organization which will

unite the nations. For the

conference, representatives

of fifty nations will arrive at

San Francisco in order to

rise from the ashes of

League of Nations and create a better organization. Principles for peaceful and more stabilized world

order has been drafted before in Dumbarton Oaks but representatives in San Francisco will try

completing the Charter of the United Nations (the founding document) and creating the organization

which hopefully prevents great scale war. This international organization was long waited; it was not

only yearned for solving international disputes but as League of Nations foreshadowed this organization

will also provide development aid for economically less developed states.

B. Historic Timeline

I. International Peace Conference Hague (1899)

International Peace Conference in Hague was the largest conference supported by the civil society until

that time. Hague Conference started on May 18, 1899.ii Conference took place by the initiative of Czar

Nicholas II of Russia. This conference played a particularly crucial role in further conferences and peace

organizations because in the international community, for the first time, set up guidance for maintaining

peace.

Historians classify 19th

century as the era of rising imperialism.iii

In order to attune this era, numerous

European countries occupied territories in Africa and Middle East then formed colonies over these

lands.iv

For example at the time, the British Empire was ruling 33,700,000 kilometer squares which were

nearly more then quarter of the whole world. As a result, it was famously dubbed as the empire on

which the sun never sets.v After industrialization, states needed to found new lands in order to acquire

further natural resources which would be used in their industries. Additionally these states required new

markets to sell the newly-produced final goods. Naturally, this cycle brought extensive armament.vi

For

example, Alsace-Loraine region hold excessive amount of coal that could be used in factories. Germany

and France both seek to capture these mines.

All European countries were at unease because this armament could easily lead to a large-scaled

conflict. But Russia was unable to catch this rapid armament action due to economical obstacles.

Consequently Russia would benefit from a cease of this armament race.vii

If an armed conflict occurred,

with the fact that Russia did not have heavily equipped army as France and Britain, Russia could not win

a war against them.

Ultimately Russian Czar used the atmosphere to gather a conference that would prepare goals for peace.

This conference would be profitable for Russia’s welfare since it aimed to avoid a large scale conflict.

Then Czar sent a note to the leaders stating the objective of conference. In the note he stated; ‘’with the

object of seeking the most effective means of ensuring to all peoples the benefits of a real and lasting

peace, and, above all, of limiting the progressive development of existing armaments.’’viii

When they

received the note from the Czar, most of the governments showed reluctance to admit to the conference

due to their impiousness to other state’s commitment to peace. On the other hand, with civilians’ and

peace organizations’ compulsion led states to attend this conference. Similar to governments, civilians

were apprehensive of a large-scale of military conflict that would cause thousands of casualties.ix

For

example, in United Kingdom more than 750 resolutions were sent to Foreign Office from the peace

societies calling government to accept Czar’s initiative. x

The representatives of 26 governments gathered in Hague. United States of America, Britain, Russia,

France, China and Persia were among these 26 states. Final act of the conference was signed on July

29th

, 1899. During the conference, disarmament and law of war was discussed upon. In the end, they

adopted the Hague Convention of 1899 with 4 main sections and other declarations included in the Final

Protocol.xi

These four sections were; Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, Section regarding

respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, Section regarding Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of

the Principles of the Geneva Convention of 22 August 1864 and last section covers the declarations.

They also agreed to convene a second conference. Conventions and declarations that were proposed and

signed in the end of the conference were significant since the rules and law of warfare were codified for

the first time by multilateral treaties in this conference.xii

a. Convention over Pacific Settlement of International Disputes and Establishment of

Permanent Court of Arbitration

This convention stated the common desire for long lasting peace clearly.xiii

In its preamble convention

states that; Considering that, while seeking means to preserve peace and prevent armed conflicts among

nations, it is likewise necessary to have regard to cases where an appeal to arms may be caused by

events which their solicitude could not avert.xiv

This offers the motivation and the aim of the conference.

Convention recognizes the solidarity, which unites the members of the societies of civilized nations.xv

The Permanent Court of Arbitration was established by Convention for the Pacific Settlement of

International Disputes from Article 20 to Article 29.xvi

The Permanent Court of Arbitration is the first

global judicial organ, which was founded in order to solve international disputes. According to Article 2

of the Convention, if serious disagreement occurs, state parties would refer dispute to mediation or good

offices instead of arm.xvii

Permanent Court of Arbitration planted the seeds of a World Court. So this

foreshadows the international courts.

b. Convention regarding respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land

This section regulates the rules governing wars on lands of state parties to this convention. The

convention refers to Geneva Convention of 1864 on several topics. Obligations of belligerents with

regard to the sick and wounded and treatment to prisoner of war were decided to be regulated according

to Geneva Convention of 1864.xviii

This section is also paramount due to the fact that a good number of conflicts arise from the post-war

aftermaths, especially regarding the war crimes, distribution of resources and treatment of war prisoners.

Conclusively, with this convention representatives aimed to prevent further conflict caused by the

consequents of any war.

c. Convention for the Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of the Principles of the Geneva

Convention of 22 August 1864

Preamble of the convention states; "Alike animated by the desire to diminish, as far as depends on them

the evils inseparable from warfare, and wishing with this object to adapt to maritime warfare the

principles of the Geneva Convention of the 22nd August, 1864, 2 have decided to conclude a convention

to this effect:"xix

This convention regulated the maritime warfare focusing on the humanitarian aspects. It emphasizes the

protection of marine hospitals and protection of non-combatants during war.xx

As same as the Convention regarding respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, these

regulations were created in order to prevent further disputes and with these conventions, representatives

wanted to ease the effects of war on civilians.

d. Declarations

Three declarations were added to the final act of Hague Peace Conference: Declaration concerning the

Prohibition of the Discharge of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloons or by Other New Analogous

Method, Declaration concerning the Prohibition of the Use of Projectiles with the Sole Object to Spread

Asphyxiating Poisonous Gases and Declaration concerning the Prohibition of the Use of Bullets which

can Easily Expand or Change their Form inside the Human Body such as Bullets with a Hard Covering

which does not Completely Cover the Core, or containing Indentations.xxi

These declarations were

prepared and signed in order to decrease the damages if war takes place between state parties to the

Hague Conventions.xxii

The Hague Convention and Declarations created a guideline for the formation of

peace and any international organization would take these principles in to consideration. These rules and

legislations were created in order to ease tension among states. International organizations would base

many principles on these conventions consequently, these convention are decisive.

II. World War I and the League of Nations

a. World War I (WWI)

The World War I took place between 1914 and

1918. This war had the biggest number of

causalities in world history by then. According

to official documents, more than 65 million

soldiers fought the war worldwide.

(Figure 2: Session of League of Nations)

In the end, nearly 8.6 million people were

killed; around 22 million of the soldiers were wounded. Nearly 760 thousand men were missing or taken

as prisoners of war.xxiii

The War took place between opposing power blocs: Allies and Axis Powers. Central powers of Allies

were Britain, France, Russia, Italy, and Portugal. During War United States joined the Allies. Axis

Powers were Germany, the Ottoman Empire, Bulgarian Kingdom and Austria-Hungarian Empire. The

War took place after long term political and economic tension. On the other hand, most significantly, the

nationalist movements and conflicts under multi-national empires regarding sub-nationalism were the

ideological root of the war, as the race of armament was

escalating at the same time.

(Figure 3: Stacks of German Franks symbolizing the high

inflation)

Colonialism must be subject to review while analyzing reasons of

war. Colonialism means domination of a land while creating

subjugation of inhabitants.xxiv

Spain, United Kingdom, France

built Empires by acquiring lands majorly in Africa and Asia.

Colonies were not limited to Africa for these empires had lands

in Australia, islands in the Indian Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.

European countries occupied these lands for natural resources

and cheap labor force. Resources and labor were used in order to

increase the wealth in the mainland empires. Scilicet people of occupied land did not gain any wealth or

did not get share from outcome. Empires gained the political control in these lands and without the

consent of natives; mainland decided the course of their dependent territory. As a result, natives’ right to

choice or right to decide their nation’s destiny was disregarded.

After industrial revolution Britain and France gained many territories and economically developed faster

than Italy and Germany.xxv

Italy and Germany formed their political unification later than Britain and France. Italy and Germany

willingness to acquire resources caused heated conflict of interest among European states. Ultimately

economic race was grown faster and intense. Germany and Britain tried to rival against each other by

advancing and increasing navies. This caused an extensive arms race between them. Tension increased

day by day.

Apart from the economic reasons in this century, by the principles of French Revolution nationalist

movements started to affect multi-nationals empires. The French Revolution took place in 1789xxvi

and

was inspired by the Enlightenment writers and philosophers. Diderot, Rousseau and John Locke were

important figures who dispersed the ideology of equality among people in front of law, freedom of

thought and speech and representative ruling systems. Economic situation was another inspiration for

the Revolution. French Empire has been suffering from the compensation of war and crises.xxvii

Increase

in taxes caused an upheaval in country. French Revolution elicit the ideology of nationalism, equality

and justice

With the effect of French Revolution, empires lost their power because sub-nationalist movements

caused civil wars and they lost territories with the separation movements. Such as in Ottoman Empire,

Bulgarians gained their independence in 1817 and only to be followed by the Greeks, Armenians, Kurds

under Ottoman Empire who started to rebel with nationalistic drives in this century.

Prior to the World War I, states started forming alliances which included both political and military

partnerships.xxviii

With forming alliances, states tried to balance the power in regions.xxix

The Holy

Alliance was formed between Prussia, Russia, and Austria in 1815. After that, in 1873, Germany formed

an alliance with Austria-Hungary Empire and Russia.xxx

This Alliance got separated because Austria-

Hungary and Russia could not agree over Balkan policy.xxxi

Austria-Hungary Empire and Russia both

wanted to gain political control in Balkans by using their Slav origins. This policy caused a conflict of

interest. Following the separation, the Dual Alliance was formed between Germany and Austria-

Hungary Empire. The Dual Alliance aimed to balance the power of Russia over Balkans. Italy joined in

this alliance in 1881 and they formed Triple Alliance.xxxii

These alliances shaped the blocs pre-war.

Therefore, the world was already divided into sides which would lead to open frontiers easily.xxxiii

b. Peace Talks post-World War I

World War I lasted on November 11, 1918. War had many frontiers. During what was known then as

the Great War, in Russia, the Bolshevik Revolution took place; following the revolution Soviet Russia

left the War by signing Brest-Litovks agreement in 1918. Ottoman Empire had entered to Great War

because they did lose a lot of territory due to sub-nationalist movements and Sultan wanted to gain these

lands back. In the end of the Great War, Ottoman Empire had collapsed and a new Turkish State was

formed. Germany with its increasing military capacity wanted to occupy more lands and raise its

economic prosperity. Germany, however, was unable to won the war in frontiers. In World War I

airplanes used for the first time with long-range bombs.xxxiv

This fact increased the destructive effect of

the war even further.

Social and economic affects continued for long time, different for each bloc. For example, the Allies

won the war but lost all their economic investment. As the leaders all agreed that countries would not

survive from such disaster again, they decided that there should be an institution, which solves the

conflicts in peaceful ways. Several agreements were made in order to terminate the war however these

agreements were including terms focused on depowering the defeated parties which were unsatisfied

with the outcomes. For instance, Germany signed Versailles Treaty with Allies. According to Versailles,

Germany would be left without any army and economic power:xxxv

for example, German military was

limited 100.000 soldiers, only six battleships and none organized air force whatsoever.xxxvi

The terms of

these treaties were designed to ensure there would be no future aggressions from these defeated states.

However, afflicted economic and social structure would lead to the rise of radical ideologies in the

following decades.xxxvii

Losing the war meant the support and the legitimacy of the government who

waged it would decrease, thus the defeated states also experienced changes in regime and governmental

systems. Austria and Germany was reshaped in democratic ways. Nevertheless these democracies were

delicate, and easily manipulated, and after a short decade, by the 1930s, the newly found democracies in

Italy, Germany, Austria and Spain were transformed into different forms of dicta. In the meantime,

Russia, after going through the Bolshevik Revolution, went from the monarchy of the Czar to

communist absolutism. Therefore, the ideological differences and post-war economies would leave

Europe even more divided then before the War.xxxviii

The idea of further conflict was a frightening prospect to world leaders and civil societies. In this

context, peace talks needed to be concluded in order to prevent any further armed conflicts. Several

peace conferences and meetings took place after the War. During that time League of Nations rooted

from the idea of protection from further armed conflicts in worldwide scale.

c. League of Nations

“Failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I

might call military sanctions ... The real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the

process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war ... [I]f

collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every

country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is

an essential part of collective security." S Baldwin, 1936.xxxix

League of Nations is known as predecessor of international organizations that aims to solve disputes and

maintain peace. This was the first international organization, which was created to solve any conflicts

arising from post-war tensions and prevent further damage. League of Nations was formed in the Paris

Conference in 1919 and it existed for 30 yearsxl

and was based in Geneva, Switzerland, a country which

stayed neutral during WWI and accordingly was chosen as a peaceful location.xli

The founding

document of the League was the Covenant of the League of Nations, which was prepared in the Paris

Conference. The Covenant of the League of Nations was meant to do more than creating a platform of

diplomatic relations, but initiating pre-war means and methods of diplomacy and multilateralism for

States through the League, serving the ultimate purpose of prevention of another world-wide armed

conflict. xlii

Article 10 of the Covenant states: “The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as

against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members

of the League. In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression the

Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled.”xliii

It should be

underlined that the wording of the Article -“undertake to respect and preserve”- does not create an

absolute legal obligation upon the signatories.xliv

Article 11 expanded the idea of war prevention, by making such a threat ‘a matter of concern to the

whole League’ and presses that the League ‘shall take any action that may be deemed wise and effectual

to safeguard the peace of nations.’xlv

The most significant bodies of the League were the League

Council, the Secretariat, the General Assembly, the Permanent Court of International Justice (hereinafter

referred to as PCIJ) and the International Labour Organization as a specialized agency.xlvi

The Assembly met once a year and consisted of all members of the League.xlvii

The Council had four

permanent -Britain, France, Italy and Japan- and 9 non-permanent members –elected by the Assembly-

and met more regularly, as the executive body. xlviii

The mission of the Council was mediation of

disputes.xlix

In the centre of the League’s bureaucracy, the Secretariat headed by the Secretary-General.l

In addition, the Secretary-General also acted as the chief mediator, represented and led the League.li

The Permanent Court of International Justice met for the first time in 1922, it was the body which meant

to solve any international legal disputes submitted to it and gave advisory opinions should the Council or

the Assembly ask for it.lii

Covenant provided three types of actions as sanctions.liii

First action that the League could take was

calling states upon for dispute resolution. This dispute resolution was achieved through the General

Assembly of the League. The second step in dispute resolution was verbal sanctions, which meant the

relevant state would be warned if it did not stop aggression she would face with consequences.liv

Last

step would be economic sanctions: financial consequences would also alienate the aggressor state and

leave a negative impact on their economy.lv

Only 28 members stayed with the League from inception until its demise;lvi

the highest number of

Member-States was 58 in 1934.lvii

The United States of America did not join the League. Germany was

not invited because of the Versailles Treaty. According to the Versailles Treaty, Germany was the

aggressor of World War I and therefore was excluded from the international society.lviii

The Soviet

Russia was not invited either, because the communist government had been spreading source of worry

for Western Europeans.lix

The lack of consistency regarding the memberships also affected the finances

of the League which was dependant on the Member-States. The withdrawals led to a massive decrease

in the League’s budget, causing it to be non-functional.lx

The League worked on various disputes. For example, the possession of the Aaland Islands was a long

disputed issue between Finland and Sweden which was successfully solved by the League. lxi

Upper Silesia was another issue on the League agenda. After the Versailles Treaty, a referendum took

place and people of the territory decided whether they wanted to be ruled by Germany or by Poland.lxii

According to the results 59.4 percent was in favor of Germany and 40.6 were in favor of Poland. After

the plebiscite riots took place for separation. After the interference of the League, in a matter of weeks,

the land was separated between the two States.lxiii

In the aftermath of the War, the Ottoman Empire also fell in the wave of regime changes. In 1923 the

Republic of Turkey was found, however it was economically devastated after its own war of

independence. The League used its financial resources to fund aid in order to build farms in addition to

sending medical doctors to stop spread of diseases.lxiv

In 1919, between Poland and Czechoslovakia the Teschen town led to a territorial dispute. Armed

conflict took place and many civilians living in the region were affected.lxv

The League tried to separate

the territory between two states by giving the part bigger in territory to the Polish and the suburban part

to Czechoslovakia. These suburbs contained valuable mines therefore the Polish Government did not

accept this resolution.lxvi

Even though the League failed to medium concrete solutions in several political

and economical conflicts it did manage to conclude some health aid and social improvement in third

world countries.

There are many examples where the League successfully prevented further conflict, but the lack of

enforcement power bestowed on it by its Covenant led to the lack of more efficient and effective results

when it came to dispute solving. In addition, the difference of ideologies, the high number of territorial

disputes and the economic imbalanced structure of the post-war Europe would eventually lead to a

deadlier conflict.

III. World War II

a. Tensions Leading to World War II (WWII)

Political and economical reasons were the most common reasons for the World War II. The peace

treaties following the WWI were signed without considering a strategy to maintain peace. These treaties

were mostly focused on distribution of resources and dividing the land.lxvii

In addition, after WWI,

Allied Powers tried to prevent further conflicts by disempowering defeated states so that they would not

be able to retaliate or show acts of aggression.

(Figure 4: Hitler and Mussolini)

The Treaty of Versailles is regarded as a main source of

tension which led Europe to WWII. After WWI, during

1920s communist parties gained power especially in the

urban regions of Germanylxviii

but these parties could not

hold in the power for so long. United States of America

supplied some monetary help to Germany in accordance with

the Dawes Plan. However when the Great Depression1 started

in United States of America, they were no longer able to

1 Great Depression is a severe economic crisis which took place between late 1930s and 1940s in the United States.

continue this aid. Then, between 1922 and 1923, the German Government issued more money in order

to balance its economy which caused hyperinflation.lxix

Social crises took place such as high rate of unemployment. In 1933 Adolf Hitler, with his national

socialist party, raise into power. National Socialist Party used the economic situation in their favor.lxx

They promised better employment and life standards for Germans.lxxi

In the light of these promises the

majority of the German people believed Hitler and his party would invigorate the economy and enhance

the post-Versailles living standards.

When Hitler became the Fuhrerlxxii

, he enacted a law, which allows him to take actions without

consulting the parliament.lxxiii

With his ultimate power, Hitler rebuilt the German military. He, with the

support of German citizens, he violated the Versailles Treaty and invaded Rhineland.lxxiv

Then he

continued the violations by the annexation of Austria.lxxv

After Hitler’s rise to power, the leaders of

France, Italy and the United Kingdom met with Hitler. They signed Munich Pact.lxxvi

According to this

pact Sudetenland became sovereign. Also Sudetan Germans would be free to leave if they want to leave

the land and Sudetan German prisoners would be freed.lxxvii

League of Nations was formed in order to

ensure peace and stability. So they were reserved to take actions against Hitler. In a short period of time,

war would start, leading to the dissolution of the League after the international community believed in

its ineffectiveness. Germany invaded Poland on 1st September 1939.

lxxviii Invasion of Poland was the

official commencement of World War II.

Italy was victorious in the WWI nevertheless, compared to its allies, gained less territory and resources.

The Italian economy was also affected as unemployment increased. Like Germany, as result of this

economic depression, socialists gained the power in the beginning.lxxix

But later in 1922 Mussolini with

his nationalist party was elected to power.lxxx

Mussolini worked on regulating and invigorating the

economy but the unemployment rate did not decrease.lxxxi

Following the German invasion of Poland,

Italy invaded Abyssinia, also known as Ethiopia.lxxxii

Italians supported this invasion because they also

wanted to increase economic opportunities in order to have enhanced job opportunities. New territories

would mean more resource, which will be processed in Italian industry.lxxxiii

Germany and Italy had fascist regimes and they need to form an annexation that will support each other.

For this reason Germany and Italy signed Pact of Steel on 22 May 1939.lxxxiv

This pact was formed the

intention of a military and a political alliance between these states. Italy and Germany together, aided

the nationalist leader in Spain, Franco during the Spanish Civil War.lxxxv

Japan was another politically significant state during inter war period. After WWI, Government of

Japan followed a nationalist orientation,lxxxvi

which led to citizens and government wanting to create the

great Empire of Japan. For this to achieved, they believed Japan needed to have more territories.lxxxvii

Occupation of Manchuria created an armed conflict between China and Japan.lxxxviii

Manchuria was a

region disputed between USSR and Japan in addition to the fact that the region also had the interest of

the USSR. However Japan had a policy called: Asia for Asians. They believed Manchuria is a land in

Asia so USRR cannot hold this land because they do not have cultural and ethnic Asian origin as Japan

does. According to this motto Russia had no right to own Manchuria. In this connection, Japan and

Russia became opponents.lxxxix

When Japan invaded the territory in 1931, the League of Nations asked

Japan to leave it.xc

In 1937 Germany, Italy and Japan signed Tripartite Pact and formed the Axis

Power.xci

b. Post World War II and Structure of Blocs

World War II took place between 1939 and 1945. Axis powers were Germany, Italy and Japan. Center

powers of Allies were United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and France. War commenced with

the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany on September 1, 1939.

During the War, Nazi Germany sieged Stalingrad, as Adolf Hitler aimed to reach petrol resources in

Black Sea region by passing through Stalingrad. But armies of Nazi Germany could not conclude this

siege successfully.

Japan had a modernized army at the time. With this confidence Japan wanted to acquire more lands in

Indonesia, India and Pacific Islands. On December 7, 1941 aircrafts of Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and

bombed the US Navy ships which were docked there. The Asian Pacific Frontier started following the

Pearl Harbor attacks which resulted with the United States declaring war on Japan.

In the Pacific Frontier Japan had many defeats and when the United States used the atomic bombs on

Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Following this, Japan had to leave the war, concluding the

fight on the Pacific Frontier. On April 23rd

, 1945, the Russian Army stepped in Berlin and the German

army was annihilatedxcii

Hitler committed suicide.

Following the defeat of Nazi Germany, 1945 August, Potsdam Conference was held.xciii

In this

conference Germany’s future was the first topic to be addressed. In the beginning the Soviets wanted to

implement harsh conditions on economic basis however the United Kingdom and the United States

opposed to this request because they did not want Europe to relive the results of Versailles Treaty.xciv

As a result they agreed upon creating limitations on military and economic matters, nevertheless, not in

the same dysfunctional level as Versailles. For example, the Protocol imposed that; there was to be “a

complete disarmament and demilitarization of Germany”; all aspects of German industry that could be

utilized for military purposes were to be dismantled; all German military and paramilitary forces were

to be eliminated; and the production of all military hardware in Germany was forbidden. Also German

society was to be remade along democratic lines by repeal of all discriminatory laws from the Nazi era

and by the arrest and trial of those Germans deemed to be “war criminals.” The German educational

and judicial systems were to be purged of any authoritarian influences, and democratic political parties

would be encouraged to participate in the administration of Germany at the local and state level.xcv

German-Soviet Border was the second conflict in Potsdam. In the end, Poland lost many territories to

USSR. Regarding the protection of civilians leaders took some measures. For example protocol included

“any transfers that take place should be affected in an orderly and humane manner” and to request that

the Poles, Czechoslovaks and Hungarians temporarily suspend additional deportations.xcvi

After the World War II, two blocs were created. The period of tension between the the two blocs started.

First bloc was Western States which were ruled by democratic systems and the other bloc was Eastern

States which were mostly ruled by socialist regimes.

During World War II, many human rights violations took place. The Nazi government in especial,

caused the death of millions of civilians in Europe. Due to the anti-Semitic policies of the Nazi Party,

millions of people from the Jewish communities of Germany and Poland were systematically killed in

concentration camps.xcvii

In addition to the anti-Semitic movement of the Nazi Party, gypsies,

homosexuals and communists were also being captured and killed.xcviii

Apart from Nazi Germany, during World War II civilians died and got affected from the usage of the

atomic bombs. The estimated number of civilian deaths in the WWII is between 20 million - 35 million

worldwide.xcix

As a result, the international community agreed to prevent future conflict and form an

international organization, more effective than the League of Nations.

Pre-San Francisco Conference Timeline

IV. Declaration of St. James Palace

“The only true basis of enduring peace is the willing cooperation of free peoples in a world in which,

relieved of the menace of aggression, all may enjoy economic and social security; it is our intention to

work together, and with other free peoples, both in war and peace, to this end.”c

The Declaration of St. James Palace is accepted as the inspiration of Charter of United Nations, herein

after referred as Charter. It is also called Inter Allied Declaration. Nine exiled governments met in

London. At that point in time, the Axis powers had the military superiority, and the destructiveness of

the War was at its peak.ci These leaders were exiled by the Nazi regime. These were the Governments of

the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South

Africa, the Government of Belgium, the Provisional Czechoslovak Government, the Governments of

Greece, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Yugoslavia, and the Representatives of General

de Gaulle, leader of Free Frenchmen.cii

The purpose of the meeting was to initiate an international

organization, which will provide long lasting peace. On June 12, 1941 the declaration was signed by

these exiled governments. Since all of them were from the Allied powers, the declaration was called

Inter Allied Declaration.ciii

The Declaration was found to be necessary because at the time, Axis Powers

were more superior and these leaders were afraid to lose the War.

According to declaration "The only true basis of enduring peace is the willing cooperation if free

peoples in a world in which, relieved of the menace of aggression, all may enjoy economic and social

security and that it is their intention to work together, and with other free peoples, both in war and

peace to this end."civ

The leaders intended to work in cooperation and take free people’s will into

consideration both during war and peace.

V. The Atlantic Conference of 1941

In the following two months of the Declaration of the St. James Palace, the U.S. President Franklin D.

Roosevelt and the British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill met in August 1941 to discuss common

goals and aims to prevent further armed conflicts in great scale.cv

They drafted the Atlantic Charter with

the aims to prevent further armed conflicts in great scale.

(Figure 5: Atlantic Charter)

The Charter had 8 goals which is as follows;

1. No territorial gains were to be sought

by the United States or the United Kingdom;

2. Territorial adjustments must be in

accord with the wishes of the peoples

concerned;

3. All people had a right to self-

determination;

4. Trade barriers were to be lowered;

5. There was to be global economic cooperation and advancement of social welfare;

6. The participants would work for a world free of want and fear;

7. The participants would work for freedom of the seas;

8. There was to be disarmament of aggressor nations, and a post-war common disarmament.

Right to self-determination was mentioned in a written document for the first time. Right to self-

determination means every nation has right to decide on their future and destiny. Additionally, this

Charter included provisions for liberal economy and freedom for political choice, which were really

significant at the time because it has been never mentioned before. Liberal economy implies the notion

of an economy based on private entrepreneurship free from government intervention. These provisions

would create more liberal democracies around

the world.

Representatives of 26 states gathered in

Washington Conference on 22 December

1941.cvi

The Atlantic Charter was approved by

these 26 states in this conference.cvii

(Figure 6: The Signing of the Declaration by

United Nations)

VI. The Declaration by United Nations

On January 1, 1942 the representatives of 26 States gathered in Washington D.C. and pledged their

support for the Atlantic Charter signed a year prior.cviii

The Declaration marks the first time the term

‘United Nations’ was officially used on the suggestion of President Roosevelt.cix

VII. Moscow and Tehran Conferences

Moscow Conference was organized on the representation level of foreign ministers. Conference was

held between October 30, 1943 and November 18, 1943.cx

United Kingdom, United States of America,

United Soviet Socialist Republics and Republic of China were represented in the conference. In this

gathering, representatives discussed how they would break barrier of Axis powers and how they would

end the war.cxi

The Moscow Declaration, also known as the Declaration of the Four Nations on General

Security, was the outcome of the meeting. In this declaration representatives agreed upon continuing the

war against common enemies will continue in order to create peace.cxii

In the fifth clause of the

declaration they stated “That for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security pending

the re-establishment of law and order and the inauguration of a system of general security they will

consult with one another and as occasion requires with other members of the United Nations, with a

view to joint action on behalf of the community of nations.”cxiii

VIII. Dumbarton Oaks Conference

Official name of the conference is Washington Conversations on International Peace and Security

Organization. Representatives gathered in Washington in order to draft founding documents for an

International Organization which will unite the nations around the peace. The founding document was

prepared on October 7, 1944.cxiv

In this gathering, state representatives came together to form initial

guidelines to create an international organization, this was already planned out in the Moscow

Declaration. Founding principles of an International Organization was drafted in this conference.cxv

Structure of the International Organization was also proposed in this document. The proposal included a

four-body structure for the Organization: a General Assembly including all Member States, a Security

Council consisting of eleven members -five permanent, six to be elected by the Assembly- for

prevention of future conflict, International Court of Justice and Economic and Social Council.cxvi

The

Economic and Social Council was included because by then, it was obvious that economic and social

welfare had a ‘conceptual linkage’ to the occurring of war.cxvii

Even at the height of their military

cooperation, the States that attended the conference at Dumbarton Oaks left many matters unattended

due to a lack of consensus,cxviii

for instance the voting method of the to-be-formed Security Council.cxix

This document was particularly important because several important principles were created. For

example until that time use of force was common but in Washington Conversations on International

Peace and Security Organization use of force was prohibited.cxx

Conclusively it should be highlighted that many long-standing principles of the United Nations were set

forth in the Dumbarton Oaks proposal, such as the prohibition of use of force, equality of States and

settlement of disputes by peaceful measures.cxxi

IX. Tehran Conference

On 28 November 1943 U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston

Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin met in Tehran.cxxii

During the meeting, leaders discussed

upon the following phases of the war against Axis Powers. (Germany, Japan, Italy). In order to plan this,

leaders centered their discussion on opening a new front in West Europe.cxxiii

The Allied leaders not

only focused on the course of the war but they also debated over a post-war structure.cxxiv

The German-

Polish border issue was on table. Regardless of the fact that Poland lost lots of its territory, -with Stalin’s

pressure- leaders agreed upon moving the German-Polish border to the Oder and Neisse rivers.cxxv

Other than border and post-war issues, leaders conversed about the international organization and how

the composition of this international organization should be shaped.cxxvi

In Moscow Conference, the

United States, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union had signed a four-power declaration, which called

upon the international community for the founding of an international organization that would keep

peace alive.cxxvii

In Tehran, Roosevelt outlined that organization.cxxviii

Declaration of the Three Powers Regarding Iran was signed in Tehran Conference.cxxix

Iranian

Government provided help to Allied powers against Germany, so with this declaration 4 leaders

promised economic assistance to Iran in return.cxxx

Leaders also stated their ‘’desire for the maintenance

of the independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of Iran.”cxxxi

This conference was decisive because Stalin was convinced to join “United Nations”.cxxxii

This is

significant because the United Nations was seen as an organization composed of liberal democratic and

western countries so as his political stance, Stalin was not willing to accept this participation but other

leaders convince him to do. (Figure 7 : Franklin D. Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill in Tehran, Iran,

1943)

X. The San Francisco Conference and Conclusion

In Conference on International Organization delegates of 50 nations will gather together in order to

create more peaceful world by preventing future armed conflicts with using arbitrational and diplomatic

methods.cxxxiii

Conference will commence on 25 April 1945. Delegates will have the Dumbarton Oaks

proposal to guide them. The conference aimed to create a founding document for this organization. This

will be the legal base. Here they need to create a voting system, make better principles and the whole

structure of the organization.cxxxiv

Creating a world court has been wanted by countries and tried for several times. In this conference

representatives should work on creating more efficient and effective legal organ.

The task of turning the Dumbarton Oaks proposal –sponsored by China, Soviet Union, United States and

United Kingdom- to the United Nations Charter will include rewriting, adding more bodies and

contemplating on ‘every line and comma’.cxxxv

United Nations is a long waited international organization. After two world-wide wars, the failures of

the League of Nations, millions of civilian deaths, shattered economies the devastated international

community will need to use diplomatic means at its best to create an intergovernmental organization

which will last the test of time and ensure long-lasting peace.

However this process should be made thoroughly so the United Nations will not share the same fate as

the League of Nations. Every body and their structures, voting systems, missions and visions, aims and

duties should be set out. The Dumbarton Oaks Proposal will be point zero when forming the new United

Nations; however the delegates should not be limited to the bodies and capacities mentioned in the

proposal.

All the bodies were foreshadowed before but the procedures and all details will have to be decided on, in

this conference. Representatives will shape the future of this organization.

“A man who is used to acting in one way never changes; he must come to ruin when the times, in

changing, no longer are in harmony with his ways.” – Niccolò Machiavelli

PROPOSALS FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A GENERAL INTERNATIONAL

ORGANIZATION

(The DUMBORTAN OAKS PROPOSAL)

There should be established an international organization under the title of The United Nations, the

Charter of which should contain provisions necessary to give effect to the proposals which follow.

CHAPTER I: PURPOSES

The purposes of the Organization should be:

1. To maintain international peace and security; and to that end to take effective collective measures for

the prevention and removal of threats to the peace and the suppression of acts of aggression or other

breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means adjustment or settlement of international

disputes which may lead to a breach of the peace;

2. To develop friendly relations among nations and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen

universal peace;

3. To achieve international cooperation in the solution of international economic, social and other

humanitarian problems; and

4. To afford a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in the achievement of these common ends.

CHAPTER II: PRINCIPLES

In pursuit of the purposes mentioned in Chapter I the Organization and its members should act in

accordance with the following principles:

1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all peace-loving states.

2. All members of the Organization undertake, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits

resulting from membership in the Organization, to fulfill the obligations assumed by them in accordance

with the Charter.

3. All members of the Organization shall settle their disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that

international peace and security are not endangered.

4. All members of the Organization shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of

force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the Organization.

5. All members of the Organization shall give every assistance to the Organization in any action

undertaken by it in accordance with the provisions of the Charter.

6. All members of the Organization shall refrain from giving assistance to any state against which

preventive or enforcement action is being undertaken by the Organization.

The Organization should ensure that states not members of the Organization act in accordance with

these principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.

CHAPTER III: MEMBERSHIP

1. Membership of the Organization should be open to all peace-loving states.

CHAPTER IV: PRINCIPAL ORGANS

1. The Organization should have as its principle organs:

a. A General Assembly;

b. A Security Council;

c. An international court of justice; and

d. A Secretariat.

2. The Organization should have such subsidiary agencies as may be found necessary.

CHAPTER V: THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

Section A. Composition. All members of the Organization should be members of the General Assembly

and should have a number of representatives to be specified in the Charter.

Section B. Functions and Powers. 1. The General Assembly should have the right to consider the

general principles of cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the

principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments; to discuss any questions relating to

the maintenance of international peace and security brought before it by any member or members of the

Organization or by the Security Council; and to make recommendations with regard to any such

principles or questions. Any such questions on which action is necessary should be referred to the

Security Council by the General Assembly either before or after discussion. The General Assembly

should not on its own initiative make recommendations on any matters relating to the maintenance of

international peace and security which is being dealt with by the Security Council.

2. The General Assembly should be empowered to admit new members to the Organization upon

recommendation of the Security Council.

3. The General Assembly should, upon recommendation of the Security Council, be empowered to

suspend from the exercise of any rights or privileges of membership any member of the Organization

against which preventive or enforcement actions have been taken by the Security Council. The exercise

of the rights and privileges thus suspended may be restored by decision of the Security Council. The

General Assembly should be empowered, upon recommendation of the Security Council, to expel from

the Organization any member of the Organization which persistently violates the principles contained in

the Charter.

4. The General Assembly should elect the non-permanent members of the Security Council and the

members of the Economic and Social Council provided for in Chapter IX. It should be empowered to

elect, upon recommendation of the Security Council, the Secretary-General of the Organization. It

should perform such functions in relation to the election of the judges of the international court of justice

as may be conferred upon it by the statute of the court.

5. The General Assembly should apportion the expenses among the members of the Organization and

should be empowered to approve the budgets of the Organization.

6. The General Assembly should initiate studies and make recommendations for the purpose of

promoting international cooperation in political, economic and social fields and of adjusting situations

likely to impair the general welfare.

7. The General Assembly should make recommendations for the coordination of the policies of

international economic, social, and other specialized agencies brought into relation with the

Organization in accordance with agreements between such agencies and the Organization.

8. The General Assembly should receive and consider annual special reports from the Security Council

and reports from other bodies of the Organization.

Section C. Voting. 1. Each member of the Organization should have one vote in the General Assembly.

2. Important decisions of the General Assembly, including recommendations with respect to the

maintenance of international peace and security; election of members of the Security Council; election

of members of the Economic and Social Council; admission of members, suspension of the exercise of

the rights and privileges of members, and expulsion of members; and budgetary questions, should be

made by a two-thirds majority of those present and voting. On other questions, including the

determination of additional categories of questions to be decided by a two-thirds majority, the decisions

of the General Assembly should be made by a simple majority vote.

1. The General Assembly should meet in regular annual sessions and in such special sessions as

occasion may require.

2. The General Assembly should adopt its own rules of procedure and elect its President for each

session.

3. The General Assembly should be empowered to set up such bodies and agencies as it may deem

necessary for the performance of its functions.

CHAPTER VI: THE SECURITY COUNCIL

Section A. Composition. The Security Council should consist of one representative of each of eleven

members of the Organization. Representatives of the United States of America, the United Kingdom of

Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the Republic of China, and,

in due course, France, should have permanent seats. The General Assembly should elect six states to fill

the non-permanent seats. These six states should be elected for a term of two years, three retiring each

year. They should not be immediately eligible for reelection. In the first election of the non-permanent

members three should be chosen by the General Assembly for one-year terms and three for two-year

terms.

Section B. Principle Functions and Powers. 1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the

Organization, members of the Organization should by the Charter confer on the Security Council

primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security and should agree that in

carrying out these duties under this responsibility it should act on their behalf.

2. In discharging these duties the Security Council should act in accordance with the purposes and

principles of the Organization.

3. The specific powers conferred on the Security Council in order to carry out these duties are laid down

in Chapter VIII.

4. All members of the Organization should obligate themselves to accept the decisions of the Security

Council and to carry them out in accordance with the provisions of the Charter.

5. In order to promote the establishment and maintenance of international peace and security with the

least diversion of the world's human and economic resources for armaments, the Security Council, with

the assistance of the Military Staff Committee referred to in Chapter VIII, Section B, paragraph 9,

should have the responsibility for formulating plans for the establishment of a system of regulation of

armaments for submission to the members of the Organization.

[Section C. Voting. 1. Each member of the Security Council should have one vote.

2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters should be made by an affirmative vote of

seven members.

3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters should be made by an affirmative vote of seven

members including the concurring votes of the permanent members; provided that, in decisions under

Chapter VIII, Section A, and under the second sentence of Paragraph 1 of Chapter VIII, Section C, a

party to a dispute should abstain from voting.]

Section D. Procedure. 1. The Security Council should be so organized as to be able to function

continuously and each state member of the Security Council should be permanently represented at the

headquarters of the Organization. It may hold meetings at such other places as in its judgment may best

facilitate its work. There should be periodic meetings at which each state member of the Security

Council could if it so desired be represented by a member of the government or some other special

representative.

2. The Security Council should be empowered to set up such bodies or agencies as it may deem

necessary for the performance of its functions including regional subcommittees of the Military Staff

Committee.

3. The Security Council should adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its

President.

4. Any member of the Organization should participate in the discussion of any question brought before

the Security Council whenever the Security Council considers that the interests of that member of the

Organization are specially affected.

5. Any member of the Organization not having a seat on the Security Council and any state not a

member of the Organization, if it is a party to a dispute under consideration by the Security Council,

should be invited to participate in the discussion relating to the dispute.

CHAPTER VII: AN INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

1. There should be an international court of justice which should constitute the principal judicial organ

of the Organization.

2. The court should be constituted and should function in accordance with a statute which should be

annexed to and be a part of the Charter of the Organization.

3. The statute of the court of international justice should be either (a) the Statute of the Permanent Court

of International Justice, continued in force with such modifications as may be desirable or (b) a new

statute in the preparation of which the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice should be

used as a basis.

4. All members of the Organization should ipso facto be parties to the statute of the international court

of justice.

5. Conditions under which states not members of the Organization may become parties to the statute of

the international court of justice should be determined in each case by the General Assembly upon

recommendation of the Security Council.

CHAPTER VIII: ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE MAINTENANCE OF INTERNATIONAL

PEACE AND SECURITY INCLUDING PREVENTION AND SUPPRESSION OF

AGGRESSION

Section A. Pacific Settlement of Disputes. 1. The Security Council should be empowered to investigate

any dispute, or any situation which may lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute, in order to

determine whether its continuance is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and

security.

2. Any state, whether member of the Organization or not, may bring any such dispute or situation to the

attention of the General Assembly or of the Security Council.

3. The parties to any dispute the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of

international peace and security should obligate themselves, first of all, to seek a solution by negotiation,

meditation, conciliation, arbitration or judicial settlement, or other peaceful means of their own choice.

The Security Council should call upon the parties to settle their dispute by such means.

4. If, nevertheless, parties to a dispute of the nature referred to in paragraph 3 above fail to settle it by

means indicated in that paragraph, they should obligate themselves to refer it to the Security Council.

The Security Council should in each case decide whether or not the continuance of the particular dispute

is in fact likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, and, accordingly,

whether the Security Council should deal with the dispute, and, if so, whether it should take action under

paragraph 5.

5. The Security Council should be empowered, at any stage of a dispute of the nature referred to in

paragraph 3 above, to recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment.

6. Justiciable disputes should normally be referred to the international court of justice. The Security

Council should be empowered to refer to the court, for advice, legal questions connected with other

disputes.

7. The provisions of paragraph 1 to 6 of Section A should not apply to situations or disputes arising out

of matters which by international law are solely within the domestic jurisdiction of the state concerned.

Section B. Determination of Threats to the Peace or Acts of Aggression and Action With Respect

Thereto. 1. Should the Security Council deem that a failure to settle a dispute in accordance with

procedures indicated in paragraph 3 of Section A, or in accordance with its recommendations made

under paragraph 5 of Section A, constitutes a threat to the maintenance of international peace and

security, it should take any measures necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security

in accordance with the purposes and principles of the Organization.

2. In general the Security Council should determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of

the peace or act of aggression and should make recommendations or decide upon the measures to be

taken to maintain or restore peace and security.

3. The Security Council should be empowered to determine what diplomatic, economic, or other

measures not involving the use of armed force should be employed to give effect to its decisions, and to

call upon members of the Organization to apply such measures. Such measures may include complete or

partial interruption of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio and other means of communication and the

severance of diplomatic and economic relations.

4. Should the Security Council consider such measures to be inadequate, it should be empowered to take

such action by air, naval or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace

and security. Such action may include demonstrations, blockade and other operations by air, sea or land

forces of members of the Organization.

5. In order that all members of the Organization should contribute to the maintenance of international

peace and security, they should undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in

accordance with a special agreement or agreements concluded among themselves, armed forces,

facilities and assistance necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security. Such

agreement or agreements should govern the numbers and types of forces and the nature of the facilities

and assistance to be provided. The special agreement or agreements should be negotiated as soon as

possible and should in each case be subject to approval by the Security Council and to ratification by the

signatory states in accordance with their constitutional processes.

6. In order to enable urgent military measures to be taken by the Organization there should be held

immediately available by the members of the Organization national air force contingents for combined

international enforcement action. The strength and degree of readiness of these contingents and plans for

their combined action should be determined by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military

Staff Committee within the limits laid down in the special agreement or agreements referred to in

paragraph 5 above.

7. The action required to carry out the decisions of the Security Council for the maintenance of

international peace and security should be taken by all the members of the Organization in cooperation

or by some of them as the Security Council may determine. This undertaking should be carried out by

the members of the Organization by their own action and through action of the appropriate specialized

organizations and agencies of which they are members.

8. Plans for the application of armed force should be made by the Security Council with the assistance of

the Military Staff Committee referred to in paragraph 9 below.

9. There should be established a Military Staff Committee the functions of which should be to advise

and assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Council's military requirements

for the maintenance of international peace and security, to the employment and command of forces at its

disposal, to the regulation of armaments, and to possible disarmament. It should be responsible under the

Security Council for the strategic direction of any armed forces placed at the disposal of the Security

Council. The Committee should be composed of the Chiefs of Staff of the permanent members of the

Security Council or their representatives. Any member of the Organization not permanently represented

on the Committee should be invited by the Committee to be associated with it when the efficient

discharge of the Committee's responsibilities requires that such a state should participate in its work.

Questions of command of forces should be worked out subsequently.

10. The members of the Organization should join in affording mutual assistance in carrying out the

measures decided upon by the Security Council.

11. Any state, whether a member of the Organization or not, which finds itself confronted with special

economic problems arising from the carrying out of measures which have been decided upon by the

Security Council should have the right to consult the Security Council in regard to a solution of those

problems.

Section C. Regional Arrangements. 1. Nothing in the Charter should preclude the existence of regional

arrangements or agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of international

peace and security as are appropriate for regional action, provided such arrangements or agencies and

their activities are consistent with the purposes and principles of the Organization. The Security Council

should encourage settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional

agencies, either on the initiative of the states concerned or by reference from the Security Council.

2. The Security Council should, where appropriate, utilize such arrangements or agencies for

enforcement action under its authority, but no enforcement action should be taken under regional

arrangements or by regional agencies without the authorization of the Security Council.

3. The Security Council should at all times be kept fully informed of activities undertaken or in

contemplation under regional arrangements or by regional agencies for the maintenance of international

peace and security.

CHAPTER IX: ARRANGEMENTS FOR INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL

COOPERATION

Section A. Purpose and Relationships. 1. With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and well-

being which are necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations, the Organization should

facilitate solutions of international economic, social and other humanitarian problems and promote

respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Responsibility for the discharge of this function

should be vested in the General Assembly and, under the authority of the General Assembly, in an

Economic and Social Council.

2. The various specialized economic, social and other organizations and agencies would have

responsibilities in their respective fields as defined in their statutes. Each such organization or agency

should be brought into relationship with the Organization on terms to be determined by agreement

between the Economic and Social Council and the appropriate authorities of the specialized organization

or agency, subject to approval by the General Assembly.

Section B. Composition and Voting. The Economic and Social Council should consist of representatives

of eighteen members of the Organization. The states to be represented for this purpose should be elected

by the General Assembly for terms of three years. Each such state should have one representative, who

should have one vote. Decisions of the Economic and Social Council should be taken by simple majority

vote of those present and voting.

Section C. Functions and Powers of the Economic and Social Council. 1. The Economic and Social

Council should be empowered:

a. to carry out, within the scope of its functions, recommendations of the General Assembly;

b. to make recommendations, on its own initiative, with respect to international economic, social and

other humanitarian matters;

c. to receive and consider reports from the economic, social and other organizations or agencies brought

into relationship with the Organization, and to coordinate their activities through consultations with, and

recommendations to, such organizations or agencies;

d. to examine the administrative budgets of such specialized organizations or agencies with a view to

making recommendations to the organizations or agencies concerned;

e. to enable the Secretary-General to provide information to the Security Council;

f. to assist the Security Council upon its request; and

g. to perform such other functions within the general scope of its competence as may be assigned to it by

the General Assembly.

Section D. Organization and Procedure. 1. The Economic and Social Council should set up an

economic commission, a social commission, and such other commissions as may be required. These

commissions should consist of experts. There should be a permanent staff which should constitute a part

of the Secretariat of the Organization.

2. The Economic and Social Council should make suitable arrangements for representatives of the

specialized organizations or agencies to participate without vote in its deliberations and in those of the

commissions established by it.

3. The Economic and Social Council should adopt its own rules of procedure and the method of

selecting its President.

CHAPTER X: THE SECRETARIAT

1. There should be a Secretariat comprising a Secretary-General and such staff as may be required. The

Secretary-General should be the chief administrative officer of the Organization. He should be elected

by the General Assembly, on recommendation of the Security Council, for such term and under

conditions as are specified in the Charter.

2. The Secretary-General should act in that capacity in all meetings of the General Assembly, of the

Security Council, and of the Economic and Social Council and should make an annual report to the

General Assembly on the work of the Organization.

3. The Secretary-General should have the right to bring to the attention of the Security Council any

matter which in his opinion may threaten international peace and security.

CHAPTER XI: AMENDMENTS

Amendments should come into force for all members of the Organization, when they have been adopted

by a vote of two-thirds of the members of the General Assembly and ratified in accordance with their

respective constitutional processes by the members of the Organization having permanent membership

on the Security Council and by a majority of the other members of the Organization.

CHAPTER XII: TRANSITIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

1. Pending the coming into force of the special agreement or agreements referred to in Chapter VIII,

Section B, paragraph 5, and in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 5 of the Four-Nation

Declaration, signed at Moscow, October 30, 1943, the states parties to that Declaration should consult

with one another and as occasion arises with other members of the Organization with a view to such

joint action on behalf of the Organization as may be necessary for the purpose of maintaining

international peace and security.

2. No provision of the Charter should preclude action taken or authorized in relation to enemy states as a

result of the present war by the Governments having responsibility for such action.

NOTE

In addition to the question of voting procedure in the Security Council referred to in Chapter VI, several

other questions are still under consideration.

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