Writing 101W

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t!Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for other numbers. Note: If you are using a specific citation style, such as MLA or APA, consult the style manual for specific formatting instructions.Words• over two pounds• six million dollars• after thirty-one years• eighty-three peopleFigures• after 126 days• only $31.50• 6,381 bushels• 4.78 liters

NumbersDays and YearsDecember 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965A.D. 1066in 1900in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972the eighties, the twentieth centurythe 1980's or the 1980sTime of Day8:00 A.M. (or) a.m.(or) eight o'clock in the morning4:30 P.M. (or) p.m.(or) half-past four in the afternoon

Addresses16 Tenth Street350 West 114 StreetIdentification NumbersRoom 8Channel 18Interstate 65Henry VIII

NumbersPage and Division of Books and Playspage 30chapter 6in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii

Decimals and Percentagesa 2.7 average13.25 percent (in nonscientific contexts)

25% (in scientific contexts).037 metric tonLarge Round Numbersfour billion dollars (or) $4 billion16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million

Capitalize This!The first word of every sentence.The first-person singular pronoun, I.The first, last, and important words in a title. (The concept "important words" usually does not include articles, short prepositions (which means you might want to capitalize "towards" or "between," say), the "to" of an infinitive, and coordinating conjunctions.

Capitalize This! Cont.PROPER NOUNS

Specific persons and things: George W. Bush, the White House, General Motors Corporation.

Specific geographical locations: Hartford, Connecticut, Africa, Forest Park Zoo, Lake Erie, the Northeast, the Southend. However, we do not capitalize compass directions or locations that aren't being used as names: the north side of the city; we're leaving the Northwest and heading south this winter.

When we combine proper nouns, we capitalize attributive words when they precede place-names, as in Lakes Erie and Ontario, but the opposite happens when the order is reversed: the Appalachian and Adirondack mountains.

When a term is used descriptively, as opposed to being an actual part of a proper noun, do not capitalize it, as in "The California deserts do not get as hot as the Sahara Desert."

Names of celestial bodies: Mars, Saturn, the Milky Way. Do not, however, capitalize earth, moon, sun, except when those names appear in a context in which other (capitalized) celestial bodies are mentioned. "I like it here on earth," but "It is further from Earth to Mars than it is from Mercury to the Sun.Names of newspapers and journals. Do NOT, however, capitalize the word the, even when it is part of the newspaper's title: the Hartford Courant.Days of the week, months, holidays. Do not, however, capitalize the names of seasons (spring, summer, fall, autumn, winter). "Next winter, we're traveling south; by spring, we'll be back up north."

Historical events: World War I, the Renaissance, the Crusades.Races, nationalities, languages: Swedes, Swedish, African American, Jewish, French, Native American. (Most writers do not capitalize whites, blacks.)Names of religions and religious terms: God, Christ, Allah, Buddha, Christianity, Christians, Judaism, Jews, Islam, Muslims.Names of courses: Economics, Biology 101. (However, we would write: "I'm taking courses in biology and earth science this summer.")Brand names: Tide, Maytag, Chevrolet.

Names of relationships only when they are a part of or a substitute for a person's name. (Often this means that when there is a modifier, such as a possessive pronoun, in front of such a word, we do not capitalize it.)

1.Let's go visit Grandmother today. Let's go visit my grandmother today.

2.I remember Uncle Arthur. I remember my Uncle Arthur. My uncle is unforgettable.

This also means that we don't normally capitalize the name of a "vocative" or term of endearment:

1.Can you get the paper for me, hon?

2.Drop the gun, sweetie. I didn't mean it.

POSSESSIVESShowing possession in English is a relatively easy matter (believe it or not).

By adding an apostrophe and an s we can manage to transform most singular nouns into their possessive form:• the car's front seat• Charles's car• Bartkowski's book• a hard day's work

PO

SSESSIVES CO

NT.

Some writers will say that the -s after Charles' is not necessary and that adding only the apostrophe (Charles' car) will suffice to show possession.

Consistency is the key here: if you choose not to add the -s after a noun that already ends in s, do so consistently throughout your text.

You will find that some nouns, especially proper nouns, especially when there are other -s and -z sounds involved, turn into clumsy beasts when you add another s: "That's old Mrs. Chambers's estate." In that case, you're better off with "Mrs. Chambers' estate."

There is another way around this problem of klunky possessives: using the "of phrase" to show possession. For instance, we would probably say the "constitution of Illinois," as opposed to "Illinois' (or Illinois's ??) constitution."

Most plural nouns already end in s. To create their possessive, simply add an apostrophe after the s:• The Pepins' house is the big blue one on the corner.• The lions' usual source of water has dried up.• The gases' odors mixed and became nauseating.• The witches' brooms were hidden in the corner.• The babies' beds were all in a row.

With nouns whose plurals are irregular, however, you will need to add an apostrophe followed by an s to create the possessive form.• She plans on opening a women's clothing boutique.• Children's programming is not a high priority.• The geese's food supply was endangered.

(But with words that do not change their form when pluralized, you will have to add an -s or -es.)• The seaweed was destroyed by the fishes' overfeeding.

POSSESSIVES CONT.

Sentence pattern one…

The Simple sentenceThis pattern is an example of a simple sentence:Independent clause [ . ]Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.

Sentence pattern two…Compound SentenceThis pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a coordinating conjunction:Independent clause [ , ] coordinating conjunction independent clause [ . ]There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don't know the reasons for it.

Sentence pattern three..Compound SentenceThis pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a semicolon.Independent clause [ ;] independent clause [ . ]

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.

Sentence pattern four…Compound SentenceThis pattern is an example of a compound sentence with an independent marker.Independent clause [ ; ] independent marker [ , ] independent clause [ . ]

Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its causes.WANT SOME EXAMPLES OF INDEPENDENT MARKERS OR CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS?

Other Conjunctive Adverbs, or “Independent Markers”

accordinglyalso

besidesconsequently

converselyfinally

furthermorehence

howeverindeedinsteadlikewise

meanwhilemoreover

neverthelessnext

nonethelessotherwisesimilarly

stillsubsequently

thentherefore

thus

Sentence pattern five…Complex SentenceThis pattern is an example of a complex sentence with a dependent marker.Dependent marker dependent clause[ , ] Independent clause[ . ]

Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.

Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have called for more research into its causes.

Sentence pattern six… Complex SentenceThis pattern is an example of a complex sentence with a dependent marker.Independent clause dependent marker dependent clause [ . ]Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness.

Sentence pattern seven…This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded non-essential clause or phraseFirst part of an independent clause [ , ] non-essential clause or phrase, rest of the independent clause [ . ]

A non-essential clause or phrase is one that can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence or making it ungrammatical. In other words, the non-essential clause or phrase gives additional information, but the sentence can stand alone without it.Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians, are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.

Sentence pattern eight…This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded essential clause or phraseFirst part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause [ . ]An essential clause or phrase is one that cannot be removed without changing the overall meaning of the sentence.Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for more research into its causes.

Pu

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1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with ”that” (relative clauses). Such as: She is the nurse “that “helped me into the car.5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.

6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion.9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.

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Punctuation: Quotations

Direct QuotationsDirect quotations involve incorporating another person's exact words into your own writing.1. Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it at the end of the quoted material.2. Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete sentence.Mr. Johnson, who was working in his field that morning, said, "The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes."3. Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece of the original material's complete sentence.Although Mr. Johnson has seen odd happenings on the farm, he stated that the spaceship "certainly takes the cake" when it comes to unexplainable activity.

Punctuation: Quotations

5. In all the examples above, note how the period or comma punctuation always comes before the final quotation mark. It is important to realize also that when you are using MLA or some other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change.When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the error exactly in your own text. However, also insert the term sic in italics directly after the mistake, and enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to "thus," "so," or "just as that." The word tells the reader that your quote is an exact reproduction of what you found, and the error is not your own.Mr. Johnson says of the experience, "It's made me reconsider the existence of extraterestials [sic]."6. Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively short. Too many quotations in a research paper will get you accused of not producing original thought or material (they may also bore a reader who wants to know primarily what YOU have to say on the subject).

ContractionsIn a contraction, you combine two words by leaving out some letters and replacing them with an apostrophe. We use contractions all the time when speaking and in informal writing, though they are less common in academic writing. Examples:• have not - haven’t are not - aren’t• do not - don’t they are - they’re• we are - we’re we will - we’ll• he will - he’ll they will - they’ll• I am - I’m she is - she’s

Contractions, cont.Because some possessives and contractions sound alike (you’re/your, they’re/their, it’s/its), you have to be very careful not to confuse these words (see the homonyms section below). To check for whether a possessive or a contraction should be used, consider the meaning of the sentence. What is being communicated? See the examples below.Incorrect: I heard that your going to the concert with us.

Correct: I heard that you’re going to the concert with us.Incorrect: Their shopping for a new blender right now.

Correct: They’re shopping for a new blender right now.Incorrect: I hear its going to snow tomorrow.

Correct: I hear it’s going to snow tomorrow.•  

Hom

ophonesacceptexcept

My insurance will accept the charges for the accident.I like all vegetables, except for asparagus.

affecteffect

Changing the way you eat will affect your health.I can’t see what effect these new laws will have on me.

boardbored

We put a board on the roof to fix the leak.I am so bored because there’s nothing to do!

brakebreak

Always keep your foot above the brake!My dad is worried my mom will break our new television.

closeclothes

When you leave the room, always close the door.I want to go shopping to buy new clothes.

Hom

ophonescloseclothes

When you leave the room, always close the door.I want to go shopping to buy new clothes.

desertdessert

I thought you guys were going to desert me!The cherry pie looks so good for dessert!

ensureinsure

John wants to ensure he will graduate next semester.Mary will insure her new car.

farefair

I didn’t have money for the bus fare this morning.It was only fair that the bus driver kicked me off the bus.

forthfourth

I’m not sure I can go forth with the plan.Allen was so proud to come in fourth in the pie-eating contest!

Hom

ophonesgrategreat

We need to grate some cheese to put on the pizza.If it has enough cheese, it will be a great pizza!

hearhere

The volume was turned down so low I couldn’t hear it.Could you please bring the beef jerky over here?

holewhole

If I eat one more doughnut hole, I will be stuffed.I looked through the whole house, but I couldn’t find my umbrella.

knowno

I really have to know a lot to do well on my history test.I am going to study until I have no time left.

ledlead

The dog led the police to the drug stash.Pens are okay, but I prefer old-fashioned lead pencils.

Hom

ophoneslessenlesson

The doctor gave me some stretches to do to lessen the pain.I’m not sure if he’s learned his lesson yet.

loseloose

I’m trying hard to not lose patience with her.The knot might not hold, since it’s sort of loose.

malemail

The kennel had both male and female puppies for sale.I’m going to the post office to send my mail.

passedpast

I kept getting passed on the interstate today.In the past, I drove a lot faster.

peacepiece

We all wish for world peace.A piece of pie would be great right now.

principalprinciple

My high school principal gave pretty good advice.I don’t want to compromise my principles.

Hom

ophonesthanthen

I am tanner than she.We were both on the beach, but then she went inside.

theretheirthey're

You can put your shoes over there.Their shoes were dirty, so they left them outside.They’re just walking around barefoot right now.

totootwo

I am going to the mall.Jesse said she wants to go too.We are each looking for two new outfits.

weatherwhether

The weather tomorrow is supposed to be beautiful.I don’t know whether to go for a hike or a swim.

whosewho's

Whose scarf is this? Who’s going to the movie with us?

youryou're

Your dog is bigger than my dog.You’re going to have to keep him on a leash.

Assignment

Write two of each kind of sentence for a total of sixteen.Incorporate:• Two properly punctuated and capitalized quotations.• Ten homophones.• Four possessives.• Four numbers.• Five proper nouns.• Four contractions.

• Skip lines between your sentences. In the margins, label all of the requirements contained it each.

Simple type one, 1. Great Captain Neilson’s hat fell off.proper noun, Possessive, homo-phone

Compound type 2. The president said, “I will not tax the Four, quotation, lemons;” however, congress declared it Homophone was their choice.

COMPLETE THE CHECKLIST WHEN YOU ARE FINISHED.

Example

Check

List: 41

items!

Sixteen sentences two of each type______ initialTwo properly punctuated and capitalized quotations. Sentences ________ and _______Ten homophones:______________________________________________________________________________________________________Four possessives:________________________________________________________________Four numbers:___________________________Five proper nouns: _______________________ _______________________________________Four contractions: ________________________________________________________________