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Training and Development Short-course and E-learning programs:

a foundation for Human Capital

J.O. “Bear” WilsonDoctoral Student

Educational Administration and Human Resource Development College of Education and Human Development

MS 4226Texas A&M University

College Station, Texas [email protected]

Stream 8Working Paper

mailto:[email protected]

Training and Development Short-course and E-learning Programs: a foundation for Human Capital

Abstract

Human capital is an economic based theory of human resource development (HRD). Training and Development (T&D) theories are foundations of HRD. T&D programs are instrumental in human capital maximization. The purpose of this paper is to promote human capital through T&D short-course and E-learning programs to maximize individual growth. Further pursuing this thought will support T&D programs are a foundation in human capital. Effective T&D programs increase job productivity and boost morale, the most important investment organizations can make. Developing human capital improves performance, knowledge, skills and values, which idealistically improves organizations.

Keywords: Human Capital; Training and Development; Adult EducationIntroduction:

In the field of Human Resource Development (HRD), researchers have examined the benefits of using an individual’s knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA’s) as a vehicle to maximize an individual’s capital. Yang (2011) stated conventional HRD literature regards psychology, economics, and system theory as founding pillars of the field. The perpetual merry-go-around circling HRD include organization, process and individual performance as cornerstones. Human capital theory focuses on increasing future productivity by foregoing present earning opportunities and investing in learning through training and education for future economic benefits (Dobbs et al, 2008). Similar to Human Capital, HRD seeks optimal individual performance, in addition to competitive organizational advantage. The transformation of society travels through higher education as an individual develops new credentials to emerge with increased core competencies; simultaneously a cornerstone of the workplace adapts with improved functions from competent workers (Baker, 2009). As the landscape of the workforce emerges with a flooding of diplomas, established employees exhibit an increase of pressure on productivity (Salas & Canon-Bowers, 2001; Baker, 2009). Even before this shift, individuals recognized unique intangibles within, but organizations were reluctant to provide advancement through training and development programs. In fact, organizations remained reluctant to advance the workers out of apprehension, that the worker with an increased level of human capital gained leverage on the job market. Since technological changes emerged, the competitive market of the workplace relies on advanced training and development of the worker. Organizations forecast influenced individuals to improve their knowledge, skills and abilities; while self-starter individuals take advantage of T&D programs to increase Human capital; in return those advancements engage counterparts to close the competitive gap, which allow individuals an opportunity to contribute to the organization (Chang and Chen, 2011). In order to jockey for optimal position in the market place, organizations embarked on strategic planning to ensure curriculum coincided with the competitive market place, new learning technologies, and generational gaps (Salas & Canon-Bowers, 2001). Successful training and development cultivate human capital. Human Capital Theory

Adam Smith argued that time, finance and energy expended towards a formal education, if compared to a mechanized appliance, with consumption and investment, equates to the entire education (Baptiste, 2001). Karl Marx described that workers sell


the potential to produce at an elevated level rather than the particular worker (Baptiste, 2001). Smith and Marx were considered as classical human capital theorist. The origins of Human Capital were first described it as the choices an individual makes with education and training (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, 2008). Economist G.S. Becker developed modern human capital theory (also known as neoclassical human capital theory); he tested the various influences of human capital, including mental and physical health, transfer of intangibles, and formal education as well as on the job training (Baker, 2009). Economist tagged abstract variables of capital as Neocapital, the new term changed the landscape of capital theories (Strorberg, 2002). “However, neocapital theory building is still in its infancy” (Storberg, p 469). Storberg stated,

The classical definition of capital included materials, capital, and labor. Today’s capital (e.g., neocapital) has expanded its scope to include (a) knowledge management and information technology (Blair & Kochan, 2000; Dess&Picken, 2000; Edvinsson&Malone, 1997), (b) structure (Fitzenz & Phillips, 1998), (c) social networks and resources embedded in the networks (Cohen & Prusak, 2001a, 2001b; Fernandez, Castilla, & Moore, 2000; Lin, 2001), (d) information flow (Edvinsson&Malone, 1997), and (e) the abilities, skills, and knowledge of the workers themselves (Aliaga, 2001; Fitz-enz & Phillips, 1998; Hitt, Bierman, Shimizu, & Kochhar, 2001; Kaplan & Norton, 1996, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c) (p. 469)

Storberg found that Becker researched the industrious forces that determine an individual’s motivation to develop progressive capabilities, forces relating to accumulative of KSA’s (2009). Becker’s third book (1993) on human capital focused on theories and experiments in reference to education (Storberg 2009). Soon, Human Capital expanded to the justification of an individual’s sacrifice of income in reference to the expense of education (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, 2008). Theorists define human capital as expenditure in learning, experience (Sturman, Walsh & Cheramine, 2008), and the collective advantage of general, specific, and technical skills (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, 2008; Baker, 2009; Storberg, 2009) for gains in future earnings. Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, (2008) argued that the cornerstone of human capital is the difference in learned organizational training and formal education. Dobbs, Sun & Roberts (2008) wrote “… the essence of human capital theory is that people invest in themselves according to their own self-interest, for the sake of future gains in lifetime earnings” (p. 790). Harris (2000) argued that the human capital pitfall arrives at the individual’s unique KSA’s; these exclusive resources come with consequences such as limiting market value, job mobility ceiling (Sturman, Walsh & Cheramie 2008), and contractual agreement. Storberg (2002) also found that human capital would not flourish without social capital. The social capital dimension adds a connection (trade memberships, volunteer obligations and alumni organizations) for future benefits (increased marketability, parity with pay and tangible rewards) to human capital. Nan Lin wrote “Unlike human capital, which represents investment in training and other programs of activities to acquire skills, knowledge, and certifications, social capital is an investment in social relationships through which resources of other actors can be accessed and borrowed” (cited in Storberg, 2002). If human capital theory belongs to economics and thus it is covered in one of the HRD pillars. Then individual and organizational performance improvements belong to adult learning and economics,


mutually, and then it is imperative to examine how training and development provide a foundation for human capital. Unfortunately, traditional economics fails to recognize the theories and concepts of adult learning that evolved outside of the discipline. Researchers found that adult education can be defined as the intentional process to enhance learning within those who define themselves as adults regardless of generation, social status, or self-perception.

Social exchange theory suggests that individuals continuously compare the cost benefit analysis with training and development opportunities to career advancement and job security. Organizations provide a specialized training or opportunity for career development to individuals; in return individuals commit and perform at increased levels.

Developing theories expand the quest to appreciate KSA’s from a cultural scene to a global front (Storberg, 2002). It is important to note that emerging social media sites introduce the individual to the unprotected world of Internet searches and the temptation to falsely inflate education, experience and competences could lead to an unforgiving negative impact.

In human capital theory, researchers aim to connect the long-term sacrifice of training and development to the accumulative growth of a long-term business investment (Harris, 2000). “Because investment and growth are two concepts integrally connected with the historical definition of capital, changes in these concepts will have consequences for any type of capital…” (Storberg, p. 470). Baptiste (2001) wrote that human capitalist sought out to maximize financial security and achieve paramount societal status at the expense of organizations. Baptiste also found,

One of the greatest challenges facing any business today is the gap between its balance sheet and its market valuation. This gap, representing the bulk of a company’s true value, consists of indirect assets—organizational knowledge, customer satisfaction, product innovation, employee morale, patents, and trademarks—that never appear in the financial reports. (Edvinsson & Malone, 1997, p. 1)

In contrast, researchers recognized the importance of comparing an organizations’ return on investment (ROI) and its market value. Some literature suggest that these over-achievers known as human capitalist, view colleagues and employers as stepping-stones for future advancement. At the same time, researchers viewed empirical analysis comparing human capital and an organizations market value (Storberg, 2002). Literature struggles to define the vehicle supporting the relationship between individual competencies and organizational performance (Ployhart & Moliterno, 2011). Consequently, similar research discovered that it is not possible for organizational capital to succeed without one key component, human capital. Without individual participation, machine performance, external relationships, and professional management components do not exist (Harris, 2000); and the value of these components, define structural capital. It is important to recognize, there are two pillars of intellectual capital: human capital and structural capital. Storberg (2002) also found that individuals KSA’s coupled with organizational performance does not equate to intellectual property of the organization.

Individual characteristics play a pivotal role in improving human capital. Researchers argue to define individuals characteristics; Wang and Wang (2004, p. 335)


define those characteristics as “…age, gender, educational background, ethnic group and in some cases martial status…” while Grossman and Salas (2011, p. 106) wrote “…cognitive ability, self-efficacy, motivation and perceived utility.” Determining the optimal alignment within an individual characteristics influence human capital performance. Organizational environment contribute a significant impact to successfully increase human capital. Training and development effectiveness, transferability, competitiveness, management, and supervisor support are critical components of support. Wang and Wang (2004, p. 340) wrote that “Organization context, organization policies and regulations, and work content…” create the necessary social support to manifest the greatest ability to increase human capital. When pairing an employee to the right position, what evidence proves that the employee is the prefect fit for the needs of the organization following the hire date (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, 2008)? Observing a potential employee performance and aptitude is not realistic, although credentials are, and with an intelligible search of the Internet the desired information can be captured (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, 2008).

TrainingResearchers found that organization sponsored training remains a desired

benefit for future employees. More importantly, research discovered a measure possessed by loyal employees was directly connected to an organizations’ willing to invest in advanced training. Pillars of HRD contain experience and training (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, 2008); the global market recognizes the desire to train skilled workers with advanced skill training (Moran & Starling, 2005), as a growing need to remain competitive. Training is defined as a road map to improve KSA’s in conjunction with past performance, which resulted in changed job behavior (Mathieu, Tannenbaum & Salas, 1992), and future performance (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Moran & Starling, 2005). The psychology of training focuses on realigning cognitive and behavioral transformations while improving specific competencies for job performance (Grossman & Salas, 2011). The author defines training as a short-term instruction designed to train a specific discipline or specialty.

Mathieu, Tannenbaum & Salas (1992), found a direct correlation between trainee motivation and training effectiveness. Attention has been focused on the Return-on-investment of training programs in regard to optimizing the transfer of essential learning (Grossman & Salas, 2011). Training increases core competencies, improves organizational atmosphere, and increases accuracy to significantly enhance structural capital (Mathieu, Tannanbaum & Salas, 1992; Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001; Grossman & Salas, 2011). Along with enhancing structural capital, training entices skilled workers to enhance their own human capital. At the same time, this revolutionary event takes place; formal education raises its credentials by transforming the skilled worker. This educational change reconstitutes the skilled workplace to improve training curriculum.

In contrast, understanding training course completion, does not guarantee improvement with participant competencies. Literature indicates that a low percentage of training transfers to the trainee’s job, recognizing transferability issues between training and outcome. There is abundance of evidence suggesting trainee motivation (Mathieu, Tannenbaum & Salas, 1992), adult learning (Wang & Wang, 2004), and


trainee expectancy correlate to factors that influence transferability (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001). Research suggests trainee participation in writing training curriculum to ensure richness and significance (Turnbull 2002); delayed measurement in transfer of training (Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 2001); linking social, coworker and management influences to measurement of transfer (Mathieu, Tannenbaum & Salas, 1992). Adult education theories provide training programs suggestions to improve transfer of curriculum to the trainee. Recent research aims at bridging the transferability gap between training and job performance. Grossman and Salas (2011) draw a direct correlation between training inputs and transferring competencies directly and indirectly to training outputs. In conclusion, the target audience needs representation while training needs analyses develops and delay measurement of transfer to achieve desired outcome.

Training and developmentBenchmarks set by organizations as achievement levels for training and

development (T&D), allow the trainee to rate desired outcomes while creating commonality (Moran & Sterling, 2005). Progressive (T&D) programs continually monitor competitor’s advancement, while adjusting future competencies to remain at the “tip-of-the-spear” with competition.

Training and Development programs and technology has evolved over the past ten years; technology changes at a daily pace, training and Development programs change at the cost of reduced budgets and outsourcing. Therefor, current T&D programs are transforming delivery methods to E-Learning based environments. Training and development programs transforming to E-learning based environment requires building a strategy that optimizes technology along with capitalizing to improve organizational culture. Research has shown that academia and individuals acknowledged the change to E-learning environments and support-improved developments. Organizational based E-learning should include non-learning improvement strategies such as remote location compatibility, the correct tools and support, incentives, motivation, mentoring and coaching. The relationship between T&D and technology is much studied and there are significant conceptual and empirical literatures on the connection within academia. Acknowledging the patterns for learning, retention, maintenance of new competencies, organizations should focus on strategies for successful e-learning transfer. Organizations and individuals face multiple challenges while transitioning to e-learning based programs. Generational differences suggest that motivation has emerged as a deterrent to E-learning training. Older generations do not believe nor feel comfortable with E-learning and therefor lack the motivation to change. In contrast, younger generations posses a higher job-involvement and higher desire to succeed which lead to an increased motivation to learn. Grossman and Salas (2011) wrote, “…motivation to learn might influence trainees’ performance in the instructional environment, yet motivation to transfer is more likely to trigger the proactive behaviors necessary for actual transfer (p.110).” As individuals and organizations transition to E-learning for increasing human capital, an increased level of awareness to communicating the significance of, and importance to, utilizing training and development efforts. Transitioning to E-learning based training and development, individuals and organizations should continually monitor the adaptability and succession


of the training program. Monitoring those competencies builds strong and creditable relationships.

Emerging technology allows T&D programs to create surreal authentic training environments that simulate realistic scenarios using e-learning settings. Those environments provide safe controlled settings while trainers control realistic scenarios to enhance transfer of competencies. Realistic scenarios support active learning (Grossman & Salas, 2011), and transfer targeted behavior in the learning environment (Wang & Wang, 2004).

Simultaneously, organizations continually align future goals (Moran & Starling, 2005) to face diversity issues, technological changes and educating across generational gaps. Competitive markets generate a pursuit for organizations to compete at the highest level; training and development allow these forces to achieve (Moran & Starling, 2005). This catalyst provides sufficient data to an organization that (T&D) is a foundation and will prosper. Increased productivity requires individual buy-in, individual buy-in requires the individual equipped with the proper skills and competencies. Therefor training and development provide a foundation to human capital. Evidence suggests that reactive (T&D) programs certainly allow the dark shadows of a possible detrimental trigger event to lurk. Proactive (T&D) principles minimize risks and promote a positive organization environment.

The potential to improve individual’s human capital through an organizations training and development programs exist through a non-traditional delivery method. Short course T&D provides individual and organizations the opportunity to maximize contextual learning and the flexibility to meet the competitive advantage. Training &Development programs embrace short course programs taught by organizational leadership and extend management development taught by front-line managers.

Adapting to short-course customization construct, the organization or individual can strategically decide the context level optimization for competitive advantage. Collaborative and coordinated learning environments provide a sustainable training and development strategy. Ignoring short-course customization may lead to discounting validity within T&D and lack of confidence employee achievement. The performance of individuals and organizations in a competitive environment will be compared on the basis of T&D transferability. These notations of performance and the competitive advantage are closely related to HRD. The organization climate on training and development stimulate or deflate the social context for individual learning. Therefor, training and developing an individual to succeed at the next level improves human capital and organizational change. The future of training and development supports human capital with foundations for success.

DevelopmentThe term development refers to the strategic long-term education of an individual

or organization. Baker (2009) wrote “the power of education as an institution to not only train and allocate students, but also to transform our understanding and expectations for peoples’ capabilities, the nature of work, and even what is usable knowledge for economic value” (p. 166). Organizations forecast future employees’ level of productive output with formal education. Minimum education and training standards for employers set an effortless divider for future employees. Kessels & Poell (2004) noted that when


individuals become active participates in organizational improvement, that ownership allowed them to take on more responsibility. Baptiste (2001) found that organizations use formal education as a screening process to ensure potential employees innate ability to learn. Joel Spring (1988) “…claims it is a rather expensive societal sorting machine telling employers which students have the ability and attitude to work” (cited in Baker, 2009). Motivation to learn provides an individual with a self-discovery of competencies, and changed behavior towards acceptance of training (Mathieu, Tannenbaum & Salas, 1992). Employee development improves the knowledge, skills and abilities through education, in turn prevents erosion of the organization (Moran & Starling, 2005). Formal education travels beyond training individuals, it shapes cultures. Society contains clearly defined lines between classes, while researchers noticed distinct separation between lower social-economic class and middle social-economic class, considerable evidence indicates formal education impacted the separation. Furthermore, while this was evolving, education was transforming the workplace.

In contrast, researchers noticed significant difference between generations with self-motivation to learn (Little, 2003). For example, generation Xer’s are self-motivators and independent problem-solvers, but search for results with instant gratification. Generation Yer’s are curious and self-servant, previous generations view them as lazy and easy to distract as a result of technology changes. Practitioner’s suggest one negatively affect to participating in improving professional development requires individual commitment to relocation within the organization. T&D professionals face new challenges accompanying cross-generational training.

Mathieu, Tannaenbaum & Salas (1992) noticed an increased motivation to learn provided the trainee benefitted from direct and indirect professional development. Trainees who had increased opportunities to train emerged with increased competences and measurement results, compared to less fortunate trainees (Mathieu, Tannenbaum & Salas, 1992). Trainees from a lower social-economic background had a lower motivation to learn (Baptiste, 2001; Little, 2003), in contrast, trainees from affluent environment carried a higher motivation to learn (Mathieu, Tannenbaum & Salas, 1992).

Baker (2009) found that flood of diplomas in the workplace “…increasingly in larger formal organizations, there were sustained shifts towards jobs with more managerial, communicative components, that yielded a spread of a kind of mass professionalization of work” (p 166). Baker (2009) went to argue that formal education does not guarantee increased worker performance instead it provides a foot in the door. Employers recognize education represents a trainee’s willingness to train although the trainee is over-educated for the workplace (Baker, 2009).

Does a formal education equate to a guaranteed job, higher performance or to job security? Researchers found that today’s graduate demonstrate a sense of entitlement upon graduation. Individuals expect to immediately enter the workplace in middle management and quickly receive a promotion. This arrogant behavior transforms the individual to be adaptive and creative.

Training and Developments investment with Human Capital“The implication of human capital theory for HRD research and practice is

obvious” (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, p 798). Competitive advantage and human capital strongly influence HRD, while adult education has been driven by extremes and


humanism (Yang, 2011). Organizations rely on HRD practitioners to increase performance (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, 2008), through training and development (McLean et al., 2008), and organizational development (Swanson, 2001). “Human Capitalist consider skills to be combinations of general and specific” (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, p 795). Literature defined general skills as long-term education and development, as well as specific skills as short-term training (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, 2008). Harris (2000) correlates human capital to intellectual capital through organizational T&D:

It will become significantly more important in the years ahead to recognize the commitment of individuals to an organization, as well as the organization’s need to create an environment in which employees would be willing to stay. Organizations will need to create an intellectual capital environment where the transmission of knowledge takes place throughout the structure, or continue to lose important individual knowledge that has been developed through the length of service. (p. 25)

Researchers have argued that general skills training should be paid for by the organization because of the costly process to verify the accuracy and quality of training received from an unconfirmed source or the KSA’s of a perspective employee. Human capitalist Gary Becker and Theodore Schultz, “…believe education is directly and inseparably tied to work through the ability of individuals to invest in their own productivity through skill acquisition from either formal education or on-the-job training“ (citied in Baker, 2000). Schultz argued, “…that much of what is commonly labeled consumption is really human capital investment” (cited in Baptiste, 2001). More importantly, individuals invest directly into intangible resources (Struman, Walsh & Cheramine, 2008), sacrifice present income to invest in future outcomes (Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, 2008), while organizations seek measures to enhance training and development (Baptiste, 2001). Specialized training in organizational-specific skills has little or no value to other organizations, and hence individuals receiving organizational-specific training do not gain labor market value (Pendleton and Robinson, 2011). Since the benefits of organization-specific training have usually been shared with individuals through increased wages, desired relocation of assignment, and career benefits, individuals should feel secure.

Leading global economies invest in formal education and developing worker competencies’ (Baptiste, 2001). These economies acknowledge investing in the most valuable resource, humans’ (Baptist, 2001); then provide direction with training and development (Moran & Starling, 2005); with an understanding that an educated workforce aligned with strategic goals achieve economic goals (Little, 2003). Organizations invest in human capital (via MBA, MS in finance, etc) with the intention to cultivate them with organizational specific with relocation to organization headquarters. Does a formal education equate to economic success? Dobbs, Sun & Roberts (2008) wrote, “The disagreement between the two is not on whether education and training can add value to an individual, but on the fundamental role it plays in interpreting economic decision making by different economic agents.” Does a formal education equate to a higher performance in the workplace? Developing human capital facilitate worker partnerships between individuals and the organization (Moats & McLean, 2009), in addition to individuals and economic achievement (Moran & Starling, 2005). Baker


(2009) found a correlation between improved individual competences and emerging impoverished global economics. This transformation is a direct result of a society investing education.

Currently, there is an increased demand for E-learning in relation to improving human capital. Internal labor markets, internal training departments as well as individual competitiveness demand the flexibility e-learning offers. It is apparent that technology-mediated E-learning are increasing to meet the demanding challenge to improve human capital.

Why is T&D important to Human Capital? T&D prepare the employee to effectively and efficiently produce at the highest level. Since operational achievement relies on the organizational culture, the promotion of T&D encourages the organizational culture to perform at the highest level possible, in turn, propels human capital fundamentals in the employees. Individuals motivation to attend a training class or serious of development classes are influenced by monetary and self-efficacy rewards gained. Not surprising, the higher the risk (sacrificing time and tuition payments), the higher the return (increase in pay). Organizations and workers should commit to maximize the workplace and workers while competing in the emerging market (Moran & Starling, 2005). Theorists argue that neither achieving a formal education nor completing T&D programs guarantees transferability with the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities to perform a task. Researchers assume that a relationship between individual competencies and organizational performance exists, but theory lacks sufficient support connecting the two (Ployhart & Moliterno, 2011). Evidence suggest that for transfer to occur, individuals must adapt to learning, accept performance change and desire to change outcomes (Grossman & Salas, 2011). Adult learning theories could improve transfer of competences. Researchers believe that optimal setting for adult learning, and training and development is the workplace (Yang, 2001). Increased performance validates transfer in training, and increased responsibilities enhance personnel value, in turn generate higher human capital. Individuals avoid training and development assuming an unsuccessful results and lack of desire to change. In contrast, individuals seeking opportunities to capitalize in training and development programs pose a higher level of assurance that an increase of knowledge, skills and abilities equal greater benefits. Organizations, vehicles, machines, relationships and innovation do not transform without humans in control.

What additional value is associated with the transfer of T&D while improving human capital? Jeff Pfeffer (1995) defined “…a number of practices that successful organizations apply in developing their employees, such as job security, selective recruiting, knowledge sharing, cross-utilization and cross training, wages, and incentive pay” (cited in Dobbs, Sun & Roberts, 2008). Likely candidates for promotion will emerge, improvement for future programs, identify top performers, and develop a new succession model. Emerging goals and improved organizational objects create new challenges. Storberg (2002) wrote,

Rather than focusing on the traditional financial measures reported on what happened last period, the balanced scorecard provided a balanced set of measures including external measures (operating income) and internal measures (new product development). In addition, Robert Kaplan & David Norton (1998b) found, “This balanced set of measures both


reveals the trade-offs managers have already made among performance measures and encourages them to achieve their goals in the future without making trade-offs among key success factors” (cited in Storberg, 2002).Grossman and Salas (2011) stated that the strongest predictor of training

transferability was individual cognitive ability. The authors reported individuals who possessed a higher cognitive ability successfully learned, developed and cultivated trained competencies. Organizations can filter individuals with higher cognitive ability for future T&D proved to ensure improved success. Research has shown that individuals with higher self-efficacy (self-confidence) will participate and transfer new competencies.Conclusion

In conclusion, T&D programs are in fact a foundation for human capital. Organizations reinforce funding T&D programs with the desire to remain competitive in the workplace and in the work market. Identifying T&D transferability addresses the need to visit adult learning techniques. Research provided that formal education includes KSA’s to transform the workplace. In addition, formal education acts as a sorter between individuals willing to train and those not so willing to train. Motivated individuals desire economic freedom and organizational advancement, therefor individual invest in themselves to improve their chances of achieving those goals. Proactive organizations desiring market place competitive advantage, value human capital and support training and development programs to improve future competencies. Individuals that sacrifice to invest in themselves, to increase KSA’s and improve performance outcomes, ultimately increase their marketability. Acknowledging that sacrifice includes a long road ahead, while the advantages out weight the disadvantages. Advantages similar to, organizational commitment to improving human capital requires an individual commitment to global relocation. Also, while attention remains focused on competitive advantage, high regard should focus on maintenance of trained competencies (Grossman & Salas, 2011). Sound e-learning environments combined with adult-learning theories and proper instructional design principals provide the individual with positive support to facilitate increased KSA’s. Organizations and individuals should seek guidance developing or choosing an e-learning training and developing program to maximize human capital. Informed practitioners may provide valuable strategies to improve human capital while embracing short-course training and development approach.

Suggestions for further research include training and development performance in skilled jobs with labor union presence. Given the flood of formal education and economic adversities, the impact of improved T&D programs may dramatically change the landscape. These impacts include improve social skills, improved technical skills, career advancement and organizational development. Strategies for both labor unions and organizations need to be explored, compared, and tested. Comparative studies linking skilled jobs with labor union presence and monetary rewards post education completion would be impactful. Continued research on T&D programs supporting human capital will emphasize the growth of this topic. Adult learning theory and transfer interventions can increase success rates to T&D programs. As Harris (2000) argued, “In summary, human capital refers to the unique values each individual possesses,


which are considered assets to an organization. Ultimately, the knowledge contained within an organization becomes that organization’s competitive advantage” (p 25).


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