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Writing Basics

(panels from two separate Calvin and Hobbes comic strips)

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Grammar & Essay Basics Parts of Speech Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection (University of Ottawa website). Noun = a word or phrase that names a person, place, thing, quality, or act. Examples: boy, girl, doctor, city, car, mall Proper Nouns: name specific persons, places, things, etc. Examples: John, Caroline, Dr. Torres, Culver City, Toyota (Camry), Fox Hills Mall Pronoun = a word that substitutes for a noun and refers to a person, place, thing, idea, or act that was mentioned previously or that can be inferred from the context of the sentence. Examples: he, she, we, they, them Verb = a word or phrase that expresses action, existence, or occurrence (throw, be, happen). Examples: walk, talk, wrote, called, Adjective = a word or combination of words that modifies (describes) a noun.

Examples: crimson, fantastic, beautiful, exquisite, Adverb = a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Examples: quickly, softly, Preposition = A word or phrase that shows the relationship of a noun to another noun

Examples: at, by, in, to, from, with Conjunction = a word that connects other words, phrases, or sentences.

Examples: and, but, or, nor Interjection = a word, phrase, or sound used as an exclamation and capable of standing by itself. Examples: Oh, Lord!; Damn!; My goodness! Articles = any of three words used to signal the presence of a noun.

Examples: a, an, the Sentence Construction Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject (University of Ottawa website).

Examples: Judy runs. Judy and her dog run on the beach every morning.

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To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject. Unusual Sentences Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather than expressed.

Example: Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.")

Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to be." In such sentences, "there" is not the subject; it merely signals that the true subject will soon follow.

Example: There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning.

Clauses and Phrases Clauses contain a subject and a verb. Phrases can have one or the other (i.e., a subject or a verb)—or neither—but never both. The two types of clauses: independent and dependent.

• Independent: Sometimes called the main clause, an independent clause not only has a subject and verb, but also represents a complete thought. Independent clauses can stand on their own as sentences.

• Dependent: Also known as a subordinate clause, a dependent clause does not represent a complete thought. It cannot stand alone as a sentence. Dependent clauses rely on independent clauses to complete the thought in the sentence.

o Examples: If we work hard at this, we can succeed. Dependent clause: If we work hard at this Independent clause: we can succeed

Paragraph Construction A paragraph consists of 5-6 organized sentences. The parts of a paragraph are: the topic sentence, body/supporting sentences and the concluding sentence. Topic Sentence = tells you what this paragraph is all about. Body/Supporting Sentences = supports the topic sentence by providing examples, quotes from scholars/experts and/or student (author) commentary and observations. These sentences explain, describe, and/or support the topic sentence. Body or supporting sentences are: detailed and contain specific examples; include pronouns, transition words; may compare/contrast, narrate, explain, argue, define, illustrate, describe or use combinations of several of these. NOTE: it is not possible to write an adequate explanation of any topic sentence in less than three sentences. Concluding Sentence = summarizes the paragraph. The concluding sentence’s function is to remind the reader of the most important point of your paragraph. Sometimes, it leads/transitions into the next paragraph.

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Example of a “Model” Paragraph From UNC Charlotte: http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/paragraphs.html Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings. On one level, spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul, but on another level, the songs spoke about slave resistance. For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song "O Canaan, Sweet Canaan" spoke of slaves' longing for heaven, but it also expressed their desire to escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this second meaning in the following lyrics: "I don't expect to stay / Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the danger. / I don't expect to stay." When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking of their departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however, they also could have been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus, but to the North. Slaves even used songs like "Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)" to announce to other slaves the time and place of secret, forbidden meetings. What whites heard as merely spiritual songs, slaves discerned as detailed messages. The hidden meanings in spirituals allowed slaves to sing what they could not say. Paragraph Analysis

Topic Sentence = tells you what this paragraph is all about. Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings.

Supporting Sentences = supports the topic sentence by providing examples, quotes from scholars/experts and/or student (author) commentary and observations. On one level, spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul, but on another level, the songs spoke about slave resistance. For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song "O Canaan, Sweet Canaan" spoke of slaves' longing for heaven, but it also expressed their desire to escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this second meaning in the following lyrics: "I don't expect to stay / Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the danger. / I don't expect to stay." When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking of their departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however, they also could have been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus, but to the North. Slaves even used songs like "Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)" to announce to other slaves the time and place of secret, forbidden meetings. What whites heard as merely spiritual songs, slaves discerned as detailed messages.

Concluding Sentence = summarizes the paragraph (and leads/transitions into the next) The hidden meanings in spirituals allowed slaves to sing what they could not say.

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Essay Construction A basic five paragraph essay consists of five organized paragraphs. The parts of an organized paragraph are: the introduction (introductory paragraph), body/supporting paragraphs and the conclusion. In addition, a good essay must have a thesis statement. A thesis statement = one sentence that tells the reader what the essay is about, as well as the author’s position (opinion) on the topic. A thesis statement is an arguable idea. Three supporting points, which form the basis of the body/supporting paragraphs, follow the thesis statement. A Thesis Statement is not:

• An announcement of the author’s purpose or the assignment o Announcement: In this paper I will discuss the causes and effects of the French

Revolution and then argue as to whether or not it was successful. o Thesis: Though the reasons for the French Revolution were noble— liberté,

fraternité, egalité—the effects were devastating, ultimately leading to the unsuccessful reinstitution of the monarchy and the restructuring of a classist society into a militaristic one.

• a title or fragment o Title: Finding a Solution to Campus Parking Problems o Thesis: To solve the lack of parking spaces at West Los Angeles College,

administrators should use lottery funds to build parking structures. o Fragment: That we should become more aware of our environment o Thesis: People should become more aware of the environment to preserve the

wilderness, protect wildlife and to conserve rapidly disappearing natural resources.

• a question o Question: How can we still tolerate sexism in the military today? o Thesis: Even though Americans claim to be enlightened about sexism, sexist

language and behaviors still prevail in the military. • Fact

o Fact: Cortez conquered Mexico in 1509 o Thesis: The colonial mentality which prompted Cortez's barbaric invasion of

Mexico brought about not an advance of native society but a destruction of Aztec culture. (Source: http://lrc.sierra.cc.ca.us/writingcenter/thesisbasics.pdf)

As always in academic writing, all your opinions must be supported - you should produce your evidence and explain why this evidence supports your point of view. It is important to distinguish between:

• your claim (proposition, thesis, point, position) - your point of view, what you believe;

• your reason(s) (explanations)- why you believe what you do; • your evidence (support or grounds) - the facts, data and examples that support

your point of view; and • your argument (warrant) - how the evidence you have provided leads to the claim

you are making. (Source: http://www.uefap.com/writing/function/argue.htm)

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Types of Essays

Descriptive Essay • An essay or writing that describes • Paints a verbal picture of a person place or a thing. • Sample Topic: “The Beauty of Alien Culture”

Narrative Essay • Tells a story • Considered a reflection or exploration of the author’s views, but is told as a story • Also sometimes called a Personal Essay • Sample Essay: “Me and My Alien”

Expositive or Expository Essay • An essay or writing that explains • Provides information about or explains a particular subject.

o When thinking of this type of essay think of the word “expose”-the process of uncovering and making something known.

• Patterns of development within expository writing include: o Exemplification = gives examples o Process = details how to do or make something o Compare and Contrast o Definition/Defining = defines a term or concept o Classification = divides something into parts or classifies into categories

• Sample Essay: “How to Tame an Alien”

Argumentative Essay • Writing that persuades • Involves taking position usually on controversial or popular (“hot”) issue. • The writer attempts to support a controversial point or defend a position on which there

is a difference of opinion. • Sample Essay: “(Why) Aliens Should Not Be Tamed”

Other Types of Essays and Writing

Research Papers • Calls for research and use of facts and sources to support your opinion on a subject • Sample Essay: “Aliens Throughout History”

Reviews • Book, movie, music reviews • Expresses someone’s opinion and is always subjective • Sample Essay: “The Ultimate Battle: A Review of Alien v. Predator”

Response Essays • The reader (usually a student) is given a quote, statement, etc. and is expected to

write a well thought response with details to support her/his opinion. • Usually found on quizzes and tests • Sample Essay: Studies show that if the public knew aliens were living among us,

there would be widespread panic. Write your response/opinion to the statement.

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Essay Structure

I. Opening/Introductory Paragraph a. Topic sentence b. Supporting sentence c. Supporting sentence d. Supporting sentence e. Concluding sentence (and transition to next paragraph)

II. 1st Supporting Paragraph

a. Topic sentence b. Supporting sentence c. Supporting sentence d. Supporting sentence e. Concluding sentence

III. 2nd Supporting Paragraph

a. Topic sentence (should contain transition from last paragraph to this one) b. Supporting sentence c. Supporting sentence d. Supporting sentence e. Concluding sentence

IV. 3rd Supporting Paragraph

a. Topic sentence (should contain transition from last paragraph to this one) b. Supporting sentence c. Supporting sentence d. Supporting sentence e. Concluding sentence

V. Conclusion

a. Topic sentence/restate your thesis (transition to your conclusion) b. Summary of your thoughts on the subject c. Summary of your thoughts on the subject d. Summary of your thoughts on the subject e. Concluding sentence that ties it all together

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Detailed Example of Thesis and Outline

Thesis: There are many kinds of waves in nature. Three Supporting Points: Seismic Waves, Sound Waves, Light Waves I. Introductory Paragraph

a. Quote b. Facts about waves c. Thesis Statement

i. 3 Supporting Points a. Seismic Waves b. Sound Waves c. Light Waves

II. 1st Supporting Paragraph-Seismic Waves a. Characteristics

i. P wave - strongest type of body wave ii. Longitudinal iii. Travel through either liquid or solid matter

b. Effects i. Results in liquid or solid vibrating uncontrollably ii. Vibrations-compression or expansion of rocks

III. 2nd Supporting Paragraph-Sound Waves a. Characteristics

i. Pure tone - the simplest sound wave ii. Characterized by frequency

b. Behavior i. Light waves and sound waves - same actions ii. Reflect and scatter

IV. 3rd Supporting Paragraph-Light Waves a. Characteristics

i. b. Behavior

i. V. Conclusion

a. Restate your thesis and three supporting points, using different wording. b. Summarize the findings of your essay c. Leave off with something (an example, fact/statistic/quote) that was not

previously mentioned in your essay.

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Point of View = the perspective from which a speaker or writer tells a story or presents information; the way a situation is viewed.

3 Main Types Depending on the topic, purpose, and audience, writers of fiction and nonfiction may rely on the: First-Person (I, we, our) Example One of my fondest childhood memories is going fishing out in the country with my family. My dad would let me sit on his lap and steer the car. My aunt Estelle, an elderly woman from the Bahamas, would take out her pipe and smoke it once we were set up at our fishing site. I would watch my grandma bait the hook of her old fashioned fishing pole with worms. My brother and I would create a contest to see who could catch the most fish. Mom would fish too. Then, she and grandma would clean and cook what we caught. Second-Person (you, your) This is widely considered the most uncommon mode in which to write (though it’s often used in song lyrics). This point of view or narrative mode is often used along with the first-person point of view or narrative mode. Example One of your fondest childhood memories is going fishing out in the country with your family. Your dad would let you sit on his lap and steer the car. Your aunt Estelle, an elderly woman from the Bahamas, would take out her pipe and smoke it once you all were set up at your fishing site. You would watch your grandma bait the hook of her old fashioned fishing pole with worms. You and your brother would create a contest to see who could catch the most fish. Your mom would fish too. Then, she and (your) grandma would clean and cook what you all caught. Third-Person (he, she, it, they) Example One of her fondest childhood memories is going fishing out in the country with her family. Her dad would let her sit on his lap and steer the car. Her aunt Estelle, an elderly woman from the Bahamas, would take out her pipe and smoke it once they were set up at their fishing site. She would watch her grandma bait the hook of her old fashioned fishing pole with worms. She and her brother would create a contest to see who could catch the most fish. Her mom would fish too. Then, her mom and grandma would clean and cook what they caught. Voice Prefer the active voice over the passive.

• In the active voice, the subject of the sentence does the action. Example: The committee reached a decision. (active voice)

• In the passive voice, the subject receives the action. Example: A decision was reached by the committee. (passive voice)

Although both voices are grammatically correct, the active voice is usually more effective because it is simpler, more direct, and less wordy.

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Writing Tips Do not write the way you speak.

o As discussed in class on many occasions, everyday speech and formal, academic writing are completely different.

Type your papers in Microsoft Word. o It has spelling and grammar check tools.

Proof read your work!

o Spelling and grammar checking programs almost always miss errors. o Read your essay out loud to catch mistakes.

Follow directions and stay on topic.

o If you are writing about how you identify yourself, don’t write about your cousin and how he identifies himself.

Have a clear thesis and take a clear position. In other words, BE SPECIFIC! o Then back it up with a plan of development (3 supporting points to make in your

essay) that will support your thesis/position.

Make statements. Refrain from asking (too many) questions. o Using a question or two to start, or within a paragraph is generally ok.

However, you do not want to ask more than one or two throughout the entire essay. A paper littered with questions doesn’t provide insight or new information. It frustrates the reader (usually me) instead. You want to make direct statements.

Assume the reader has no prior knowledge of your subject (what you are writing about).

o Therefore you need to thoroughly explain your position and the points you make, providing details and examples.

Write using complete paragraphs. o As mentioned in class, a paragraph is at least 5-6 sentences. However, to

adequately explain your thesis and supporting points, you will (most likely) need to write more than the minimum requirement.

Do not use semicolons (;). Use a period or conjunction (and, or, but) instead.

Other Common Mistakes (refer to handout for other words)

to v. too v. two their v. there v. they’re in v. and fir v. for are v. our bought v brought see v. sea here v. hear plain v plane threw v. through v. thru wear v. where v. we’re v. were Text Writing (essays are not text messages or tweets) u v. you bcuz v. because gr8 v. great

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Commonly Confused and Misspelled Words

accept v. except and v. an v. in

advice v. advise

a lot v. allot already v. all ready

illusion v. allusion

alter v. altar are v. our v. hour bought v. brought brake v. break

breathe v. breath

by v. bye v. buy

capital v. capitol cite v. site v. sight clothes v. cloths

coarse v. course

compliment v. complement council v. counsel v. consul desert v. dessert device v. devise

farther v. further fir v. fur for v. four forth v. fourth

hear v. here

hole v. whole

incite v. insight it’s v. its

knew v. new

know v. no

lead v. led

lose v. loose

man v. men

past v. pass(ed) peace v. piece

plain v. plane

pour v. pore

presence v. presents

preceed v. proceed

principal v. principle

quiet v. quit v. quite

rain v. reign v. rein

see v. sea

stationary v. stationery

than v. then

their v. there v. they’re

threw v. through v. thru

to v. too v. two

vain v. vein v. vane

waste v. waist weather v. whether where v. were v. we’re v. wear v. ware

who’s v. whose

who v. whom

woman v. women

you v. u

you’re v. your

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MLA Essay/Paper Format Images and information taken from the 5th edition of A Pocket Style Manual by Diana Hacker ©2009 Bedford/St. Martin’s