Writing TipsUNIV 200 SPRING2015

MEREDITH SPENCER

Topics1. Introductions2. Conclusions3. Transitions4. In-Text Citations5. Counterarguments6. Incorporating Personal Experience7. Questions?

Introductions = encourage readers to read your report with interest and prepare them to understand it better

Context: establishes common ground, a shared understanding between reader and writer about the larger issue the writer will address

Problem: disrupts the context or common ground◦ Begins with a condition of incomplete knowledge or misunderstanding◦ Followed by a consideration of the consequences of that condition

Response: resolves the problem with your main claim

Tips Don’t start with a dictionary definition.

Don’t start grandiosely.

Don’t repeat the language of the assignment itself.

You may:◦ Open with a striking or startling fact or statistic relevant to your problem◦ Open with a thought-provoking quotation (only if its words anticipate key concepts and you

can’t possibly find a better way to say it yourself)◦ Open with a relevant anecdote or illustration of a vivid analogy

Most rappers such as Slick Rick and Jay-Z have long faced criticism for lyrics portraying women as objects to be used, often violently, for sexual gratification. Many female rappers respond to such portrayals with songs that explore the tension between being submissive to men and taking care of themselves. Frequently, female rappers celebrate their sisters for “getting over” on men. In “It’s a Girl Thing,” for example, Icey Jaye explains how she and her friends find ways to spend as much of their dates’ money as possible and mocks the men who fall for their tricks—here, women are taking advantage of typical relationships in which men try to win the affections of women through giving gifts. Other female rappers assume a role more like that of public speakers, expressing fears of male dishonesty and infidelity, openly and directly challenging male rappers’ portrayals of women through exposing the sexist mentality behind them. While both types of responses by female rappers can be seen as attempts to empower women, the celebration of female manipulation of men is ultimately just an inversion of male sexism; only the open and direct challenging of male sexism can possibly promote positive change in rap culture by beginning a conversation between and among men and women on the issue of sexism.

Conclusions = leave readers with a clear statement of your point and renewed appreciation of its significance

Restate the main point in fuller terms that it was introduced in the introduction

Add a new significance or application of your question/response – present a new answer to the question, so what?

Consider proposing a “Call to Action” or a “Call for More Research” – “As a result of this research, all readers should now go out and vote!” or “Although we have filled these gaps in the scholarship, our investigation has opened up new areas of inquiry that merit further research.”

According to high schools with the highest test scores across the country, homework is only necessary when an individual student doesn’t understand a concept or needs additional practice. Excessive amounts of homework geared towards the class as a whole – with students performing at varying levels – only serves to waste time and add unnecessary stress to both students’ and teachers’ lives. Therefore, mandatory homework in every class should end. Instead, teachers should assign homework on an individual basis. This solution would provide students with needed practice without needless busywork for students and endless grading for teachers. When students work on just their own weaknesses, rather than work assigned to the whole class, they will quickly see improvement and will be more motivated to stay in school. Furthermore, this concept may not apply only to homework. More research is required to determine if the same considerations should be made for in-class activities and maybe even “standardized” testing. The American educational system should no longer cater to the “average” student but should instead take into account student individuality and differences among learning style, socioeconomic background, and student capabilities.

You may consider echoing your opening fact, quotation, or anecdote.

Leave your reader with something larger to consider – it’s okay to end on a new question (you don’t have to resolve everything), but it must be an extension of your current question, very closely related to the original topic.

Whatever concluding strategy you use (including a detail, or an example, or an image from introduction to bring it full circle; a quotation or bit of dialogue; an anecdote; or a humorous or ironic comment), be decisive and unapologetic.

Tips

Workshops Introductions Workshop.docx

Conclusions Workshop.docx

Transitions

help readers move from sentence to sentence, paragraph to paragraph, or subsection to

subsection

Sentence-Level Transitions (Hacker p. 34-37)

To show addition: and, also, besides, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, next, too, first, second

To give examples: for example, for instance, to illustration, in fact, specifically

To compare: also, in the same manner, similarly, likewise

To contrast: but, however, on the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless, still, even though, on the contrary, yet, although

To summarize or conclude: in other words, in short, in summary, in conclusion, to sum up, that is, therefore

To show time: after, as, before, next, during, later, finally, meanwhile, since, then, when, while, immediately

To indicate logical relationship: if, so, therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, for this reason, because, since

Paragraph-Level Transitions (Hacker p. 35)

Always link the first sentence of a new paragraph with the first or last sentence of the previous paragraph. In other words, the topic sentences should signal global connections.

These transitions may need to:◦ mark off the introduction or conclusion◦ signal a shift to a new idea◦ indicate an important shift in time or place◦ emphasize a point◦ highlight a contrast◦ signal a change of speakers◦ provide readers with a needed pause◦ break up dense text (ideal paragraph length = ½ page to ¾ page)

Sub-Claim Level Transitions Find the point of commonality between the three or more sub-claims and return to that in each topic sentence that begins a new sub-claim.

“One major consideration when discussing [main topic] is [1st sub-claim].”

“In addition to examining [1st sub-claim], we must also look at [2nd sub-claim].”

“Finally, in paying close attention to [2nd sub-claim], one must not forget [3rd sub-claim].”

There are tons and tons and tons of ways to structure your sub-claims, but you see in the above examples that each new sub-claim refers in some way to the previous one, or to the main claim of the overall paper. This provides continuity but also alerts your reader to the fact that you are moving on to something new.

In-Text Citations: APA Style (Hacker p. 426-446)

In-text citations will always include:AuthorDate of publicationPage number

ExamplesYanovski and Yanovski (2002) reported that “the current state of the

treatment for obesity is similar to the state of the treatment of hypertension several decades ago” (p. 600).

Sibutramine suppresses appetite by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine in the brain (Yanovski & Yanovski, p. 594).

Special CasesSource with 6 or more authors:

McDuffie et al. (2002) says “…” (p. 646).

Source with unknown author: Use source title in place of author name in signal phrase or in parentheticalNo page numbers: cite either paragraph number or sub-heading + paragraph number

Hoppin and Taveras (2004) pointed out that several other medications were classified by the Drug Enforcement Administration as having “the potential for abuse” (Weight-Loss Drugs section, para. 6).

Counterarguments: incorporating them without contradicting your main claim

In the following examples, X = a specific scholar or a group of scholars/thinkers, could refer to one of your sources or could refer to an understood group of people, for example, republicans / democrats / feminists / anti-feminists, etc.

Disagreeing with Reasons “While X argues __________, [he/she/they] overlook __________.”

“X’s claim that __________ rests upon the questionable assumption that __________.”

“On one hand, X believes __________. However, scholarly research actually shows __________.”

“Skeptics may object to my claim that __________, but they neglect to consider __________.”

Agreeing and Disagreeing Simultaneously

“Although X’s argument is persuasive up to a point, [his/her/their] overall conclusion is flawed in that __________ because __________.”

“Despite the fact that much of what X says is based on faulty evidence, as discussed above, I will concede that the part of his argument stating __________ does hold some merit.”

“Whereas X provides ample evidence that __________, Y and Z’s research on __________ and __________ is far more convincing.”

“Proponents of X are right to argue that __________, but they exaggerate when they claim __________.”

Acknowledging Limitations in Your Own Argument

“While I firmly believe __________, I admit that there are instances in which my argument is impractical. For instance, in certain situations __________. However, my argument holds true under the majority of circumstances and therefore should be taken seriously.”

“My argument holds true for the demographics discussed above, but some critics might suggest that it is limited in scope. Such critics argue __________, but in reality __________.”

“While evidence is abundant to support my claim that __________, further research must be conducted to prove __________.”

Incorporating Personal Experience AppropriatelyDO’S

Use in introduction to set the scene

Use in conclusion as a way of connecting back to the introduction

Maintain a certain level of professionalism

Remember your audience – you are not writing to your best friend or your mom, you are writing to a group of academic peers (and me!)

DON’TS

Become overly sentimental

Get too personal – maintain an appropriate level of distance and sophistication

Overuse personal anecdotes; they are the weakest form of evidence you can provide, so avoid sprinkling them in the body of your paper unless it is a very brief reference to the situation presented in your introduction

Use only in the conclusion – this catches your readers off guard; if you want to incorporate it at all, establish that level of familiarity early

There is always a way to avoid using “I” when making a claim or stating an argument. Simply take it out! (or leave it – it’s up to you)

◦ “While I firmly believe __________, I admit that there are instances in which my argument is impractical. For instance, in certain situations __________. However, my argument holds true under the majority of circumstances and therefore should be taken seriously.”

◦ “While [insert claim] holds true for the majority of situations, there are admittedly instances in which the proposed solution is simply impractical. For instance, __________.”

Instead of using “I,” refer to the 3rd-person scholarship that supports what “I” is arguing.◦ “I believe __________.” ◦ “X supports the argument that __________.” OR “Existing scholarship overwhelmingly suggests

_____________.”

Don’t be afraid to use “I” – simply make sure that you are keeping your audience and purpose in mind to avoid becoming excessively personal.

Tips

QUESTIONS?