Chapter 18: The West on the Eve of a New World Order

Critical Thinking: In what ways were the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the 17th century English revolutions alike? IN what ways were they different?

The French Revolution: demolished the institutions of the old regime and established a new order based on individual rights, representative institutions, and a concept of loyalty to the nation, rather than the monarch

Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: An Intellectual Revolution in the West

Scientific Revolution: effected mainly the elites

18th century- expanded to more of population through Enlightenment

The Scientific Revolution overturned ideas that had been in place

since the Middle Ages

Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy

Geocentric Theory- dominant theory of the Catholic Church…Ptolemaic Model

Nicolaus Copernicus- Polish-mathematician…heliocentric theory…Sun as center of universe..planets in circular orbits

Johannes Kepler: German mathematician and astronomer…orbits were elliptical rather than circular

Galileo Galilei: used a telescope to prove the heliocentric theory…published The Starry Messenger, condemned by Catholic Church and forced to recant

Isaac Newton: wrote Principia…defined laws of motion…gravity…World-machine concept

Toward a New Earth: Descartes and Rationalism

Rene Descartes: it is necessary to doubt as far as possible all things…proof of existence? “ I think, therefore, I am”

Cartesian Dualism: absolute dualism between mind and matter…using mind or human reason and its best instrument, math, humans can understand the material world because it is pure mechanism, a machine that is governed by its own physical laws because it was created by God- the great geometrician

Rationalism

Europe, China, and Scientific Revolutions Not sure why the sci rev occurred in

Europe, and not in China

Background to Enlightenment Enlightenment: movement of intellectuals

who were impressed with accomplishments of Sci Rev

REASON- scientific method to life John Locke: argued every person was

born with a tabula rasa (blank mind)…people were molded by their

environment…Two Treatises on Government…natural rights- life, liberty, property

The Philosophes and their Ideas Philosophes: literary people and social

reformerso PARIS

Apply reason to everything

Montesquieu Charles de Secondat, the Baron of

Montesquieu…The Spirit of the Laws (1748)

Comparative study of govt…liked Great Britain

Separation of Powers: power should be a check to power

Used extensively in US Constitution

Voltaire Francois-Marie Arouet/ Voltaire Prolific author Ideal of religious toleration “Crush the infamous thing!”

Deism: build on Newtonian world-machine…implied the existence of a mechanic (God) who had created the universe…like a clock

Diderot believed Christianity was “absurd” Encyclopedia: 28 volumes

Toward a New “Science of Man” SOCIAL SCIENCES! Adam Smith- (1723-1790): founder of

economics…individuals should be free to pursue economic self-interest…state should not interfere…laissez-faire (leave it alone)…according to Smith, government only had 3 basic functions: protect society from invasion, defend its citizens from injustice, and keep up certain public works…consumer as “invisible hand”

The Later Enlightenment Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): 2

major works: Discourse on the Inequality of Mankind and The Social Contract…

entire society to be governed by its general will…Book Emile was about education of a young boy- in woods “commune with nature”…let child dictate their education according to what they were interested in…did not see gender equality

The “Woman Question” in the Enlightenment For centuries, male intellectuals claimed

the nature of women made them inferior to men and made male dominance of women necessary and right

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) Feminist, Vindication of the Rights of Women…arguing the hypocrisy of enlightenment double standards…why should women “obey” men, when it made them like a slave? Also, the Enlightenment was based on ideal of reason innate in ALL human beingso “Would men but generously snap our

chains, and be content with rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience, they would find us more

observant daughters, more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, and more reasonable mothers- in a word, better citizens. We should then love them with true affection, because we should learn to respect ourselves; and the peace of mind of a worthy man would not be interrupted by the idle vanity of his wife…”

Culture in an Enlightened Age Baroque: power, grandeur, and

movement Rococo Art- grace, charm, and gentle

action…follow wandering lines of natural objects…highly secular

Ex: Antoine Watteau- lyrical views of aristocratic life…upper-class pleasure and joy

Ex: Versailles-combo of Rococo Art with Baroque Architecture

Famous architect- Johann Balthasar Neumann- Vierzehnheiligen

High Culture High Culture- literary and artistic culture

of the educated and wealthy ruling classes, popular culture- written and unwritten culture of the masses, most of which has traditionally been passed down orally.

Increase in written word, higher rate of literacy…ex: magazines and newspapers

Popular Culture Distinguishing characteristic: collective

nature Festivals

Economic Changes and the Social Order 18th century in Europe witnessed the

beginning of economic changes that ultimately had a strong impact on the rest of the world

New Economic Patterns Europe’s population began to grow

around 1750, and continued to increase steadily

Falling death rate…disappearance of bubonic plague, and improved diet…more plentiful food and better transportation of food supplies

“little ice age” dissipated cultivation of new vegetables: Potato and

Maize “Putting-Out”/ “Cottage Industry” for

textile production…early capitalism True global economy: patterns of trade

that locked Europe, Africa, the East and the Americas

Spain, Portugal, and the Dutch Republic became overshadowed by France and England in the 18th century

European Society in the Eighteenth Century Society still divided into the traditional

orders or estates determined by heredity Peasantry- 85% of Europe’s population Serfdom continued in Eastern Germany,

Eastern Europe, and Russia…peasants elsewhere were largely free

Nobles- 2-3% of European Population- had dominating role…tax exempt

Patrician oligarchies in the cities

Colonial Empires and Revolution in the Americas

Portugal continued to profit from Brazil Spain’s importance as a commercial

power declined in 17th century…drop in output of the silver mines and poverty of the Spanish monarchy

Rivals- Dutch, English, and French in Western Hemisphere

The West Indies British: Barbados, Jamaica, Bermuda…

French: Saint-Dominque, Guadeloupe, Martinique…plantations with African slaves…tobacco, cotton, coffee, sugar

Sugar Factories- large output, about 150,000 tons of sugar/year…high death rate of slaves…Saint-Dominique- first successful slave uprising in 1793

British North America

Spain had claimed all of North America, but largely ignored…”prescription without possession availeth nothing.”

1609- Henry Hudson “discovered” Hudson Bay/River for Dutch 1609…1664- English seized colony of New Netherland and renamed it New York

Jamestown- 1607-first permanent English Colony…settlers barely survived

Massachusetts Bay Colony…religious freedom for Puritans (Calvinists)

British North America- 13 colonies Part of mercantilism- colonies served two

main purposes- provide raw materials for the mother country, and a market for the mother country’s manufactured goods

French North America French in North America- 1534: Jacques

Cartier “discovered” Saint-Lawrence River and claimed Canada…Samuel de Champlain settled Quebec 1608

Canada run autocratically as a vast trading area…furs, leather fish, and

timber…thinly populated by French-Canadians

French lose Seven Year’s War (French and Indian War) and surrender Canadian lands to Britain in 1763

The American Revolution mid-18th century: increasing trade and

industry led to a growing middle class in Britain that favored expansion of trade and world empire

Prime Minister- William Pitt the Elder (1708-1778)…expanded the British Empire

Americans and British had different opinions for rule…18th century Britain- king or queen and Parliament shared power…Parliament appointed advisors to monarchy and had power to make laws, levy taxes pass budgets.

After Seven Year’s War- British policymakers sought to obtain new revenues from the colonies to pay for British army expenses in defending the

colonies, the colonists resisted…Stamp Act of 1765 led to riots

July 4, 1776- Second Continental Congress declared independence from British Empire…Declaration of Independence, penned by Thomas Jefferson…Enlightenment ideas “life, liberty, pursuit of happiness”o French sent aid to colonists…French

Navy blockade let to General Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown, VA 1781…Treaty of Paris (1783)- recognized independence of American colonies and granted the Americans control of the territory from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River

Birth of a New Nation Weak Articles of Confederation to

stronger US Constitution Federal Government separate from State

Governments 3 branches of government (legislative,

judicial, executive)

Constitution narrowly ratified with Bill of Rights (1st 10 Amendments)

Toward a New Political Order and Global Conflict

Philosophes believed in natural rights, privileges that should not be withheld from any person…equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press, and the right to assemble, hold property, and seek happiness

Enlightened despots/ Enlightened absolutism: Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria

Prussia: the Army and the Bureaucracy Frederick the Great (1740-1786): one of

best-educated monarchs…invited Voltaire to his court for several years…king as “first servant of the state”…enlarged Prussian army…had best reputation, officers were members of nobility…

abolished use of torture except in treason and murder cases…maintained serfdom

The Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs Austrian Empire difficult to rule because

is was a sprawling conglomerate of nationalities, languages, religions, and cultures

Empress Maria Theresa (1740-1780)- made administrative reforms…enlargement and modernization of the armed forces

Joseph II (1780-1790)- far-reaching reform program…abolished serfdom, abrogated death penalty, religious toleration, all equal before law…however, alienated the nobility and the churcho Wrote his own epitaph “Here lies

Joseph II, who was unfortunate in everything that he undertook.”

Russia Under Catherine the Great Catherine II the Great (1762-1796)…

invited Diderot to Russia, but did not implement his suggested reforms…1785

gave nobles a charter that exempted them from taxes…Russian peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev (1773)…he was captured, tortured, and executed…Catherine responded with even harsher restrictions against he peasantry…territorial expansion into Poland and the Black Sea…3 partitions of Poland- Russia gained about 50% of Polish land

Enlightened Absolutism Reconsidered Joseph, Frederick, and Catherine were all

primarily guided by a concern for the power and well-being of their states…heightened state power was used to create armies and wage wars to gain more power

Hereditary aristocracy- still most powerful class

Changing Patterns of War: Global Confrontation

Europe consisted of a number of self-governing, individual states that were

largely guided by the self-interest of the ruler

Seven Years’ War- fought on 3 continents…in Europe, British and Prussians fought the Austrians, Russians, and French…stalemate, ended in 1763

India- British, under Robert Clive, won out against the French…Treaty of Paris in 1763- French withdrew and left India to the British

North America (French and Indian War) Treaty of Paris…French ceded Canada and lands east of Mississippi to Britain..Spain transferred Florida to British, and French gave their Louisiana territory to Spanish

The French Revolution 1789- New Constitution for US, and the

beginning of the French Revolution French Revolution was very violent and

radical..attempted to reconstruct both a new political order, and a new social order

Social Structure of the Old Regime

Divided into 3 Estates 1st Estate: Clergy…1% of population,

controlled 10% of land…exempt from taille

2nd Estate: Nobility…2 % of population, controlled 25-30% of land…exempted from taille as one of many noble privileges

3rd Estate: Commoners…further divided with Bourgeoisie at top…inspired by Enlightenment

Opposition of elites to the old order led them to take drastic action against the monarchical old regime…Revolution had its origins in political grievances

Other Problems Facing the French Monarchy food shortages, rise in food prices,

unemployment Louis XVI (1774-1792) seemed apathetic

towards his role…wife Marie Antoinette from Austria…focused on frivolous things…didn’t have heirs right away, lambasted in press

Financial crisis, led to Louis XVI calling a session of the Estates-General (vote by order unpopular with 3rd estate)

From Estates-General to National Assembly opened at Versailles May 5, 1789 decided on vote by order June 17, 1789, 3rd estate locked out of

proceedings, met in and made Tennis Court Oath, declared themselves the National Assembly

Storming of the Bastille- July 14th 1789- symbolic beginning of French Revolution, celebrated as Bastille Day in France, and Andrew’s Bday in the US

Led to peasant uprisings throughout France

Destruction of the Old Regime National Assembly abolished the rights of

landlords and fiscal exemptions of nobles, clergy, towns, and provinces

Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen: charter of basic liberties- proclaimed

freedom and equal rights for all men…meritocracy…”Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite”

Olympe de Gouges- Declaration of Rights of WOMAN and Female Citizen

Catholic Church was reformed…church lands were seized…Church seen as enemy of Revolution

1791: National Assembly completed a new Constitution- legislative body had power, but still a King of the French

Jacobins: a radical political club, that wanted more extreme reforms for France

June 1791- King Louis XVI and family attempted to flee to Austria, but were captured and brought back to Paris…put under house arrest

August 27, 1791- Austria and Prussia, fearing rebellion spreading to their countries, formed the Coalition Forces and attacked France

The Radical Revolution September 1792: newly elected National

Convention began…abolished monarchy and established a republic

January 21, 1793 King was executed by guillotine

Coalition forces grew against France: Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, Dutch Republic, and Russia

A Nation in Arms Executive committee of 12, led by

Maximilien Robespierre…Committee of Public Safety 1793-1794

Universal mobilization of the nation Raised an army of 650,000 and fought

back coalition forces Nationalism- “people’s wars”

Reign of Terror Revolutionary courts were set up to

protect the Republic from its internal enemies…via guillotine (the great equalizer)

City of Lyons defied the authority of the National Convention…1,880 citizens were executed…by guillotine and cannon fire

Equality and Slavery: Revolution in Haiti

Slavery was abolished in France in September 1791…but continued in French colonies because it was so lucrative

February 1794- National Convention abolished slavery in the colonies

Island of Saint-Domingue had already started rebelling under the ex-slave Toussaint L’Ouverture

1802 Napoleon reinstituted slavery, and sent an army to capture L’Ouverture…brought to France where he died in a French dungeon

January 1, 1804: Haiti announced its independence

Reaction and the Directory Reign of Terror intensified as Robespierre

became obsessed with purifying the body politic of all the corrupt

Robespierre turned on members of the Convention, including Georges Danton…eventually Convention had Robespierre arrested and beheaded on July 28, 1794

Replaced with a Directory- five directors that acted as executive authority

Government under the Directory (1795-99) corruption..relied on military to maintain power…led to a coup d’etat in 1799, led by Napoleon Bonaparte

The Age of Napoleon Dominated European history from 1799

to 1815 Officially ended the French Revolution

with his coup d’etat

The Rise of Napoleon born in Corsica in 1769…recently

annexed by France had a military education…led to a

commission as a lieutenant 1794: made Brigadier general by the

Committee of Public Safety After coup in 1799: Consulate established

with Napoleon as 1st Consul…also held plebecite to reinforce his position…made himself Consul for Life, then Emperor in 1804

Domestic Policies established peace with Roman Catholic

Churcho Concordat with Pope

Napoleonic Code Divorce was made harder for women

under new Civil Code, women lost many rights

Bureaucracy based on merit…government career open to talent was what many bourgeoisie had wanted before the Revolution

Losses: creation of new aristocracy, strong protection of property rights, and use of conscription for military

Napoleon’s Empire War with Third Coalition: Britain, Austria,

Russia, Prussia

The Grand Empire 1807-1812: Napoleon was master of

Europe…Grand Empire

o French Empireo Dependent Stateso Allied States

Dependent States- kingdoms under the rule of Napoleon’s relativeso Ex: Spain under brother: Joseph

Bonaparteo Allies included Prussia, Austria,

Russia, and Sweden Tried to destroy Old Order British defeated Napoleon at sea Battle of

Trafalgar (1805)…Admiral Horatio Nelson…red jacket, brown pants

Continental System…French blockade of Great Britain…failed

Guerilla warfare in Peninsular War- Spain/Portugal

The Fall of Napoleon 1812- Napoleon attempted to invade

Russia after they refused to support the Continental System…June 1812, Napoleon led Grand Army of 600,000 men into Russia…Russians implemented the

Scorched Earth Policy…retreat under heavy snows…only 40,000 arrived back in Poland in January 1813!

Napoleon exiled to Elba 1814, escaped when Louis XVIII proved to be unpopular (Louis XVII, son of Louis XVI, had died in prison after horrendous torture and neglect at age 10…Louis XVIII was brother of Louis XVI)

Napoleon slipped back into France and gained army back on his side…ruled for Hundred Days…Defeated at Waterloo (1815) and was exiled (again) to Saint Helena…died 6 years later