Writing Counter-arguments and Rebuttals
For Arguments Sake WritingCounter-arguments and Rebuttals This is the 4th lecture in the series of essay writing lectures we have had. This lecture will focus on ensuring balance and enhancing persuasion through using Counter-arguments and Rebuttals Video clip: more a time filler on assumptions and realities behind theories of evolution; It serves no direct teaching purpose but is used to just get them thinking about critiquing and unpacking flawed reasoning and examples Play in the background as students are settling down (Alternatively, save it for the end to help sum up key learning points) ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
1. In order to write a convincing essay you may need to anticipate common opposing arguments that dispute your thesis. (Counter-argument) 2. The rebuttal serves to challenge opposing views by introducing stronger reasoning and evidence that will persuade the reader to accept your point of view. Showing awareness of possible opposing views and analysing the validity of these different points of view enhances the persuasiveness of your essay. Use logic and sound reasoning to show that one idea is more legitimate than another idea. LECTURE OUTLINE 1. Ensuring Balance in the GP Essay
2. Raising Counter-arguments (CA) 3. Assessing the validity of opposing views 4. Writing effective Rebuttals (R) How to write an effective argumentative essay
1. Formulation of a sound introduction 2. Writing sound and well structured arguments 3. Enhancing PERSUASION by ensuring balance in the essay. 4. Well thought through conclusion that gives your argument closure Formulation of a sound Introduction context, contention, stand (CCS) Writing sound and well structured arguments Skills Lectures in Term 1 have covered these skills. This will be the last lecture on essay writing, after which you should have acquired the whole repertoire of skills to write a full essay. Cambridge places a high emphasis on Balanced essays and we will look shortly at their marking rubrics when it comes to ensuring essays are balanced. What Cambridge had to say.
The need for awareness of different sides of an argument is a basic requirement of this paper. Balance need not be equally weighted between different positions, but it should be present. Key takeaways from Cambridge Report (2011): Awareness of both sides of the argument Need not be equally weighted there should be an obvious slant towards one view Do not refute a well-makde point in the same paragraph come across schizophrenic! Use different paragraphs to consider opposing views Use markers, such as On the other hand, or Nevertheless Without effective signposting, the shift from one point to another may be too abrupt and confusing What Cambridge had to say.
This raises some important points about organisation. Some candidates introduce an idea with a clear topic sentence, argue the case and illustrate it, but then seem to feel the need to counter a well-made point immediately in the same paragraph. This can result in some muddled thinking and discussion. See key takeaways on notes pages on previous slide Placing a counter-argument as an after-thought within the same paragraph as your argument can come across contracting. What Cambridge had to say.
It is probably advisable to consider opposing positions in a different paragraph, with a simple marker such as, On the other hand or Nevertheless to indicate an opposing viewpoint If such markers are not used, the switch from one point of view to another is simply too abrupt and confusing. See key takeaways on notes pages on previous slide Note: Use of linguistic singposts as well as using separate paragraphs ENSURING BALANCE IN THE gp Essay
Content Band 3 (13 to 18): Balance is evident, although it may be awkwardly handled. Band 2 (19 to 25): showing a balanced discussion which reflects a depth of evaluation and awareness of the issues raised by the question Band 1 (26 to 30): an original and insightful response with perceptive ideas and a balanced discussion which reflects thorough evaluation of the issues contained within the question. Examine the descriptors within the various Bands: a balanced discussion is imperative. Discusses your main arguments ENSURE BALANCE :
Essay structure Sets the context, contention stand and treatment Discusses your main arguments ENSURE BALANCE : COUNTER-ARGUMENTS + REBUTTAL Definite ending where arguments are tied together INTRODUCTION MAIN BODY OF ESSAY CONCLUSION Conclusion A conclusion is a definite ending whereby the reader of the essay will feel that the ideas are tied together and that the essay has been completed. LECTURE OUTLINE 1. Ensuring Balance in the GP Essay
2. Understanding counter-arguments and rebuttals 3.Assessing the validity of opposing views 4. Writing effective Rebuttals What is a counter-argument?
Understanding counter-arguments and rebuttals Recognising the opposing side of the debate in order to strengthen your own argument. Considering a possible argument against your thesis or some aspect of your reasoning. Anticipating opposition and pre-empting objections that a sceptical reader might have. In order to present a fair and convincing message, you may need to anticipate and outline some of the common positions (arguments) that dispute your thesis. This helps to enhance the reasonableness and acceptability of your arguments. It presents you as the kind of person who weighs alternatives before arguing for one COMMON PHRASES THAT SIGNAL A COUNTER-ARGUMENT: (more to come in a later section) ONE MIGHT OBJECT HERE THAT... IT MIGHT SEEM THAT...IT'S TRUE THAT...ADMITTEDLY,...OF COURSE,... ALTHOUGH.., WHILE, ..EVEN THOUGH In Anticipating Possible opposing views
Ask 3 questions when you are trying to write counterargument: Who might disagree with my position? What arguments might they use against my proposition? What examples do they normally cite to support their opposing argument? Students to fill in the blanks: Who might disagree with my position? What arguments might they use against my proposition? What examples do they normally cite to support their opposing argument? *YOU DONT HAVE TO DISPROVE, JUST WEAKEN THE OTHER CLAIM Also, choose strong possible opposition, present them accurately, fairly. What is a rebuttal? A rebuttal is a response to the counter-argument where the latter is rendered weak or invalid in comparison to your argument The rebuttal helps establish you as an unbiased expert and provides you with an opportunity to make your argument stronger by refuting the counter-argument. Also known as Refutation (Refute means to prove wrong.) In preparing your rebuttal
How strong is the opposing view? Will I have to concede any points? What are the weak links in the opposition's thinking? How can I refute these arguments? Respond to Counter-arguments systematically. An example of a counter argument
There are some who argue that solar energy does have some drawbacks. They often cite examples to show that there is pollution created by the transportation and production of solar panels, and the high cost of the panels, A renown magazine, the National Geographic News, had even reposrted that solar energy is the most expensive form of electricity among current technologies for new electricity generation, about $396 per megawatthour for PV. What is the oppositions argument? What are the reasons they use to support their view? Reason #1 Reason #2 Context of argument: Thesis: If the government puts as much money behind solar energy as it does behind fossil fuels and ethanol, solar energy will become cost-effective in the short-term as well as the long-term. An example of a rebuttal
Despite the high cost, it is still the only available energy resource that is both renewable and has no carbon footprint at least in its energy conversion process. In addition, government incentives, continued investment, and technological advances are driving down the price of panels, making them more affordable for businesses and individuals. The writers argument In addition..: Further strengthening the writers argument LECTURE OUTLINE 1. Ensuring Balance in the GP Essay
2. Understanding counter-arguments and rebuttals 3. Assessing the validity of opposing views 4. Writing effective Rebuttals CONCESSION 1. A statement conceding to the merit of some part of the opposing argument 2. Diminishing the validity of the counter-argument BUT not eliminating it entirely 3. Finding common ground or acknowledging the limited validity of the opponent strengthens your argument 1. When your opponents argument istrue butyours is better 2. Acknowledge that there are more sides to an issue than yours. 3. A concession is a strength as it finds common ground with your opponent If you're writing a persuasive piece, you might consider beginning with a concession--that is, by beginning with an acknowledgement of part of your opponent's Remember that a concession is not a form of weakness. In fact a concession is a strength as it finds common ground with your opponent and enhances your ethical appeal: i.e. you are a reasonable person willing to listen to/acknowledge that there are more sides to an issue than yours. Offering a concession is more likely to persuade someone to accept your view Qn: To what extent can money attract the best leaders in society
Qn: To what extent can money attract the best leaders in society? Stand: monetary incentive is not the best way to develop leaders who are competent and morally righteous in society. CA: It is often argued that high salary would attract the best talents into the civil service; Proponents of this argument often attest that Singapores efficient government is testimony to this claim. They argue that all it takes is one under-qualified choice and the entire image and efficiency of the government is undermined. Concession: While there is no denying that high salary is effective In attracting the most competent leaders into civil service, it may not be the best way to attract leaders who are both competent and morally righteous... Example of a rebuttal enhancing the strength of your argument by diminishing the validity of the counter-argument BUT not eliminating it entirely: In this case, we can clearly see that the counter-argument is a concession to the argument that youre making. That is, there is a modicum/ grain of truth in the counter-argument (youre not denying its validity entirely) However, by recognising that there are other truths that the counter-argument is not addressing (namely, the fact that it may not attract people with a noble and righteous attitude), we have effectively cast doubt on its seemingly infallible validity. Hence, the strength and sophistication of your argument is increased. Signposts to show concession
CA with some merit It may be true that . . . Even if .. Even if its true that In spite of the view that Totally Flawed CA This view cannot stand because The argument is flawed because Signposting Counter-arguments
Introducing the Counter-argument Some people may argue A possible concern is A common counterpoint is Some will say that (my thesis) is not true because Some people might say that Some will argue Those on the other side of the issue may say that. Its true that While it is true that Admittedly Citing evidences used to support Counter-argument: For example, they contend that Those who believe cite the instance when They often cite examples The main purpose of using such phrases is to distance oneselffrom the opposing views so you dont confuse the reader that these are your argument Try to use a range of signposts and not a limited few all the time. Simple counter-arguments + rebuttals
Although people affected by murder are understandably angry or confused at the senseless loss of a loved one, capital punishment cannot bring them back. The gun lobby argues that guns are necessary for protection and security. While these are major concessions in our violent society, they are better dealt by a strong police force. While we accept that some religious groups have deep convictions against abortion, it is no way justifiable for them to impose them at a national level and seek the abolition of abortion. Some one-liners Sometimes Cas can be one-liners, but that does not show sustained thought in developing a balanced answer; can be used in your Introduction, when raising the Contention. * Students are strongly recommended to develop CA as full paragraphs separate from their related rebuttals this reduces the risk of confusing Cas and Rebuttals that may sound like the writers arguments and create confusion. LECTURE OUTLINE 1. Ensuring Balance in the GP Essay
2. Understanding counter-arguments and rebuttals 3.Assessing the validity of opposing views 4. Writing effective Rebuttals Writing effective Rebuttals
Writing the Rebuttal: Return to your own argument involves careful reasoning, to show: - Acknowledge CAs validity or plausibility, but suggest why it isless important, or weaker than your argument OR 2. How CA is mistaken Signposting Rebuttal That young people today have too much freedom is an understandable concern, however 2. However, that is not the case; on the contrary 3. While scientists may arguably be right in pushing for medical intervention, this point alone cannot be used in justifying euthanasia 5. Nevertheless, my point still stands because 6. Be that as it may, 8. That said, 9. Transition words: Yet, However, Nevertheless, On the other hand Putting it altogether
1. Introduce your opponents argument 2. Concede if there is some merit, or Decide whether it is flawed 3. Provide rebuttal in favour of your view Positioning a counter-argument
You could put it 1. as part of your introduction to frame your contention 2. as a section or paragraph just after your introduction 3. In a separate paragraph from the rebuttal 4. Or in any part if your essay, as long as they are signposted clearly and are presented in a logical structure to enhance the persuasiveness of your essay Not last paragraph before conclusion!!! 1. Shapes the contention very clearly at the outset(attention getter)Do not end up contradicting yourself. Use appropriate transition and linking signposts / devices to Distance opposition Return to reassert your viewpoint 4. NEVER LEAVE THE CA UNTACKLED! Dedicate a single paragraph to a single opposing argument. Essay structure R2 A CA1 A1 A1 R1 A2 CA1 CA2 CA1 R1 CA2 R2 R1 A3
OPTION OPTION OPTION 3 Essay structure INTRODUCTION CA1 A1 A1 MAIN BODY OF ESSAY R1 A2 CA1 CA2 CA1 R1 CA2 R2 R1 CONCLUSION R2 A A3 These are no fixed rule on how you structure your CA and R, as long as it is logically arranged to best deliver a persuasive essay in your favour. COUNTER-ARGUMENT Many people bemoan that religion has created rifts in societies that have led to violence and bloodshed. They claim that this is due to the hostile interaction between faiths bearing irreconciliable differences, precipitating a state of conflict where religious factions attempt to unseat each other. An example commonly cited by such skeptics is Northern Ireland, for instance hostile religious sentiments brewing between Catholics and Protestants have erupted into a period of mass murders, the most significant one being that of Bloody Sunday, which saw the massacre of many Protestants. WHAT ARGUMENTS would they use against my proposition 2. WHAT REASONS do they normally cite to support their argument? 3. WHAT REASONS and EXAMPLES(S)do they normally cite to support their argument? THE REBUTTAL While there is no denying that history is marked with such bloody episodes motivated by religious difference, it is still my belief that to blame religion for societal division is myopic. Societal division results from a complex blend of factors; societies that appear to be divided on religious grounds could actually also be divided on ethnic grounds. This arises due to the fact that religious motivations are seen to be nobler that purely ethnic conflicts and also because cultural factors often cause religion and ethnicity to become inextricable. Concession Your argument Reason (1) Reason (2) The rebuttal (contd) In Chechnya, for example, ethnic Chechen Muslims are opposed to ethnic Russian rule. While the Chechen Front uses an Islamic agenda to further its interest, the region is actually not staunch Muslim, but practising some amalgamation of many religions. Similarly, in Iraq, theconflict between Shiites and Sunnis. Although the two groups have different approaches to religious law and practice, the divisions they experience today are based on politics stemming from the Saddam Hussein era. The Sunni Arabs, some 15-20% of the population, provided the bulk of the governing class under Saddam, while the Shiites, who comprise upward of 60% of the population, were denied political rights and their religious freedoms were curtailed. Thus it would be unfair to hastily conclude that religion divides societies. Evidence #1 Evidence #2 Confirming weak links in CA Paragraph adapted from Essay in KS Bull Issue 2, 2012. In preparing your rebuttal
How strong is the opposing view? Will I have to concede to any points? What are the weak links in the opposition's thinking? How can I refute these arguments? Respond to Counter-arguments systematically. To what extent does the media create mediocrity?
There is no denying thatthe great accessibility of the media accommodates too much information and ideas that much of it is dumbed down on an intellectual scale and undeniably mediocre. Comments: WHAT ARGUMENT(S) would they use against my proposition? To what extent does the media create mediocrity?
Youtube is often claimed to have provided an irresistible opportunity for nearly anyone wanting to get their fifteen seconds of fame by showcasing their various talents, imaginary or otherwise. Media critics often use the example of how pop singer, Rebecca Black, gained widespread attention after her first single Friday went viral and received more than sixty million hits in less than a week. The song predictably received negative critical reviews for its poor lyrics and singing and yet, Black became an instant celebrity overnight. Through this example, it is assumed that the media fails to delivery quality input. Comments: WHAT EXAMPLES(S) do they normally cite to support their argument? To what extent does the media create mediocrity?
However, in reality, the above criticism is perhaps too scathing, and a little biased in ignoring the good, actual talents the media has discovered. On the contrary, the media has opened up many opportunities for gems of real talent and gifts to be discovered, and thereby welcoming a wider pool of talented artistes into the previously exclusive club of celebrities. Comments: Dismissing CA as flawed (No concession) To what extent does the media create mediocrity?
A prominent example is Susan Boyle, who lived in a small English village, would never have received the worldwide recognition she deserved for her exceptional singing talent of not for the talent search Britians Got Talent. More importantly, Youtube was the catalyst to her global rise to fame as people round the globe watched her touching rendition of Les Miserables I Dreamed a Dream. Media publicity gave her the opportunity to record a multi-platinum debut album. Today she continues to stay prominent in the international music scene. Thus we see true standards prevail and ultimately, the media creates a more accessible form of excellence. Comments: Evidence Confirming your argument is stronger ENSURING BALANCE IN THE gp Essay
Ensuring BALANCE is a key requirement in Paper 1 (Cambridges Requirement) This is achieved through the effective juxtaposition of counter arguments and rebuttals . Balance DOES NOT mean merely showcasing the various perspectives and arguments on the issue. It means Strategically presenting the various counter arguments on the issue AND rebutting each of them in order to substantiate/ support your stand. It involves stating your own point of view and trying to convince the reader through a set of well-reasoned arguments that your thesis on the issue is the most valid one, amidst other possible points of view. How you strategically present your CA and systematically present your rebuttals will be the focus of this lecture. ENDURING UNDERSTANDING
1. In order to write a convincing essay you may need to anticipate common opposing arguments that dispute your thesis. (Counter-argument) 2. The rebuttal serves to challenge opposing views byintroducing stronger evidence and reasoning that will persuade the reader to accept your point of view. Showing awareness of possible opposing views and analysing the validity of these different points of view enhances the persuasiveness of your essay. Use logic and sound reasoning to show that one idea is more legitimate than another idea. WRITING THE CONCLUSION Summarise your arguments
A quotation, or another identified source to create an inspiring effect on reader Summarise your arguments How do we move forward? (Make recommendations) Is Press censorship necessary?
The detriments of press censorship are undeniable, especially if it stifles thought and expression. On the other hand, it is still necessary if we want to keep the dissemination of extreme ideas at bay and protect our young. Showing a balanced view Reinforcement of stand Is Press censorship necessary?
Societies therefore need to learn how to strike a balance between the degree of freedom of expression and the safeguarding of societal interest. As such the real question to ask is not if press censorship is necessary, but rather, how much. Making a recommendation Showing critical judgement Is Press censorship necessary?
Until every single person in the world is mature and civil enough to moderate his or her expression and reaction, and take everything with a pinch of salt, press censorship is and will remain inarguably necessary. Showing short-term and long-term implications Do international sporting events serve any purpose?
International sporting events can never be ideal, being prone to political manipulation, disappointing underhanded behaviour of a few athletes and sometimes appearing to be inundated by commercial interests. However, these are but minor distractions and it has been shown that commercialisation is vital for sustaining international competition. Showing balanced view Reinforcement of stand Is Press censorship necessary?
It is in spite of all these distractions that we continue to value the heart of these events sporting excellence and cordiality between nations. Perhaps, instead of lamenting how these transgressions have caused international sporting events to deviate from their intended purposes, we should recognise that for the most part, friendship and sporting excellence are fostered and very much encouraged today, and continue to value this platform that realises sporting ideals and international harmony. Summary of arguments Making a recommendation (Showing insight and critical thought)