STRESS IN THE WORKPLACE: A CASE STUDY

A Research Proposal for a Dissertation

by

GERBRECHT SUSANNA NORTJÉ, BA, PDHIV/AIDS MANAGEMENT Student No.: 200157672

To be submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MASTER TECHNOLOGIAE

in

Business Administration

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. J.A. Watkins Co-Supervisor: Mr. W.L. Pretorius

TSHWANE

August 2007

iii

i

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT

I hereby declare that this dissertation submitted for the degree Magister Technologiae

Business Administration at the Tshwane University of Technology, is my own original

unaided work and has not previously been submitted to any other institution or higher

education. I further declare that all sources cited or quoted are indicated and

acknowledged by means of a comprehensive list of references.

Gerbrecht Susanna Nortjé

Copyright© Tshwane University of Technology – 2007

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher wishes to acknowledge the contribution of the following:

• The Almighty for the ability.

• Ruan Nortjé, my son, for all his love and support.

• My Parents, Wulf and Susan van der Walt for all their love, support and the

upbringing they gave me.

• Prof Dr Watkins for his patience, guidance and support.

• Ms Rachel Fourie for typing of the dissertation.

• To the countless others to whom I owe a great debt of gratitude and have not

mentioned here: I pass along a sincere thank you for your time, advice and talent.

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ABSTRACT

Author: Gerbrecht Susanna Nortjé, BA, PDHIV/AIDS Management

Degree: Magister Technologiae in Business Administration

University: Tshwane University of Technology

Faculty: Faculty of Management Sciences

Promotor: Prof Dr J A Watkins

Date: 31 August 2007

The aim of this study is to identify and classify the stress experienced by staff members

in the Faculty of Arts, at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT), and make

recommendations to mitigate the adverse impact thereof. Higher Education in South-

Africa has seen extensive change in the past 10 years. With the merging of tertiary

institutions whereby the former Technikons became Universities of Technology, resulted

in stress at all levels due to the impact of the change initiative not only on the workplace

but also in the private lives of people.

Stress is a term we all are aware of, and is not necessarily ‘bad’. Positive stress or ‘good

stress’, is the positive tension between where one is now, and where one wishes to go.

As a rule is a meaningful goal or project that taps into our talents and passion on a daily

basis. Negative stress or ‘distress’, is when a person hates his work, resenting the

multiple pressures of life and feeling like a victim. Stress in the workplace is detrimental

to an organization when it comes to productivity, performance standards and job

satisfaction. Organizations whose workers are stressed are also less likely to be

successful in a competitive market.

The Tshwane University of Technology was formed on 1 January 2004, when the

following three Technikons merged: Technikon Pretoria, Technikon North West and

Technikon Northern Gauteng. TUT is now the largest residential higher education

institution in South Africa, and has eight campuses and seven faculties.

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The Faculty of Arts forming the object of this research, with six departments, namely the

department of music which is situated at the Science Campus, Film Studies housed at the

Pretoria Campus, Fashion Design, with a branch at the University’s Ga-Rankuwa

Campus, while all the other departments are located at the Arts Campus in the Pretoria

CBD. The Faculty is also home to two performing arts theatres, namely the Breytenbach

and Rostrum, which serve as both academic and commercial facilities for various

Departments. The purpose of this study is to highlight the prevalence of stress, and the

negative effect it has on the individual as well as the organisation.

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ABBREVIATIONS

TUT - Tshwane University of Technology

EAP - Employee Assistance Programme

HIV - Humane Immune Virus

AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

ABBREVIATIONS v

CHAPTER 1: SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH

1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1

1.2 THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY 4

1.3 THE RESEARCH PROCESS 5

1.4 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 6

1.4.1Research problem statement 8

1.5 THE RESEARCH QUESTION 9

1.5.1 Investigative questions 9

1.6 THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 9

1.7 THE RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS 11

1.8 RESEARCH CONSTRAINTS 11

1.8.1Limitations 11

1.8.2Delimitations 11

1.9 CHAPTER AND CONTEXT ANALYSIS 12

1.10 KEY RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 12

1.11 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH 13

1.12 CONCLUSION 13

CHAPTER 2: THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

2.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 14

2.2 THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY 15

2.2.1 The Faculty of Arts 15

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2.3 THE IMPACT OF THE MERGER ON TUT EMPLOYEES 20

2.4 THE IMPACT OF THE MERGER ON THE FACULTY OF ARTS 22

2.5 CONCLUSION 22

CHAPTER 3: THE CONCEPTS OF STRESS: A LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 INTRODUCTION 24

3.2 WORK RELATED STRESS 25

3.3 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF STRESS 27

3.4 THE STRESS RESPONSE 27

3.5 RECOGNIZING STRESS 29

3.6 STRESS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 32

3.7 STRESS AND PERSONALITY BEHAVIOUR TYPES 33

3.8 WORKPLACE STRESS 34

3.8.1 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF WORKPLACE STRESS 35

3.9 STRESS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 37

3.9.1 STRESSORS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 38

3.9.1.1 Insecurity 38

3.9.1.2 Workload and other job demands 40

3.9.1.3 Support at work 41

3.9.1.4 Bullying at work and workplace violence 42

3.9.1.5 Work-life balance 44

3.9.1.6 Environmental stressors 45

3.10 STRESS MANAGEMENT 46

3.11 CONCLUSION 49

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH SURVEY DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION 50

4.2 RESEARCH APPROACH 50

4.2.1 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 50

4.2.2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 51

4.3 DATA COLLECTION 51

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4.3.1 LITERATURE STUDY 51

4.3.2 QUESTIONNAIRE 52

4.3.3 THE TARGET POPULATION 57

4.3.4 THE CHOICE OF SAMPLING METHOD 58

4.4 MEASUREMENT SCALES 58

4.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH 59

4.6 CONCLUSION 59

CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION 60

5.2 SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 60

5.3 SECTION B: LIFE EVENTS 64

5.4 SECTION C: IDENTIFYING STRESS AT WORK 67

5.5 SECTION D: WORK-LIFE BALANCE 74

5.6 CONCLUSION 77

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION

6.1 INTRODUCTION 79

6.2 THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION DESIGN

AND METHODOLOGY 79

6.3 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM RE-VISITED 80

6.4 THE RESEARCH QUESTION RE-VISITED 80

6.5 THE INVESTIGATIVE QUESTIONS RE-VISITED 81

6.6 KEY RESEARCH FINDINGS 82

6.7 RECOMMENDATIONS 82

6.8 KEY RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE

RESEARCH 83

6.9 PERSONAL REFLECTION 84

6.10 CONCLUSION 84

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 85

LIST OF FIGUERES

Figure 2.1: Structure of the Faculty of Arts 18

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Gender distribution of permanent staff members 19

Table 2.2: Distribution of academic and non-academic staff members 19

Table 3.1: The main factors that lead to stress and affect productivity 26

Table 3.2: Symptoms of Stress 30

Table 3.3: The four phases of stress 31

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1

CHAPTER 1

SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

The Collins English Dictionary (2000:1517) defines stress as, “…emotional or

physical strain or tension”. Stress can also be explained as the result of any

emotional, physical, social, economic, or other factors that require a response or

change. Robbins (2001:563) defines stress as, “…a dynamic condition in which an

individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint or demand related to what he

or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and

important”. Kreitner, Kinicki & Buelens (1999:503) define stress as, “…an adaptive

response, mediated by individual characteristics and/or psychological processes, that

is a consequence of any external action, situation or event that places special physical

and/or psychological demands upon a person”. This definition can be broken down

into three interrelated dimensions, namely:

Environmental demands, referred to as ‘stressors’.

An adaptive response.

Individual differences.

As a result, stress can be viewed from three different viewpoints, namely: the

medical, the clinical and the organization.

It is generally believed that some stress is acceptable, sometimes referred to as

‘challenge’ or ‘positive stress’ (eustress). Healthy pressure stimulates and energizes

human beings and promotes motivation and creativity. Distress, which is either too

little stress that creates boredom and apathy, or too much stress, can result in fatigue,

health problems, burntout and in the worst scenario, destructive and uncontrolled rage

(Vinassa, 2003:20).

Work stress and other psychosocial factors are recognized worldwide as a major

challenge to workers’ health and the health of organizations. Work stress has been

2

proved to adversely impact on individuals’ psychological and physical health, as well

as organizations’ effectiveness. In this research study, the term “stress” will be

referred to as ‘distress’. Workers who are stressed are more likely to be unhealthy,

poorly motivated, less productive and less safe to work with at work. Organizations

whose workers are stressed are also less likely to be successful in a competitive

market.

“…In the 15 Member States of the pre-2004 EU, the cost of stress at work and the

related mental health problems were estimated to be on average between 3% and 4%

of gross national product, amounting to €265 billion annually. Studies estimate that

work-related stress alone costs the businesses and governments of those countries

about €20 billion in absenteeism and related health costs, in addition to the price of

lower productivity, higher staff turnover and reduced ability to innovate.

In the United Kingdom during 2000, one in five workers was ‘extremely’ or ‘very’

stressed as a result of occupational influence. Stress-related disease is responsible for

the loss of 6,5 million working days each year in the United Kingdom, costing

employers around €571 million and society as a whole as much as €5,7 billion. In

Sweden during 1999, 14% of the 15 000 workers on long term sick leave said the

reason was stress and mental strain. The total cost of sick leave to Sweden in 1999

was €2,7 billion. In the Netherlands in 1998, mental disorders were the main cause of

incapacity (32%), and the cost of work-related psychological illness is estimated to be

€2,6 million a year” (WHO European Ministerial Conference on Medical Health,

2005:2).

In the USA, problems at work seem to be more strongly associated with health

complaints than any other life stressor, including financial or family problems. Of the

respondents to a survey, 68% confirmed that they had to work very fast and 60%

never had enough time to finish their work. The healthcare expenditure in the USA

are nearly 50% greater for workers who report high levels of stress at work (Kortum-

Margot, 2002:7).

In 1992, a United Nations Report entitled “job stress the 20th Century Disease”

emphasised the severity of the concept and a few years later, the World Health

3

Organization declared that stress had become a ‘world wide epidemic’. A 1998 study

reported that rapid changes in the workforce had resulted in a staggering

unemployment rate of 10% in the European Union and higher rates of job stress

complaints. Japan had a similar problem as a result of a major and prolonged

recession.

Research from across the globe indicates that the phenomenon of occupational stress

in universities is widespread and increasing exponentially. A key finding of a

national survey conducted in 2002 on occupational stress in Australian Universities is

that approximately 50% of Australian University staff taking part in the survey were

at risk of psychological illness, compared with only 19% of the Australian population

overall (Winefield, Gillespie, Stough, Dua & Hapuararchchi, 2002:10). A study

executed in 2004, at the University of Luton and the University of Leeds on stress and

work-life balance in academic and academic related employees in the UK, found that

69% indicating that they experience high levels of job stress (Kinman & Jones,

2004:Online).

While most physical hazards have clear tangent planes to physical injury, diagnosed

illness or symptoms, it is not always clear what forms of harm are caused by

psychosocial hazards. At one extreme it may be psychiatric illness but at the other, a

wide range of moods (anxiety, depression, irritability) or affective states (poor job

satisfaction, low organizational commitment) are attributed to stress, as well as a wide

range of psychosomatic symptoms (headaches, increased alcohol abuse, sleeplessness,

etc.). It may also be the reason why most companies overlook the importance of a

holistic stress management program.

The South African work environment is more challenging and complex than ever

before. Challenges such as diseases, physical and mental illness, stress, substance

abuse, HIV&AIDS, family issues and the technological revolution, are challenges that

neither employees nor employers have anticipated, but all play an intrinsic role in the

wellness of staff and the productivity of the work-force.

4

South Africa, for a number of reasons is for many a stressful country to live and work

in. This can be attributed to the high crime rate, unemployment, retrenchments, the

changing socio-political landscape, and the devastating effect of HIV & AIDS.

Furthermore, global changes in the 21st Century have brought major changes and

challenges to higher education. Higher education in South Africa has seen extensive

change in the past decade. Two major changes which have occurred is the merging of

various institutions and the second being the former Technikons becoming

Universities of Technologies. The merging of the Technikon Pretoria, Technikon

Northern Gauteng and Technikon North West, created major changes and uncertainty.

Both can be seen as stressors. These workplace stressors, combined with life events

in the life of staff members, can impede their professional growth, work wellness,

physical and psychological health.

According to Olivier, De Jager, Grootboom and Tokota (2005:913) the pressure of

change, as well as challenges such as financial constraints, increased workloads, the

information and technological revolution, changes in student demographics and

students’ levels of preparedness, the modularisation of courses, changes in

management styles and structures and the merging of institutions, tended to become

stressors and taking their toll on many tertiary staff. Occupational stress in higher

education is a worldwide problem, which are frequently debated and researched.

1.2 THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

On 1 January 2004 the Higher Education landscape in South Africa changed. The

two main changes were the merging of many institutions, and former Technikons

becoming Universities of Technology. The Tshwane University of Technology

(TUT) was formed by the merging of three Technikons: Technikon Northern

Gauteng, Technikon North-West and Technikon Pretoria.

TUT is now the largest residential higher education institution in South Africa, with

44 013 students registered for 2007. TUT has eight campuses: Pretoria West, Arts,

Arcadia, Witbank, Nelspruit, Polokwane, Soshanguve and Ga-Rankuwa. TUT has

seven faculties, namely Arts, Economics & Finance, Engineering & Built

5

Environment, Humanities, Information and Communication Technology,

Management Sciences and Science.

The Faculty of Arts was founded in 1921, as a school of fine art. To date it has grown

into one of Southern Africa’s most highly regarded academies in the creative industry.

The Faculty of Arts has the following departments: Vocal Art, School of Music,

Dance & Musical Theatre, Drama, Motion Picture Academy, Photography, Graphic

Design, Interior Design & Multimedia, Fashion Design & Technology, Textile

Design, Fine & Applied Arts, and Entertainment Technology.

1.3 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Remenyi, Williams, Money and Swartz (2002: 64 – 65), explain the research process

as consisting of eight specific phases, namely:

Reviewing the literature.

Formalising a research question.

Establishing the methodology.

Collecting evidence.

Analysing the evidence.

Developing conclusions.

Understanding the limitations of the research.

Producing management guidelines or recommendations.

According to Hussey, J. & Hussey, R, (1997: 15), there are six fundamental stages in

the research process, namely:

The identification of the research topic.

Definition of the research problem.

Determining how the research is going to be conducted.

Collection of the research data.

Analysis and interpretation of the research data.

Writing up of the dissertation or thesis.

In this research, the following research process will be followed:

The identification of the research topic.

Reviewing the literature.

6

Formalising a research question.

Establishing the methodology.

Determining how the research is going to be conducted.

Collecting evidence.

Analysing the evidence.

Developing conclusions.

1.4 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Everyone is at the same risk of work-related stress for the simple reason, that stress is

‘an emotion’. Du Plessis & Potgieter (2000:34) explain that the word emotion

originates from the Latin word, ‘emove’, which means ‘to move out’. (E)motive is

then described as, “…an emotion, desire, physiological need or similar impulse that

acts as an incitement to actions”. Emotions such as joy, interest, surprise, fear, anger,

distress, contempt, disgust and shame is generally accepted as the core or primary

emotions. Hattingh (2003:143) noted that, “…emotions represent a release of energy

that leads to actions or reactions”.

The researcher has been employed as a Senior Employee Assistance Practioner in the

Department of Human Resources of TUT. The Employee Assistance Program (EAP),

started in 2001 at the former Technikon Pretoria under the auspices of the researcher,

the programme then was an in-house programme. The EAP function falls under the

auspices of the Directorate of Human Resources. The Human Resources department

has the following values:

Professionalism: In respect to its conduct, accountability and interaction with all

its customers.

Excellence: The Directorate of Human Resources fully acknowledges its role in

contributing towards the overall strategic goal of excellence on a macro level as

well as on a micro level dealing with the daily operations of the Human Resources

function.

Caring: The Employee Assistance Programme places the caring principle high

on the agenda within the Directorate of Human Resources.

Valuing diversity: The diverse nature of the workforce is promoted as being on

the organizations strengths through the Employment Equity process.

7

Typical issues being dealt with, within the ambit of the Employee Assistance

Programme, the following:

Physical assault in the workplace.

Emotional abuse.

Threat to kill a supervisor.

Sexual harassment.

Major depression.

Alcohol abuse.

Complaints about the ergonomics of TUT.

Various health problems that are stress related.

Applications for medical disability that vary from depression, bi-polar disorders,

cancers, heart diseases, etc.

Critical incidents experienced by the staff members such as: rape, hi-jackings,

violent death of co-workers.

High-rate of death among staff members.

Family-problems such as: divorces, spouse retrenchment, problem children, etc.

Suicide and suicide attempts.

The aspects listed above maps to the findings of the Discovery Health Corporate

Health Review (Fourth Dimension Health & IFG Africa Healthcare Consultants

2005/2006), which indicated that the chronic conditions for which principal members

younger than 65 are most commonly registered for are:

Essential (primary) hypertension.

Disorders of lipoprotein metabolism and other lipidaemias.

Menopausal and other peri-menopausal disorders.

Depressive Episodes.

Other Hypothyroidism.

Asthma.

Non-Insulin dependant diabetes mellitus.

Gout.

Chronic ischaemic heart disease.

Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease.

8

For confidentiality reasons, HIV&AIDS is not listed in the Discovery Corporate

Health review. The fact that principal members are staff members and not the

dependants, must be taken in consideration.

Research has shown that hypertension, disorders of lipoprotein metabolism,

depressive episodes, non-insulin dependant diabetes mellitus, and chronic ischemic

heart disease and gastro-oesophageal reflux diseases are all stress related. Covey

(2004:336) mentioned that, “…in professional circles, it is widely accepted that at

least two-thirds of all diseases are caused by lifestyle choices that people make.

These choices relate to nutrition, to smoking, to insufficient rest and relaxation, to

attempting to burn the candle at both ends, and many other abuses of the body”.

ICAS (Independent Counselling and Advisory Services) of South Africa, according to

Vinassa (2003:20), has identified four key sources of stress responsible for the bulk of

the emotional problems they encounter:

The perpetual pressure for change and reorganization in the workplace.

Interpersonal relationships between workers.

Critical incidents such as crime and natural disasters.

Family-related problems.

From the above, the analogy can be drawn that in all spheres of life stress is evident,

also in the Tshwane University of Technology.

1.4.1 Research problem statement

Against the above background the research problem for this research study reads as

follows:

“Unacceptable high levels of stress in the Faculty of Arts at TUT, adversely impacting

on employee well being”.

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1.5 THE RESEARCH QUESTION

The research question forming the crux of the research reads as follows:

“Can the type of stress experienced by staff members at the Faculty of Arts be

identified, classified and ultimately mitigated”?

1.5.1 Investigative questions

In support of the research question, the following investigative questions will be

researched:

Can it be determined whether the staff members at the Faculty of Arts experience

stress and furthermore which types of stress are most common?

Can practical stress management techniques be implemented to address stress as

experienced by staff members of the Faculty of Arts at TUT.

1.6. THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Yin (1994:19) define a research design as, “… the logical sequence that connects the

empirical data to a study’s initial research question and ultimately, to its conclusions”.

Case study research will serve as the primary research method. Some of the more

salient aspects of case study research described by Yin are listed below for ease of

reference:

A case study is an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary

phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between

phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.

Case study research aims not only to explore certain phenomena, but also to

understand them in a particular context.

‘How’ and ‘why’ questions are explanatory, and likely to be used in case study

research.

A case study illuminates a decision or set of decisions – why they were taken, how

they were implemented, and with what result.

The case study as a research strategy comprises an all-encompassing method –

with the logic of design incorporating specific approaches to data collection and

10

data analysis. In this sense, the case study is not either a data collection tactic or

merely a design feature alone, but ‘a comprehensive research strategy’.

Case study research uses multiple methods for collecting data, which may be both

qualitative and quantitative.

A case study is typically used when contextual conditions are the subject of

research.

According to Hussey, J. and Hussey, R. (1997:66), case studies are often described as

exploratory research used in areas where there are few theories or a deficient body of

knowledge. In addition, the following types of case studies can be identified:

Descriptive case studies: Where the objective is restricted to describing current

practice.

Illustrative case studies: Where the research attempts to illustrate new and

possibly innovative practices adopted by particular companies.

Experimental case studies: Where the research examines the difficulties in

implementing new procedures and techniques in an organisation and evaluating

the benefits.

Explanatory case studies: Where existing theory is used to understand and

explain what is happening.

Yin (1994:20 – 27), emphasises the following five components of a research design,

which are especially important for case studies:

Study questions: The case study is most likely to be appropriate for ‘how’ and

‘why’ questions, which calls for the initial task being to clarify precisely the

nature of the study questions.

Study propositions: A study proposition directs the attention to something that

should be examined within the scope of the study. For greater clarity, the

proposition points to the, ‘reason for the study’.

Unit of analysis: Should the case study involve a specific person being studied,

say a person with a rare medical problem, the individual being studied is the

primary unit of analysis. The tentative definition of the unit of analysis is related

to the way in which the initial research questions were formulated.

Linking data to propositions: A number of ways are open to students to link

data to propositions. An approach suggested by Yin is that of ‘pattern matching’,

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whereby several pieces of information from the same case may be related to some

theoretical proposition.

Criteria for interpreting findings: If the different ‘patterns’ are sufficiently

contrasting, the findings can be interpreted in terms of comparing at least two rival

propositions.

1.7 RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS

The researcher assumes that:

There are high levels of stress at TUT.

Staffs in the Faculty of Arts at TUT are familiar with the term ‘stress’.

1.8 RESEARCH CONSTRAINTS

1.8.1 LIMITATIONS

The quantity and quality of information to be gleaned from the survey questionnaires

will depend on the willingness of the respondents to cooperate. Non-co-operation

could point to the following:

People fail to see any value in participating.

They may fear the ‘interview/questionnaire’ experience for some personal

reasons.

They may view the topic as too sensitive and the questionnaire as potentially

embarrassing or intrusive.

They may not have the knowledge or even an opinion on the topic of concern.

A respondent may feel obliged to give an opinion, and in that case it is difficult to

know how true or reliable the answers are.

A respondent may interpret the question differently from what was intended by

the researcher.

1.8.2 DELIMITATIONS

The scope of the research will be limited to the Faculty of Arts at TUT.

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1.9 CHAPTERS AND CONTEXT ANALYSIS

The following chapter content analysis will pertain to this research study:

Chapter 1- Scope of the research: Provides a holistic background to be

conducted within the ambit of this dissertation.

Chapter 2 - TUT – a Holistic perspective: In this chapter a holistic overview of

the Tshwane University of Technology will be provided, as well as of the Faculty

of Arts. Related statistics regarding staff members and students are also provided.

Chapter 3 – Concept of ‘Stress’ – A literature review: A literature review is

conducted that focus on stress. Attention is given to stress related issues and

stress management techniques which have been used to manage stress effectively.

Chapter 4 - Data collection design and methodology: In this chapter, the

research design and methodology to be followed in this study for data collection

are elaborated upon.

Chapter 5 - Interpretation of results: In this chapter, the statistical analysis of

the results gleaned from chapter 4 will be analysed and interpreted.

Chapter 6 - Conclusion: In this chapter, the research is concluded and final

analogies drawn. The chapter will be concluded with recommendations which

will mitigate the research problem and provide an answer to the research question.

1.10 KEY RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The key research objectives with this research study are:

To determine whether the staff members of the Faculty of Arts at TUT experience

stress.

To identify the causes of stress as experienced by the staff members of the Faculty

of Arts at TUT.

To identify practical stress management techniques that could mitigate the

primary research problem.

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1.11 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH

The significance of this research stems from the fact that:

This research is the first research executed on stress at the TUT after the merger.

Should the recommendations made in this dissertation be acceptable, it would

have the potential to facilitate a relatively stress free working environment in a

highly stress orientated environment.

1.12 CONCLUSION

In this chapter, a holistic perspective has been provided of the issues pertaining to the

research environment. The research process, the research problem and associated

research question were elaborated upon. Furthermore, the research design and

methodology was explained and the chapter concluded with a chapter and content

analysis and key research objectives.

In Chapter 2, a holistic perspective will be provided of the on the Tshwane University

of Technology, with specific focus on the Faculty of Arts.

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CHAPTER 2

THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY – A

HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVE

2.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

South Africa’s entire educational system, from primary schools to tertiary institutions,

is in the process of being redesigned for the post-apartheid future. The key challenges

facing the South African higher education system remain as outlined in the White

Paper, “… to redress past inequalities and to transform the higher education system

to serve a new social order, to meet pressing national needs, and to respond to new

realities and opportunities (South Africa: 1997a). More specifically, as the White

Paper indicates, the role of higher education in a knowledge-driven world is three

fold:

Human resource development: The mobilisation of human talent and potential

through lifelong learning to contribute to the social, economic, cultural and

intellectual life of a rapidly changing society.

High-level skills training: The training and provision of person power to

strengthen this country’s enterprises, services and infrastructure. This requires the

development of professionals and knowledge workers with globally equivalent

skills, but who are socially responsible and conscious of their role in contributing

to the national development effort and social transformation.

Production, acquisition and application of knew knowledge: National growth

and competitiveness is dependent on continuous technological improvement and

innovation, driven by a well-organised, vibrant research and development system.

This integrates the research and training capacity of higher education with the

needs of industry and of social reconstruction (South Africa: 1997a).

Higher education in South Africa has seen extensive change in the past decade, in

response to two main challenges. First the need to address the inequalities as a result

15

of the apartheid legacy, and second to ensure that the higher education system is able

to meet the challenges of the 21st century in the context of a globalizing world.

2.2 THE TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

On 1 January 2004, the Higher Education landscape in South Africa changed. The

two main changes were first the merging of a number of institutions, and secondly the

former Technikons which became Universities of Technology. The Tshwane

University of Technology (TUT) was established on 1 January 2004, in terms of a

Government Notice No 25737, published in the Government Gazette on 14 November

2003, relating to a provision in the Higher Education Act, 1997 (Act No 101 of 1997),

which reads as follows: “… I, Professor Kader Asmal, MP, Minister of Education, in

accordance with section 23(1) of the Higher Education Act, 1997 (Act 101 of 1997),

and after consulting the Council of Higher Education, hereby merge the Technikon

Northern Gauteng, Technikon North West and Technikon Pretoria into a single public

Higher Education Institution” (South Africa:2003).

TUT is now the largest residential higher education institution in South Africa, with

44 013 students registered for 2007. TUT have eight campuses, namely: Pretoria

West, Arts, Arcadia, Witbank, Nelspruit, Polokwane, Soshanguve and Ga-Rankuwa.

TUT have seven faculties, namely Arts, Economics & Finance, Engineering & Built

Environment, Humanities, Information and Communication Technology,

Management Sciences and Science.

2.2.1 The Faculty of Arts

The Faculty of Arts was founded in 1921, as a school of fine art. Today it has grown

into one of South Africa’s most highly regarded academies in the creative industry.

The faculty consists of the following six departments: Drama and Film Studies,

Entertainment technology, Performing Arts, Fashion Design and Technology, Fine

and Applied Arts, and Visual Communication.

16

The Faculty of the Arts offers the following courses, namely Dance, Drama, Fashion

Design, Fine and Applied Arts, Graphic Desigh, Interior Design, Jewellery Design

and Manufacture, Film Studies, Multimedia, Music, Musical Theatre, Performing Arts

Technology, Photography, Textile Design and Technology, Vocal Art and Art

Administration.

Qualifications offered in the Faculty are as follows: National Certificate (1 year);

National Higher Certificate (2 year); National Diploma (3 years); Bachelor of

Technology (4 years); Master of Technology (graduate research degree); Doctor of

Technology (advanced graduate research degree).

The prime purpose of the Faculty of Arts is to lead and sustain creativity and the

creative process. To this end, it offers leading-edge programmes that prepare students

for degrees and diplomas in the cultural sector.

The vision of the Faculty of Arts is “… To be the leading Faculty of the Arts in South

Africa and elsewhere in the world that:

Promotes creativity, scholarship, knowledge and technology innovation in the

cultural domain;

Provides world-class education in the cultural sector;

Encourages the dual role of culture in South Africa (that is, art for the sake of art,

and culture-led social, economic and physical development)

The mission of the Faculty of Arts is to enable and realise this vision. The faculty

strives to:

Empower students by harnessing and enhancing their creative and intellectual

competence, at both under graduate and postgraduate levels.

Empower Southern African societies by contributing to socio-economic

development needs through the transfer of knowledge and technology to

communities.

Extend the boundaries of creativity, technology innovation and arts practice by

making knowledge accessible and useful through strategic research programmes

that are both practice-based and theory-driven.

17

Establish and sustain strategic alliances with academic and business partners, in

both local and global contexts.

The strategic goals of the Faculty are as follows:

To develop research and innovation capacity.

To improve the success rate of learners and the graduation rate.

To improve quality assurance.

To develop community engagement.

The objectives of the Faculty are as follows:

To improve staff development to do research.

To increase partnerships to develop local economy.

To develop research and innovation incubators to create job opportunities.

To develop quality plans to improve the quality of our offerings and products.

To develop at least one community project to create job opportunities.

The structure of the Faculty of Arts is graphically depicted in Figure 2.1

18

Figure 2.1: Structure of the Faculty of Arts. (Source: Own Source)

EXECUTIVE DEAN

Breytenbach Theatre

Research Project Manager

Executive Secretary Faculty Administrative Officer

Faculty Marketer

Financial Officer / Campus Administrator /

Procurement Officer

Drama and Film Studies Drama, Motion Picture Academy

Fashion Design and Technology

Fashion

Entertainment Technology

Performing Arts Technology

Fine and Applied Arts Fine and Applied Arts

Jewellery Design Textile and Product Design

Performing Arts Dance, Musical Theatre, Jazz and

Popular Music, Vocal Art

Visual Communication Graphic Design and New Media

Interior Design Photography

19

The gender distribution of permanent staff members are reflected in Table 2.1

Table 2.1: Gender distribution of permanent staff members (Source: ITS System, TUT)

Department Male Female Total

Dean: Arts 4 3 7

Drama and Film Studies 8 9 17

Entertainment Technology 4 4 8

Fashion Design and Technology 6 10 16

Fine and Applied Arts 9 11 20

Graphic, Interior and Multimedia 2 6 8

Performing Arts 9 7 16

Visual Communication 4 0 4

Total 46 50 96

The distribution of academic and non-academic staff members are reflected in Table

2.2

Table 2.2: Distribution of academic and non-academic staff members (Source: ITS System, TUT)

Department Academic Non-Academic Total

Dean Arts 2 6 8

Drama and Film Studies 13 6 19

Entertainment Technology 8 2 10

Fashion Design and Technology 14 2 16

Fine and Applied Arts 15 5 20

Graphic, Interior and Multimedia 7 2 9

Performing Arts 8 1 8

Visual Communication 5 0 5

Total 72 22 96

20

2.3 THE IMPACT OF THE MERGER ON TUT EMPLOYEES

Hitt, Ireland and Hoskisson (2001:277) define a merger, “…as a strategy through

which two firms agree to integrate their operations on a relatively co-equal basis

because they have resources and capabilities that together may create a stronger

competitive advantage”. There is however one key factor that needs to be taken in

consideration when a merger occurs, and that is ‘the people’ involved. The first

impact that a merger has on the staff is paradigmatic change. There are different

forces of change in the workplace, e.g. nature of the workforce, technology, economic

shocks, competition, social trends and world politics. Robbins (2001:542)

distinguishes between, first-order change which is linear and continuous. It implies

no fundamental shifts in the assumptions that organizational members hold about the

world or how the organization can improve its functioning. Furthermore, Robbins

describes second-order change as a multidimensional, multilevel, discontinuous,

radical change involving reframing of assumption about the organization and the

world in which it operates.

The researcher is of the opinion that TUT has undergone a second-order change, as

the merger causes change on all levels. A new management team was appointed, new

policies & procedures were written, or still in the process of been written. Employees

have to learn to work with new colleagues. It is people with different values and

norms, who are now placed in the same departments. The third dramatic change was

represented by the merger of three different organizational cultures. Incompatibility

of cultures cannot be put forward as a reason why many mergers fail, however

cultural compatibility has become the primary concern in mergers. Organizational

culture is a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the

organization from other organizations. On closer scrutiny, it is a set of key

characteristics that the organization values.

According to Jansen (2003:44), the impact of mergers on staff in many cases, has

been devastating for their emotional and professional lives of all staff, at all levels.

Such emotional upheaval can be attributed to the following:

Corridor politics: This refers to strong feelings of betrayal and abuse. The use

of rumour and myth-creation clearly contributes to the merger climate within the

21

institution, and to very active micro-politics among staff and management.

Corridor politics however not alter the speed or outcome of the merger process, it

simply generates frustration.

Street politics: This refers to the active representation of staff politics within

public spheres, including the media, campus organizations, and through

representations directly to government. Street level politics displays aggression

and threats, but does not influence the final outcome of the merger.

Boardroom politics: This refers to the active negotiation and securing of the

position of one merger partner ahead of his/her competition during and after the

merger process as a result of deliberate management actions.

Mergers can often be traumatic for the employees of acquired firms, and the impact

can range from anger to depression. Issues which manifest as a result of mergers and

acquisitions are changes in the human resources policies, downsizing, layoffs,

survivor syndromes and stress on the workers.

The second impact that the merger has on the staff members, is uncertainty. Kreitner

et al. (1999:311) list the following as the five common sources of uncertainty within

organizations:

Unclear objectives.

Vague performance measures.

Ill-defined decision processes.

Strong individual or group competition.

Any type of change.

Skodvin (1999:68) is of the opinion that in a merger, not only the governing systems

of the impacted institutions are affected, “…the souls of the partners involved are also

affected and they have to relate to the process of change”. High levels of uncertainty

have an increased level of anxiety, which manifests itself in greater nervousness,

stress and aggressiveness. Some of the factors which contributed to the uncertainty

experience by staff members of TUT as a result of the merger, the following:

Reports in the press that the institution is technically bankrupt, and staff members

who worked for the last two months have not been paid.

22

The ‘match and place process’ which started. The match and place is a process in

order to achieve the consolidation and integration of academic, as well as support

structures, in line with the Institutional Operating Plan. The match and place

process will have the reality of retrenchments. Retrenchment has an emotional

impact on the affected employee as well as on the remaining staff. “…A

retrenchment experience is so traumatic that the stress continues for months, with

employees living in a state of fear of putting a foot wrong” (Page, 2001:15). Job

loss is one of the most devastating experiences second only to the death of a loved

one.

Out-sourcing of departments, without the prescribed procedures.

The researcher is of the opinion that the emotional stress and traumatic experience

created by the merger, as well as other stressors in the workplace and life event

stressors has a direct impact on the health and work performance of staff members at

TUT. The researcher is further of the opinion that the stress at TUT has reached

unacceptable levels directly influencing the well being of staff adversely.

2.4 THE IMPACT OF THE MERGER ON THE FACULTY OF ARTS

On 6 November 2006 the Senate approved the consolidation of academic

departments, and as a result, several of the academic departments in the Faculty of

Arts will be consolidated. Due to this consolidation there will be fewer heads of

departments and secretaries.

2.5 CONCLUSION

In this chapter a holistic perspective was provided of the merger status quo of the

Tshwane University of Technology. Furthermore, the Faculty of Arts were analysed

in terms of courses presented, its vision, mission and objectives. In addition, detail

was provided on the entities’ structure and an analysis provided of the gender

distribution and distribution of academic and non-academic staff. Detail was

provided on the impact of the merger on TUT employees, and the chapter concluded

with a discussion of the impact of the merger on the Faculty of Arts, the latter forming

23

the focus of this research study. In the next chapter, a literature review will be

conducted on the concept of ‘stress’.

24

CHAPTER 3

THE CONCEPT OF STRESS: A LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

While stress is readily acknowledged to be a common occurrence of modern life,

defining stress, its causes, symptoms and effects is a very complex matter. Stress can

be defined from a health perspective, from an organizational perspective and from an

individual perspective.

Cryer, McCraty & Childre (2003:103) refer to stress as “…two simultaneous events:

an external stimulus called a stressor, and the emotional and physical responses to that

stimulus (fear, anxiety, surging heart rate and blood pressure, fast breathing, muscle

tension, and so on). Good stressors (a ski run, a poetry contest) inspire you to

achieve”.

Stress was the object of study in early clinical research. The emotional breakdown of

men in military combat was studied in clinical research in the early 1949’s, known as

‘combat fatigue’. Psychotic behaviour, extreme fearfulness, anxiety, ulcers and

hypertension were found to result from this stressful experience. Furthermore, shock

reactions to civilian disasters were also studied in early research as well as living in

chronically stressful situations for prolonged periods, resulting in a symptomatic

pattern in the likes of combat fatigue being observed (Berry, 1998:416).

Stress can derive from life events and according to Looker & Gregson (2003:93), ‘life

event stressors’ fall into the following categories:

Unavoidable stress: Are stressors such as death, illness, injury etc.

A crisis that creates stress: Such as financial difficulties, marital problems, work

problems etc.

Events that require some adjustments: Such as moving to a new house,

children starting school etc.

25

Positive stress (eustress): Is healthy pressure that stimulates and energizes us

and promotes motivation and creativity.

Vermeulen (2001:50) explains that, “…stress is anything that causes us to feel we are

losing control”. It includes anxiety and fear. Anxiety deals with imagined or unreal

dangers. Fear deals with ‘actual’ or ‘threatened’ dangers. Because stress includes

both fear and anxiety, stress according to Vermeulen (2001:50), can be defined as,

“… the feeling that results from the desire to terminate, escape from or avoid real or

imagined, current or imminent, negative event”. Vermeulen further distinguish

between three types of stress, namely:

Physical stress: Is the stress a human body can feel. It causes physical

discomfort such as headaches, ulcers, sleeplessness or pain of muscles and organs.

Psychological stress: Is the result of our attitudes, emotions and reactions such as

depression, habitual negativity, lack of concentration and low creativity.

Psychosocial stress: Involves the stressors that arise from interpersonal

relationships and inadequate or inappropriate social interactions such as

aggression.

3.2 WORK RELATED STRESS

Research on work related stress started in the late 1960’s. With increasing of work

pressures as a result of competitiveness, change within the organisation or any of the

plethoras of aspects which could induce stress in a work environment, stress at work

and other psychosocial factors are now major occupational health concerns.

Furthermore, work stress is recognized worldwide as a major challenge to workers’

health and the health of their organizations. Workers who are stressed are more likely

to be unhealthy, poorly motivated, less productive and less safe at work. The

organizations are less likely to be successful in a competitive market. Work stress

could adversely impact an individuals’ psychological and physical state.

Lee (2006:3) cites the Kelly 2006 Human Capital Survey, which found that stress and

productivity appears to be more of an issue for employees than in their 2003 survey.

Employees attribute the major causes of work related stress to inadequate skills,

workloads, financial difficulties, poor ethics and supervision and a dislike for their

26

daily tasks. The main factors that lead to stress and affect productivity are reflected in

Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 The main factors that lead to stress and affect productivity are: (Source: Lee; 2006:3)

Rank Cause of stress %

1 Workloads too high or low 90

2 Employees lack skills 86

3 Personal finance 78

4 Poor supervision 73

5 Health problems 70

6 Personal relationships 70

7 Job too complex 69

Work/life issues (household chores, parenting stress, personal relationships), and

relationships with co-workers are less contributory to causing stress. On average,

research has shown that employers lose around eleven days per employee annually on

stress related issues.

The University of Michigan Business School Pressing Problems Survey 2001,

returned that the following rates as the top ten issues with which managers around the

globe are grappling, which invariably causes work related stress:

Verbal communication and listening skills.

Managing time and stress.

Making individual decisions.

Recognizing, defining and solving problems.

Motivating others.

Delegating.

Setting goals.

Self awareness.

Team building.

Managing conflict.

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From the Kelly’s 2006 Human Capital Survey (Lee, 2006:3) and the University of

Michigan Business School Pressing Problems Survey 2001, it is evident that stress is

a concern for both employees and managers. From the results of the survey, the

obvious analogy can be drawn that employers cannot afford to ignore stress in the

workplace.

3.3 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF STRESS

According to Berry (1998:418) Hans Selye an important theorist and pioneer, who

originally conducted research on the body’s response to stressors, defined stress in

physiological terms as, ‘a non-specific or generalized bodily response. This response

results when any demand is made on the body, whether it is an environmental

condition that we must survive, or a demand that is being made in order to accomplish

a personal goal. Selye also distinguished between two forms of stress, namely

‘distress’, which is the body’s response to negative events and ‘eustress’, which is the

body’s response to positive stress, emphasizing that both positive and negative stress

can constitute to physiological stress or reaction in the body. Walter Cannon was the

first person who used the term stress to refer to, ‘the physiological reaction’, which is

caused by the perception of aversive or threatening situation. Cannon also introduced

the term ‘fight or flight’, referring to the response which prepares one to cope with the

threats posed by a predator.

Ironically, while the world has changed significantly with no real world predatory

threats, the predators’ now manifest in a new form, namely that of: Pressures of

deadlines, the irritation of noise, the frustrations of traffic jams, the throes of poverty,

crime, changes in the workplace etc.

3.4 THE STRESS RESPONSE

The body’s stress response consists of a predictable, non-specific, three-stage pattern

of physiological responses, as explained in the SOLVE Directors Course program of

the International Labour Office (2004,Online). The predictable non-specific, three-

stage physiological responses are elaborated upon below:

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The alarm stage: It is the ‘fight or flight’ response that prepares a person to meet

a challenge or threat. Our bodies are designed, with a set of automatic responses

to deal with stress. This system is very effective for the alarm stage or ‘fight or

flight’ responses one needs when faced with an immediate danger. The problem is

that the human body deals with all types of stress in the same way. Experiencing

stress for long periods of time (such as lower level but constant stressors at work)

will ‘activate’ this system, but it does not get the opportunity to ‘de-activate’ the

system. The human body's ‘pre-programmed’ response to stress is termed the

‘generalized stress response’ and includes:

• An increased blood pressure level.

• Increased metabolism (e.g., faster heartbeat, faster respiration).

• A decrease in protein synthesis, intestinal movement (digestion), immune

and allergic response systems.

• Increased cholesterol and fatty acids in blood for energy production systems.

• Localized inflammation (redness, swelling, heat and pain).

• Faster blood clotting.

• Increased production of blood sugar for energy.

• Increased stomach acids.

The adaptive/resistance stage: Represents the stage during which the body may

return to its pre-excited state and recovers from the physiological strains of the

alarm stage, once the stressors are eliminated. If the stressor persists, the

individual reaches a new level of adaptation as the internal organs mount a

sustained resistance. The signs and symptoms that are characteristic of the alarm

reaction virtually disappear. If the stressor is not eliminated, the person enters

into a mode of energy conservation, which may be evidenced by social

withdrawal, absenteeism, poor productivity, tardiness etc.

The exhaustion stage: Often termed ‘burn out’, is a reaction to the constant high

metabolic demands of an extended alarm stage. With its resources severely

depleted, the body is susceptible to illness or in extreme cases, death.

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3.5 RECOGNIZING STRESS

More often than not, humans do not recognise that they are stressed. The first step in

recognizing when a person is stressed, is that the person should acknowledge the

possibility that he or she can become stressed. The second step is to be aware of the

signs and symptoms of stress, which may vary from mild to moderate or severe, as

reflected in Table 3.2 below.

30

Table 3.2 Symptoms of Stress (Source: ILO: SOLVE Course Directors, 2004: Online)

Physical signs and symptoms of stress

Cognitive signs and symptoms of stress

Emotional signs and symptoms of stress

Behavioural signs and symptoms of stress

• Rapid heart rate. • Elevated blood

pressure. • Nausea and/or

vomiting. • Chest pain. • Difficulty

breathing. • Fainting. • Dizziness. • Tremor. • Increased

perspiration • Headaches. • Muscle twitching. • Thirst. • Fatigue. • Grinding teeth. • Visual difficulties. • Hearing

difficulties.

• Poor concentration. • Loss of self-

confidence. • Memory

impairment. • Increased of

decreased awareness of one’s surroundings.

• Difficulty making decisions.

• Poor abstract thinking.

• Blaming other persons.

• Difficulty identifying familiar objects or people.

• Loss of time, place or person orientation.

• Racing thoughts. • Disturbed thinking.

• Apprehension. • Uncertainty. • Fear. • Agitation. • Anxiety. • Sever panic. • Anger. • Feeling

overwhelmed. • Irritability. • Hopelessness. • Emotional shock. • Guilt. • Grief. • Depression. • Denial. • Inappropriate

emotional response.

• Change in activity level.

• Sleep disturbances.

• Erratic movements.

• Change in usual style of communication.

• Loss of interest in previously pleasurable activities.

• Change in eating habits.

• Emotional outburst.

• Antisocial behaviour.

• Inappropriate use of humour.

• Suspiciousness. • Hyper arousal. • Substance use

(e.g., caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, etc.).

• Deterioration on performance effectiveness.

• Accident proneness.

• Nervous mannerisms (e.g., foot tapping, nail biting, teeth grinding, hair pulling, hand wringing, etc.).

The four ‘fases of stress’, the identification thereof (signs/symptoms) and associated

remedial action are depicted in Table 3.3

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Table 3.3: The four phases of stress: (Source: Anschuetz, B.L. 1999: Online)

Phase Signs/Symptoms Action

Phase 1 - Warning

Early warning signs are often more emotional than physical and may take a year or more before they are noticeable.

• Feelings of vague anxiety. • Depression. • Boredom. • Apathy. • Emotional fatigue.

• Talking about feelings • Taking a vacation. • Making a change from

regular activities. • Taking time for yourself.

Phase 2 - Mild Symptoms

Warning signs have progressed and intensified. Over a period of 6 to 18 months, physical signs may also be evident.

• Sleep disturbances. • More frequent headaches/colds. • Muscle aches. • Intensified physical and emotional fatigue. • Withdrawal from contact with others. • Irritability. • Intensified depression.

• More aggressive lifestyle changes may be needed.

• Short-term counselling.

Phase 3 - Entrenched Cumulative Stress

This phase occurs when the above phases continue to be ignored. Stress starts to create a deeper impact on career, family life and personal well-being.

• Increased use of alcohol, smoking, non-prescription drugs.

• Depression. • Physical and emotional fatigue. • Loss of sex drive. • Ulcers. • Marital discord. • Crying spells. • Intense anxiety. • Rigid thinking. • Withdrawal. • Restlessness. • Sleeplessness.

The help of medical and psychological professionals is highly recommended.

Phase 4 – Severe/ Debilitating Cumulative Stress Reaction

This phase is often considered ‘self-destructive’ and tends to occur after 5 to10 years of continued stress.

• Careers end prematurely. • Asthma. • Heart conditions. • Severe depression. • Lowered self-esteem/self-confidence. • Inability to perform one's job. • Inability to manage personal life. • Withdrawal. • Uncontrolled anger, grief, rage. • Suicidal or homicidal thinking. • Muscle tremors. • Extreme chronic fatigue. • Over-reaction to minor events. • Agitation. • Frequent accidents. • Carelessness, forgetfulness. • Paranoia.

Significant intervention from professionals.

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3.6 STRESS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Gender represents an individual difference, which can distinguish how people

perceive and respond to stress. The fact that female and male children are raised

differently, e.g. boys are taught ‘cowboys don’t cry’. Furthermore, males and females

are taught to behave differently and to have different expectations in life, resulting in

the two sexes experiencing stress differently.

Sulsky & Smith (2005:163) report that, “… women tend to develop psychological

stress responses such as depression and fatigue; whereas men tend to develop

physiological or physical stress response, such as high blood pressure, heart disease

and diabetes. A study done by Van Rooyen (2006:5) identified differences in how

males and females would tend to experience and deal with, stressful challenges. The

results indicated that differences in behaviour preferences related to the following two

personality components:

Emotional self-awareness: Involves awareness and understanding of how and

why the individual feels as he or she does when dealing with stressful issues.

Self-regard: Reflects general feelings of inner security, self-confidence and self-

respect. It contributes to positive feelings of personal identity.

Males and females as a group reflect differently on stressful situations as listed below:

Males as a group reflect:

Feeling ‘in touch’ with self when working according to plans and following

rules.

Focused on well-defined criteria and specific results.

Sociable and interpersonally comfortable.

Dealing with difficult situations by following a rule of reason, law-and-order,

orderly and organized approach.

Focused on regulating own behaviour to the positive regard and cooperation

of others, particularly during stressful situations.

33

Females as a group reflect:

Feeling ‘in touch’ with self in situations, allowing them to be socially involved

and to prove their own worth and competence.

Focused on conveying a sense of confidence and defending themselves in a

non-destructive manner.

Comfortable when engaging with a wide variety of people and being

approached for information and expert knowledge.

Focused on creating a good impression and regulating their own behaviour to

retain goodwill and cooperation from others.

Placing emphasis on rules and regulations when experiencing stressful

situations.

3.7 STRESS AND PERSONALITY BEHAVIOUR TYPES

Most people are aware that stress is present and have an impact, however not

everyone responds to stress in the same way. Cognition and personality are the most

important variables in describing who is likely to be stressed and who is not.

The study of different type behaviours began when medical researchers Friedman and

Rosenham who saw a clear tangent planes between certain behaviour in patients and

the development of coronary heart disease. The different types of personalities can be

categorised as follows:

Type A behaviour personalities: Type A personality behaviours can be

described as being alert and ambitious (Berry,1998:436), a tendency that

everything is urgent (Cooper & Payne, 1978:135) and, an obsession with

competition (Pines & Aronson, 1988:77). Several studies show that Type A

behaviour personalities are more prone to heart disease (Sulsky & Smith,

2005:167). Coopers & Payne (1978:134) referred to it as, “…coronary-prone

behaviour pattern”.

Type B behaviour personalities: Rosenman et al. (1975) as cited by Berry

(1998:438), describe Type B personalities as easygoing people, who run their lifes

34

in a less frantic manner than Type A, and are less likely to develop heart disease.

Pines & Aronson (1988:70) describe Type B personalities as, less ambitious and

competitive, more relaxed, but their work performance is generally as good as

Type A. Type B personalities view competitive situations as threats to their self-

esteem.

Internal locus of control: People who exhibit an internal locus of control believe

that they can influence their circumstances to make a difference. They do not

blame others when things go wrong, and accept responsibility for their own

situations, decisions and behaviour. They focus on the positive elements in

situations, rather than on the negative ones. Covey (1989:18) referred to them as,

“… people who have learned and integrate the principles of ‘Character Ethic’.

These principles are integrity, humility, fidelity, temperance, courage, justice,

patience and modesty”.

3.8 WORKPLACE STRESS

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory (Maslow, 2000:2) proposed that all individuals

have basic sets of needs they strive to fulfil. In the context of organizational

behaviour, an individual strives to fulfil these needs in a work setting over an

extended period of time. There are a plethora of definitions which can be associated

with ‘workplace stress’. Job stress can be defined as, “… the harmful physical and

emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the

capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker”. (European Commission,

2002:Online). Furthermore, according to the International Labour Office (ILO,

2004:Online) stress at work can lead to poor health and even injury. In addition, the

cognitive, behavioural and physiological reaction to aversive and noxious aspects of

work, work environments and work organizations. It is a state characterized by high

levels of arousal and distress and often by feelings of not coping.

Robbins (2001:563) defines stress as, “… a dynamic condition in which an individual

is confronted with an opportunity, constraint or demand related to what he or she

desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important”.

35

The author came to the conclusion that work stress is the strains, stressors, demands

and pressures that are perceived to be incurred from the work environment.

3.8.1 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF WORKPLACE STRESS

For most people, work is a significant and meaningful feature of life with the majority

spending around 25% of their adult lives working. While work can provide the

individual with structure, purpose, satisfaction, self-esteem and spending power, the

workplace can also be a setting for stress and worry. Research findings show that the

most stressful type of work is that which places excessive demands and pressure on

the worker, which does not map to his/her knowledge and abilities, where there is

little opportunity to exercise any choice or control over, and where there is little

support from others.

As discussed previously, stressors are the conditions that precede and bring stress,

Kreitner et.al (1999:506) define the concept of ‘stressor’, as a prerequisite to

experiencing the stress response. From an organizational stress perspective, there are

four major types of stressors, namely individual, group, organizational and extra-

organizational. Most of the causes of work stress concern the way work is designed

and the way in which organizations are managed. These aspects of work have the

potential for causing harm and are therefore termed ‘stress-related hazards’. Leka,

Griffiths and Cox (2003:6-7) identified nine categories of stress-related hazards,

namely work content, work load and work pace, working hours, participation and

control, career development, status and pay, role in the organization, interpersonal

relationship, organizational culture and home work interface, which calls for closer

scruitiny:

Work content

• Monotonous, under-stimulating, meaningless tasks.

• Lack of variety.

• Unpleasant tasks.

• Aversive tasks.

36

Workload and work pace

• Having too much or too little to do.

• Working under time pressures.

Working hours

• Strict and inflexible working schedules.

• Long and unsocial hours.

• Unpredictable working hours.

• Badly designed shift systems.

Participation and Control

• Lack of participation and decision making.

• Lack of control (for example over work methods, work pace, working hours

and the work environment).

Career development, status and pay

• Job security.

• Lack of promotion prospects.

• Under-promotion or over-promotion.

• Work of ‘low social value’.

• Piece rate payment schemes.

• Unclear or unfair performance evaluation systems.

• Being over-skilled or under-skilled for the job.

Role in the organisation

• Unclear role.

• Conflicting roles within the same job.

• Responsibility for people.

• Continuously dealing with other people and their problems.

Interpersonal relationships

• Inadequate, inconsiderate or unsupportive supervision.

• Poor relationships with co-workers.

37

• Bullying, harassment and violence.

• Isolated or solitary work.

• No agreed procedures for dealing with problems or complaints.

Organisational culture

• Poor communication.

• Poor leadership.

• Lack of clarity about organizational objectives and structure.

Home-work interface

• Conflicting demands of work and home.

• Lack of support for domestic problems at work.

• Lack of support for work problems at home.

3.9 STRESS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Whilst the role of the academic lecturer may traditionally not have been considered to

be one that elicited high levels of occupational stress, the situation has now changed.

Stress and mental health issues are manifesting at an exponential rate in higher

education, and it was recently reported, that more than eighty percent of staff in one

British tertiary institution suffered from some form of stress related health problems.

It has also been postulated that as we go further into the next millennium, the

incidence of stress in lecturers is only likely to increase.

A study done in November 2004, by the Higher Education Union, at the University of

Luton and the University of Leeds, found that stress at work is a major problem in

United Kingdom Higher Education. This survey have shown that stress levels for

academic and related staff are higher than for doctors, managers and other

professional groups, as well as a sample of the population as a whole (Kinman &

Jones, 2004: Online). A key finding of a national survey done in 2002 pertaining to

occupational stress at Australian Universities returns that approximately 50% of

Australian University staff taking part in the survey were at risk of psychological

38

illness, compared to only 19% of the Australian population overall (Winefield,

Gillespie, Stough, Dua &Hapuararchchi, 2002:10)

(Venter, 1998:1), wrote “…soos alle ander werkers ervaar die dosent ook stress as

gevolg van werksdruk ( die klem op uitnemende prestasies); beleef hy teleurstellings

wanneer bevordering, beloning vir gelewerde prestasie en ondersteuning in die

werkplek ontbreek; openbaar hy ‘n persepsie van bestuur, beleid en procedures van

die universiteit en organisasie; en beleef hy onsekerheid oor die toekoms vanwee

rasionalisasie, hervitalisering en regstellende aksie”. (The above retained in the

language of the original text as to not lose the true interpretation of the author which

may occur if translated).

3.9.1 STRESSORS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

The following stressors present in modern day higher education, calls for closer

scrutiny, namely insecurity, workload and other job demands, support at work,

bullying at work and workplace violence, work-life balance and environmental

stressors.

3.9.1.1 Insecurity

For many staff members at tertiary institutions, one of the largest sources of stress is

raising insecurity and fear of unemployment. Announcing redundancies and

restructuring initiatives at short notice can lead to shock, depression, even mental

illness with consequent effects on social and family life (Page, 2001:15). Employers

may exacerbate this by not announcing change plans until the last moment.

Unemployment itself is a source of stress. Except for the obvious financial hardship,

unemployed people suffer loss of self-esteem, boredom, social isolation and social

stigma. Recent research has found a whole range of stress-induced diseases amongst

the unemployed. The stress of unemployment will also affect those who remain at

work. Employers often increase the pressure of work for those who keep their jobs

(Volpe, 2001:9). Kinman & Jones (2004:Online) stated that job security has become

a relevant issue for many academic and academic-related workers.

39

Insecurity can also occur if academic lecturers do not feel confident about their ability

to do the job well and do not have enough time, information, training or support to do

the job without making mistakes. If they have no confidence that support will be

forthcoming, if mistakes are made and disciplinary procedures are rigidly applied, this

increases individuals’ feelings of insecurity. Furthermore, if there have been too

many changes in the organization jobs, equipment layout and style of supervision and

very little information is given in advance of the changes being made or any training

in new methods or equipment, lecturers will feel insecure.

Sharpley, Reynolds and Acosta (1996:77) describe that job insecurity culminate in,

“…uncertainty about how amalgamations will influence me”, and was one of the most

commonly reported sources of jobstress. Kreitner et al (1999:507), stated that job

security is a powerful stressor that has a significant influence on employees’ attitudes

and behaviour. If job security is not managed, it can result in reduced job satisfaction,

organizational commitment and performance.

Insecurity can also occur if employees are still employed by the organization but are

actually ‘without a job’, due to changes and circumstances, a situation, which may

occur during the “match and place” process at TUT. A classical example is the crew

of the Endurance expedition to the Antarctic (1914 – 1916). Morrell & Capparell

(2001:107) wrote: “…For now, the ship’s officers and seamen found themselves

without a job. All that training to make each crewmember a good sailor was for

naught. Shackleton needed to find a way to tackle the crew’s crushing disappoint,

boredom and fears”.

McLean (1985:54) indicates, “…that the period of greatest ill health is that during

which unemployment is anticipated – the period of anticipation of the event can be

more stressful than the event itself”. Insecurity creates uncertainty. Frankl (1984:91)

wrote: “…On entering camp a change took place in the minds of the men. With the

end of uncertainty there came the uncertainty of the end. A man who could not see

the end of his ‘provisional existence’ was not able to aim at an ultimate goal in life.

Therefore the whole structure of his inner life changed; signs of decay set in which we

know from other areas of life. Those who know how close the connection is between

the state of mind of a man – his courage and hope, or lack of them – and the state of

40

immunity of his body will understand that the sudden loss of hope and courage can

have a deadly effect”. PsychoNeuroImmunology is the term that describes the

discipline that studies the link between emotions, the nervous system and immune

system functions. Vermeulen (2001:51) wrote “…Devitalizing stress which is

characterized by habitual negativity reads to an all prevailing sense of despondency

and purposelessness, which most certainly sets the stage for illnesses like cancer,

heart disease, stroke and depression”.

3.9.1.2 Workload and other job demands

Workload needs to be described in terms of a quantitative or qualitative paradigm.

‘Quantitative’ means too much or too little work, while qualitative means the work is

too difficult or under-stimulating and monotonous. Kreitner et al. (1999:506), give

workload, role conflict and role ambiguity as the most common examples of stressors

in the workplace. Hatvany (1996:123), views workload/work pace, as a stressful

characteristic of work, and define it as lack of control over pacing, work overload or

under load and as high levels of pacing or time pressure.

Pines & Aronson (1988:102) indicate that, “…both quantitative and qualitative

overload are correlated with psychological and physiological indices of stress.

Overload workers show increased heart rate and serum cholesterol levels, they smoke

more, have more job dissatisfaction and tension and show lower self-esteem”. Mental

and emotional stress raise blood pressure and high blood pressure is a major cause of

stroke, heart attack, heart and kidney failure, and early death, (Harvard Heart Letter;

2006:3). McLean (1985:5) point to the fact that several studies show that a variety of

forms of work overload produce at least nine different kinds of psychological and

physiological signs of strain on the worker.

Academics in higher education institutions have to perform a number of roles

simultaneously. The job description of a lecturer at TUT, identified the following

roles, namely teaching, evaluation, post-secondary education, skilled and professional

development, professional/skilled guidance, student guidance assistant, research,

liaison with the profession, institutional involvement, administration and control.

Work schedules which are inflexible and over-demanding, long hours for all staff,

41

unreasonably heavy workload, unreasonable expectations, often as a result of super-

achievement by the most talented; the widening gap between contractual

commitments and a seemingly limitless employer-driven workload are all factors that

lead to stress. Kinman & Jones (2004:Online) found that almost one-half of the

respondents in their research were of the opinion that their workloads were

unmanageable. Furthermore, the majority were of the opinion that their responsibility

had increased over the last 5 years, that the amount of administrative paperwork was

excessive, and one half of the respondents engaged in teaching felt their classes had

become too large. The research of Winefield et al. (2002:8), indicates that work

pressure is one of the strongest predictors of psychological strain in Australian

Universities, and is supported by the research of Abouserie (1996:52), who found that

work is the main source of stress in the lives of university staff.

Olivier et al. (2005:919) found that diverse responsibilities and increased workloads

are all factors which contribute to diminished job satisfaction. Participants indicated

that the heavier workloads result in working longer hours, as well as over weekends

and recess periods, without taking leave. Diminished job satisfaction can lead to

lowered job performance and satisfaction that have implications for the efficient

functioning of higher educations institutions. Fisher (1994:64) is of the opinion that

the lack of back up for academics has meant that many staff were coping with

overload in three areas – teaching, research and administration. Role overload is a

major source of stress at work and such conditions encourage work failure. It is

impossible to work effectively when human resources are overloaded.

Shackleton again set an example of challenging and meaningful work due to the fact

that far from getting bored, the men felt busy. Furthermore Schackleton never

expects one to do more than one is capable of” (Morrel & Capparell, 2003:112).

3.9.1.3 Support at work

Social factors such as group membership play a primary role as both causes and cures

of burnout. Pines & Aranson (1989:160) explain that the individual is usually a

member of many overlapping groups. In addition to the social systems of family,

friends and community, people belong also to social systems as work. These social

42

systems include; supervisors, subordinates, co-workers and clients. This social

support system has various functions and can be divided in six basic categories,

namely listening, technical support, technical challenge, emotional support, emotional

challenge and the providing of social reality. If these functions are fulfilled in the

individuals’ environment, they are well protected against burnout and towards

reducing stress in life and work.

Higher Education institutions, as work organizations have two distinct social

structures, namely ‘academic’ staff engaged in teaching and research, and ‘non-

academic’ administrative and support staff. The two structures map each other

closely in terms of strategic objectives, and delivery of products and services, but the

nature of the work of the two structures is completely different, as well as the

supervisory structures (Mahomed & Naudé, 2006: 90).

Kinman & Jones (2004:Online) found that the respondents in their research were

positive about the support they received from their colleagues, but they were less

happy with the support they received from the administrative and technical staff, and

also from their immediate managers. Bradley & Eachus (1995:153) found that

“…relationships with others is a stressful factor”. The research of Sharpley et al.

(1996:77) point out that, “…lack of necessary equipment and/or infrastructure

support” is a job stressor.

All individuals need technical appreciation for the work they do. The person/s who

gives this appreciation must meet the following criteria namely, they must be experts

in their field and their honesty and integrity must be trusted. If these requirements are

met, individuals can accepts support as genuine. The ability to provide technical

appreciation is especially powerful and useful when it comes from knowledgeable

supervisors (Pines & Aranson, 1989:162).

3.9.1.4 Bullying at work and workplace violence

Bullying in the workplace is one of the fastest growing forms of violence plaguing the

world today. Workplace bullying is everything from harassment, offensive behavior,

racism, refusing to delegate, and removing responsibilities, to being passes over for an

expected promotion, financial problems, estranged or strained relationship with co-

43

workers, and a perception of being targeted by management. All of the listed issues

culminate in attempts to undermine individuals. Burton (2001:24), explains that

colleague bullying is a form of survival behaviour. The more staff feels threatened,

overloaded and stressed the more they will revert to bullying to survive. Burtons

view is supported by Marais & Herman (1997:14) when they state that, “…the

victimisation of the worker is symptomatic of corporate survival behaviour”.

Violence at work includes both physical and psychological violence, done by

employees or non-employees. Educational institutions are not excluded from

violence. The latest incident of a student who shot 32 people on the campus of the

Virginia Technicon places the spotlight on the vulnerability of educational

institutions. Reciprocally in South Africa, recently newspapers reported on an

incident where a child shot a teacher in the classroom. Di Martino (2001:22) is of the

opinion that workplace violence is not merely an episodic individual problem, but a

structural, strategic problem, rooted in wider social, economic, organizational and

cultural factors. Paige as cited by Burton (2001:24) believes that workplace violence

often stems from overwhelming feelings of powerlessness. Workers are often in a

fear and anger space, people are stripped of their dignity and purpose, and they take it

out on others.

In an interview with Dr Susan Marais-Steinmann, CEO of South Africa’s Foundation

for Workplace Trauma, Marais-Steinmann (Marais-Steinmann, 2007:Interview)

points out that more and more people find themselves on the receiving end of

bullying. Abusive behaviour can be as high as 78% in organizations undergoing

change. Workplace bullying and violence can be devastating. Marais-Steinmann

(2007:Interview) points to research which shows that 22% of people who witness

others being bullied, will leave an organization, while 24% of bullied people will

leave. There are also hidden costs that are more difficult to measure, such as

absenteeism. According to Marais-Steinmann (2007:Interview), “…People who are

being bullied develop depression and psychosomatic illnesses and have to stay off

work”. The biggest danger which Marais-Steinmann encountered in her research was

that of revenge from the bullied person, which could manifest in behaviours such as

stealing and sabotage. Landy & Conte (2004:582), draw the analogy that stress is a

cause of workplace violence, but also that workplace violence is a cause of stress.

44

3.9.1.5 Work-life balance

Life is fast with millions of things to do. Deadlines at work, managing a home, taking

part in kids’ lives, trying to remain connected to a partner or spouse, time to have fun

and leisure, part-time studies are all things that need to be done on a daily basis,

adding to workplace stress.

Ivancevich, Lorenzi, Skinner and Crosby (1997:66), provides the following on issues

pertaining to work-life balance:

Family and personal stress is a widespread source of stress in every workplace.

Well, over half of the employees can be expected to experience some kind of

work-family stress within a three month period of a major workplace change

dynamic.

Conflicts between work and personal life affect productivity and general well-

being. A study done by St. Paul Companies in 1992 found that staff who believed

work was causing problems in their personal lives, were much more likely to

make mistakes, than those who hade few job-related problems.

Employees experience work-family conflict is three times as likely to think about

quitting their jobs those who do not.

Work-life balance is about improving the quality of working life, including flexible

working time, lifelong learning and family-friendly policies. Today more and more

employers are recognizing the value of having a healthy, balanced workforce. South

African business has to meet the demands of the changing workforce in an effort to

attract top talent and beat the brain drain. Long working hours and absenteeism needs

to be replaced by the emphasis on performance rather than the number of hours work.

Codrington (2006:21) is of the opinion that the concept of work-life balance is ‘a

myth’, and prefers the concept of work-life integration. Work-life integration

represents a different employer-employee relationship, for e.g. employees who are not

scared to answer e-mails from home over weekends, or work nights as required,

expect the company to reciprocate and allow them time to watch their childs’ sport

game. They will probably be on the phone or using their Blackberry while they are

there anyway. Covey (2004:15) refers to the problem as, “…we live in a knowledge

worker age but operate our organizations in a controlling industrial age model that

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absolutely suppresses the release of human potential. More concerning is the fact that

people have taken this same controlling mind-set home!

Kinman & Jones (2004:Online) indicates that the majority of respondents (67%) in

their survey returned that their work was steadily encroaching onto their private lives.

Working at home during evenings and weekends was commonplace. Half of the

sample indicated that they had little time available for hobbies and interest, and that

the quality of their family life suffered. This findings is supported by the study of

Jackson & Rothman (2006:82), which showed that working unsocial hours, is a

stressor that obtained a higher than average sten score.

King & Robinson (2000:62) are of the opinion that, “…perhaps more than any single

factor – more than the uncertainties present in the new economy and concerns about

being economically and emotionally prepared for long years in retirement – the quest

for time freedom is driving successful professionals away from traditional careers to

alternatives such as network marketing”. Employers need to take into consideration

that when work-life issues lead to turnover, the resulting costs for the company is not

only the visible expenses of recruiting and training a new employee, but also hidden

costs such work delays, suboptimal performance, staff members who resign and the

ripple effects on co-workers.

Shackleton set an exceptional example, when even under harsh circumstances, a

balance between work and fun was maintained “…Shackleton kept a balance

between work and fun, never completely dividing the two never letting one overtake

the other” (Morrell & Capparel, 2003:95).

3.9.1.6 Environmental stressors

Freeman (1990:184) indicates that the environment in which teachers work, can cause

stress, and distinguished between micro and macro-environmental stressors.

Micro-environmental stressors: Micro-environmental stressors refer to stressors

in the workplace, such as sound and noise levels, temperature, lay-out of the

workspace, colour scheme etc. Although the human body continuously make

minor adjustments to adapt to the situation, for example the human ear adjust to

46

the prevailing level of noise, the question is not whether one can adapt because

that we do continually, but rather the limits and the costs one pays to adapt to

theses stressors. Duffy (2003:39) describes that the business environment is

identical to the development of a suburb. People work to satisfy a social need,

and if business does not cater for this need in the layout of the work environment,

they miss a valuable opportunity to increase productivity. Arenson (2003:33),

points to the well documented effects of ergonomics on reducing the incidence

and cost of occupational injury, stress levels and improving work process

efficiency.

Macro-environmental stressors: Macro-environmental stressors refer to

stressors outside the gates of the workplace. Mahlangu (2006:36) refers to it as,

‘early morning traffic, either travelling with your own transport or public transport

that has the extra stressor of unreliability, and the area where the workplace is

situated’.

3.10 STRESS MANAGEMENT

Stress management is a complete undertaking. To manage workplace stress

effectively, it needs to be addressed on an individual as well as an organizational

level. To manage stress effectively an individual has to manage three fundamental

elements of their lives, namely priorities, expectations and coping with change

(Brewer, 1995:25):

Priorities: “Things which matter most must never be at the mercy of things

which matter least”. (Goethe cited by Covey,1989:146).

To prioritize helps an individual to avoid stress by giving the person a way to evaluate

a stressful situation, and also giving the person a valuable perspective when stress

threatens to overwhelm the individual. According to Covey (1989:148), prioritizing

gives us the ability to act rather to be acted upon. Covey (1989:148) explains that

leadership decides which tasks should be prioritised in the run of our daily lives.

Gatto (1993:88) explains that time constraints causes stomach churn, neck muscles to

tighten, blood pressure to rise, people to argue and generally feel miserable.

Expectations: When one starts making decisions and act on assumptions, one

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can experience disappointment when the situation or the behaviour of a person fails to

live up to expectations. When dealing with other people, clear communications is of

the utmost importance.

Coping with change: Change is inevitable. There are three basic ways we can

respond to change, namely

• Resist and fight it to maintain the status quo: This reaction produces

ongoing stress.

• Avoid change: This is a form of passive resistance. Avoiding change is to not

acknowledge that we are fighting the change.

• Confront and adapt to change: Is the healthy response that minimize stress.

Change then becomes an opportunity and to a danger.

Organizations normally target a predominant person-centred approach to

manage/control or cope with stress. Courses normally presented in the work

environment are for e.g. stress management, time management, change management,

emotional intelligence etc. This researcher is of the opinion this represents a ‘patch-

up’ people approach, because the causes of stress are not even considered when

planning a change dynamic. Inherently it means the worker will continue to work in

an unhealthy workplace.

Stress management entails a vast range of activities and strategies. This researcher is

also of the opinion that stress management require leadership, both within the

individual as well as in the organization. The following three activities, should be

employed by employer and employee alike to minimize stress namely, stress and

nutrition, stress and exercise and employee assistance programs.

Stress and nutrition: The body’s internal reserves enable the individual to cope

better with stress. The stress reaction is fuel intensive, even for eustress and the

need to survive, which requires a considerable amount of energy. Healthy eating

is essential to stressless. According to Van der Merwe (2005:18), “…good

nutrition and correct supplementation balance the physiology. Correct nutrition

reaches our spiritual essence. It is a good place from where to start to make us

more aware of our minds, bodies, emotions and souls and the control we have

over our own health.” Shackleton already realized it in 1914. “…Shackleton took

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the greatest care with food supplies. He believed that a varied diet was a key to

good health and good spirits” (Morrell & Capparell, 2001:70). Employers pay

particular attention to the distinction of food. Vending machines in the offices,

the kiosks and the restaurants on the premises are typically filled with junk food,

as opposed to healthier snack and food alternatives available for staff members. A

good investment may be the employment of a dietician to work out balanced

menus in workplace restaurants. This type of investment can be viewed from not

only to the value of stress management, but also for staff members who may

suffer from diabetes, high cholesterol levels, heart disease and those who are HIV

& AIDS infected.

Stress and exercise: Regular exercise increases both an individual’s quality of

life as well as life expectancy. Shackleton set an example in 1914 “…Shackleton

insisted on healthy diet, exercise, and reasonable safety measures, believing

physical and mental acumen were closely linked” (Morrell & Capparell,

2001:110). He encourages his crew to combine healthy eating habits with

rigorous sport and some means of relaxation. With no gym facilities available as

it is known today, the men took long walks, played soccer and hockey, and raced

the dogs. Organizations today have on-site gyms, but the challenge is to let staff

members make use of it. Physical activity needs to be introduced gradually, for

e.g. to put up signs encouraging staff members to take the stairs rather than the

lift. Encouraging staff to take walks for e.g. around the block during lunch hours.

Employee Assistance Programs: The core technologies of an Employee

Assistance Programme (EAP) are:

• Consultation to managers, outreach to employees.

• Assessment of employee’s personal problems.

• Intervention with employee re: performance issues.

• Referral of employee or family member, case monitoring and follow-up.

• Encourage effective relations with providers.

• Consultation to employer about health benefits.

• Programme evaluation as to programme effectiveness.

The services provided by an EAP vary substantially from organisation to organisation.

The services provide depends on the needs of the employer as well as the needs of the

49

employees. According to Harper (2006), an EAP is core business tool. EAP’s serve

multiple clients namely, employees, family members, employers and trade unions,

balancing the needs of each to solve human asset problems.

3.11 CONCLUSION

In this chapter, a literature review was conducted on the concept of ‘stress’. More

specific, work related stress, the physiology of stress, stress response, recognising

stress, stress and individual differences, stress and personality behaviour types were

analysed in detail. The concept of workplace stress was also analysed in terms of

potential sources of workplace stress. In line with the theme of this dissertation, stress

in higher education with particular reference to insecurity, workload and other job

demands, support at work, bullying at work and workplace violence, work-life

balance and environmental stressors where analysed in detail. The chapter was

concluded with views on the management of stress. In chapter 4, the research survey

design and methodology used in this research study will be elaborated upon.

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CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH SURVEY DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

According to White (2005:80), there is no single blue print for planning research;

however a research design should attend specifically to two aspects, namely:

The research approach: Is it a qualitative or quantitative paradigm, or both to be

used in the study; and

The research methods: This allows the researcher to conduct the research in

such a way, that the researcher will find answers to the research questions.

4.2 RESEARCH APPROACH

According to Leedy (1993:103), which methodology to use, depends on, “…the

nature of the data and the problem of the research”. The approach to be followed in

this study is both qualitative and quantitative in nature.

4.2.1 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Cooper & Schindler (1998:143) explain quality as “…the essential character or nature

of something, it is the what, it refers to the meaning, the definition or model or

metaphor characterizing something”. White (2005:81) expresses the view that, “….

qualitative research is more concerned with understanding social phenomena from the

perspectives of the participants”. De Vos (1998:241) describes qualitative research as

“… the interpretation or construction of the lived experience of subjects”. De Vos is

further of the opinion that qualitative research is concerned with ‘understanding’,

rather than ‘explanation’.

A qualitative approach is used in this research (adapted from Leedy and Ormrod

(2001:102), for the following reasons:

Stress occurs in the real world environment of TUT (to describe and explain).

51

The respondents describe their daily experiences as it relates to stress (to explore

and interpret).

The researcher is enabled to interact with what is being studied (to build theory).

4.2.2 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Cooper and Schindler (1998:34) explains quantity as, “…the amount, the how much,

and assumes the meaning and refers to a measure of it. Vockell (1995:192) describes

quantitative research as the data collection processes, research designs and statistical

procedures. Morgan (2000:21) states that quantitative research can be directly

analysed, counted, expressed in numbers and treated as a number. Social surveys,

questionnaires, experiments and structured interviews are all quantitative data

collection techniques.

Watkins (2006:7) is of the opinion that quantitave and qualitative methods overlap,

which is supported by Babbie (2005:25), when he states that, “. …recognizing the

distinction between qualitative and quantitative research doesn’t mean that you must

identify your research activities with one to the exclusion of the other. A complete

understanding of a topic often requires both techniques”.

A quantitative research approach in this research (adapted from Leedy and Ormrod

2001:102) is used for the following reasons:

To explain and predict

To confirm and validate

To test theory

4.3 DATA COLLECTION

A literature study and questionnaires will serve as the primary research method.

4.3.1 LITERATURE STUDY

According to White (2005:7), citing Fouché and De Vos (1998a:65) the main

functions of a literature study are

52

In order to design a study that will contribute to existing knowledge, one need to

have a good idea of what is known already.

It provides better insight into the dimensions and complexity of the problem. The

ultimate aim of a literature study is to see the problem in theoretical perspective.

Furthermore, a literature study enables the researcher to identify alternative

theories in order to understand the problems as well as to identify central

concepts. Cooper and Schindler (1998:92) mentioned that a literature review

might also explain the need for the proposed work.

4.3.2 QUESTIONNAIRE

A questionnaire is a quantitative data collection method. A questionnaire has several

advantages:

Relatively economical.

Can ensure anonymity.

Contains questions for specific purposes.

Existing questionnaires can be used, or modified.

The disadvantage of a questionnaire is low return on mailed questionnaires.

Cooper and Schindler (1998:353) mention three critical areas when a questionnaire is

drafted:

Question content: Is to ensure that the question is of proper scope and that the

respondent will answer adequately.

Question wording: To eliminate misleading assumptions, the wording and

questions are stated in terms of a shared vocabulary.

Design: The statements and questions within the survey should designed with the

following principles in mind:

Avoidance of double-barrelled questions and statements.

Avoidance of double-negative questions and statements.

Avoidance of prestige bias.

Avoidance of leading questions and statements.

Avoidance of the assumption of prior knowledge.

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The purpose of the questionnaire is to determine if there is stress at the Faculty of Arts

and what the causes of stress are. Data collected from the literature study on stress, as

well as hands on situations within a real life working environment, are used as basis

for compiling the questionnaire. The questionnaire is divided in four sections:

Section A: Demographic information.

Section B: Life events.

Section C: Identifying causes of stress at work.

Section D: Work-life balance.

The researcher personally distributed and collected the completed questionnaires, to

prevent a low return. The researcher provided each respondent with an overview of

the dissertation objectives. The researcher also emphasizes anonymity and

confidentiality.

SECTION A DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Question A1 Indicate your gender Male 1 Female 2 Question A2 Indicate your age group Below 20 years 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 60+ Question A3 Indicate your marital status Divorced Married Never been married Widow Widower Separated

54

Question A4 How far do you stay from TUT? 0 – 2 km 2.1 – 5 km 5.1 – 10 km 10.1 + km Question A5 Indicate your appointment type. Academic Non-Academic SECTION B LIFE EVENTS PLEASE INDICATE WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING LIFE EVENTS YOU HAVE EXPERIENCED DURING THE LAST 12 MONTHS. Indicate by Tick in this box

Life Event(s)

Death of spouse Divorce Marital separation Jail term (you or close family member) Death of a close family member Personal injury or illness Marriage Fired from work Marital reconciliation Retirement Change in family member’s health Pregnancy Sex difficulties Addition to family Business readjustment Change in financial status Death of a close friend Change to different line of work Change in number of marital arguments Mortgage or loan over R500 000 Foreclosure of mortgage or loan Change in work responsibilities

55

Son or daughter leaving home Trouble with in-laws Outstanding personal achievement Spouse begins or stops work Starting or finishing school/university Change in living conditions Revision of personal habits Trouble with boss Change in work hours, conditions Change in residence Change in schools Change in recreational habits Change in church activities Change in social activities Mortgage or loan under R500 000 Change in sleeping habits Change in number of family gatherings Change in eating habits Vacation Christmas season Minor violation of the law e.g. speed tickets SECTION C IDENTIFYING STRESS AT WORK PLEASE COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING TABLE Very

satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dis- satisfied

Very Dissatisfied

1. How satisfied are you with the organization you work for compared with other companies you know?

2. How satisfied are you with your job – the kind of job you do?

3. How satisfied are you with your physical working conditions

4. How satisfied are you with the extent to which people you work with cooperate well with one another.

5. How satisfied are you with your pay, considering your duties and responsibilities?

6. How satisfied are you with your pay, considering what other organizations pay for similar types of work?

56

7. How satisfied are you with your advancement to better jobs since you started to work with your organization?

8. How satisfied are you with the extent to which your present job makes full use of your skills and abilities?

9. How satisfied are you with the level of mental ability requirements of your present job (problem solving, judgement, technical knowledge, etc.)?

10. How satisfied are you with the level of average time demands of your present job (hours worked, as opposed to mental ability demands)?

11. Considering everything, how would you rate your overall feelings about your employment situation at the present time?

12. How satisfied are you with the security of your employment?

13. How satisfied are you with your administration tasks e.g. compiling of class lists, study guides, etc.

If you have your way, will you be working for TUT five years form now? Circle one: 1. Certainly

2. Probably 3. I’m not at all sure 4. Probably not 5. Certainly not 6. I’ll be retired in five years.

57

SECTION D

WORK-LIFE BALANCE

Yes No

1. Do you take work home most nights?

2. Do you frequently think about work-

problems at home?

3. Do you work long hours?

4. Do work problems affect your sleeping

habits?

5. Do your family and friends complain

that you spend too little time with them?

6. Do you find it difficult to relax and

forget work?

7. Do you find it difficult to say “no” to

work requests?

8. Do you find it difficult to delegate?

9. Is your self-esteem based largely on

your work?

10. Do you have a hobby?

11. Do you practise an active relaxation

technique (yoga, meditation, imagery,

etc.)?

12. Do you exercise for at least 20 minutes,

three times a week?

13. Do you smoke?

14. Do you take sleeping pills?

15. Do you drink more than 8 cups of

caffeinated drinks or alcohol each day?

58

4.3.3 THE TARGET POPULATION

Cooper & Schindler (1998:215) explain that the idea of sampling is that by selecting

some of the elements in a population, one may draw conclusions about the entire

population. The target population is then the unit of study, and the population is then

the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inferences.

The target population for this research includes all staff from the Faculty of Arts. The

Faculty of Arts consists of 96 permanent staff members.

4.3.4 THE CHOICE OF SAMPLING METHOD

Emory and Cooper (1995:228) define two methods of survey sampling namely:

The conventional sample, whereby a limited number of elements smaller than the

chosen population are chosen (typically randomly) in such a manner as to

accurately represent (without bias) the total population.

The census approach, where an attempt is made to survey every element within

the population (Emory and Cooper, 1995:200).

The census approach was chosen. Cooper & Schindler (1998:216) indicate that two

conditions are appropriate for a census approach:

When the population is small, it is feasible.

When the elements are quite different from each other, it is necessary for a census

approach.

4.4 MEASUREMENT SCALES

The survey used in the research is based on the well-known Lickert Scale. Bailey

(1982:365) indicates that the essence of the Lickert scale is to increase the variation in

the possible scores. The advantages in using the Lickert scale according to Emory

and Cooper (1995:180 – 181) are:

Quick and easy to construct.

Each item meets an empirical test for discriminating ability.

59

The Lickert scale is probably more reliable than the Thurston scale, and it

provides a greater volume of data than the Thurston differential scale.

The Lickert Scale is also treated as an interval scale.

The reason for using the Lickert Scale in this research, which is supported by Emory

and Cooper (1995,180 – 181), is the fact that the scale can be used in both respondent-

centred (how responses differ between people) and stimulus centred (how responses

differ between various stimuli) studies, most appropriate to glean data in support of

the research problem in question.

4.5 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH

The research was adversely impacted upon by the following aspects:

The research was limited to staff of the Faculty of Arts at TUT.

Due to the fact that TUT is currently busy with the ‘match and place’ process,

there was considerable animosity to the research and an unwillingness to complete

the questionnaires.

Staff fails to see any value in participating.

In certain instances, respondents felt obliged to give an opinion, an aspect which

makes it difficult to know how true or reliable the answers are.

4.6 CONCLUSION

This chapter outlines and addresses the rationale for a case study design, using both

qualitative and quantitative research paradigms. The data collection strategies,

population and data analysis were elaborated upon and the limitations of the research

listed. Chapter 5 will deal with the research findings and the analysis of the data.

60

CHAPTER 5

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In Chapter 5, the focus is on the results culminated as a result from the research

survey conducted within the ambit of Chapter 4. The rest of this chapter is devoted to

the analysis of data and interpretation of results.

5.2 SECTION A

DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Question A1: Indicate your gender

The results from the survey returned the following data, which is graphically depicted

below.

Male

43%

Female

57%

Gender

Male43%

Female57%

MaleFemale

The purpose of this question was to determine the gender distribution of staff

members in the Faculty of Arts at the Tshwane University of Technology. In

Paragraph 3.6, Chapter 3 stress and individual differences were addressed. Research

61

indicates that the two sexes experience stress differently and that they reflect

differently on stressful situations. The faculty consists of 48% men and 52% women

as reflected in Table 2.1, Chapter 2.

Question A2: Indicate your age group

The results from the survey returned the following data, which is graphically depicted

below.

< 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 60+

10% 37% 27% 18% 8%

Age

< 3010%

31 - 4037%41 - 50

27%

51 - 6018%

60 >8% < 30

31 - 4041 - 5051 - 6060 >

According to McClean (1985:58,) each stage of life has its own particular

vulnerabilities and sets of coping mechanisms. Cartwright & Cooper (1997:64)

identified four age-related career stages, namely exploration (age 15-24),

establishment (mid twenties – 40s), maintenance stage (mid 40s – until retirement)

and decline (65+).

The majority of staff members are in the age category 31 – 40 years (37%). In this

age category, the need to achieve and prove oneself is as a rule very strong. People

are typically concerned with securing themselves in their careers and in ‘climbing the

corporate ladder’. It is also the age bracket when many individuals are coping with

the financial and emotional demands of raising a family and establishing themselves

in society in general.

62

Question A3: Indicate your marital status

The results from the survey returned the following data, which is graphically depicted

below.

Divorced 13%

Married 54%

Never been married 33%

Widow 0%

Widower 0%

Separated 0%

Marital StatusWidow

0%Widower

0%Separated0% Divorced

13%

Married54%

Never Married

33%

DivorcedMarriedNever MarriedWidowWidowerSeparated

The survey results returned that 54 % of the respondents were married. According to

Hanson (1986:81&107), an adequate network of friends and support from within your

family, will reduce the stresses of daily life. Yet, the typical workaholic tend to

relegate family and friends to form the back seat of their lives, which may bring a host

of other stressors as listed by Holmes & Rahe cited by Hanson (1987:61), for

example, change in the number of arguments with the spouse, change in living

conditions, trouble with boss etc. Although a support system at home is according to

Hanson (1987:107) a very useful and important stress management technique, the

factor of no work life balance may rather add more stress at home than support from

home.

63

Question A4: How far do you travel to TUT?

The results from the survey returned the following data, which is graphically depicted

below.

0 – 2 km 8%

2.1 – 5 km 13%

5.1 – 10 km 30%

10.1 km + 49%

Km form TUT

5.1 - 10 km30%

10.1 + km49%

2.1 - 5 km13%

0 - 2 km8% 0 - 2 km

2.1 - 5 km5.1 - 10 km10.1 + km

“Traveling is the ruin of all happiness”, according to Fanny Burney 1833 – 1898,

cited by Cartwright and Cooper (1997:103). As discussed in Paragraph 3.9.1.6,

Chapter 3, macro-environmental stressors, such as early morning traffic and traffic

jams on the roads can create stress. The majority of the respondents (49%), stay more

than 10km from the workplace, and are then exposed to traffic and traffic related

stressors.

Question A5: Indicate your appointment type.

The results from the survey returned the following data, which is graphically depicted

below.

Academic Non-Academic

75% 25%

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Appointment Type

Academic75%

Non - Academic

25%AcademicNon - Academic

In Paragraph 3.9.1.3, Chapter 3, support at work is addressed, and it is indicated that

Higher Education institutions has two distinct social structures, namely ‘academic

staff’ and ‘non-academic’ staff. However the two structures map each other closely in

terms of strategic objectives, and delivery of products and services. Table 2.2,

Chapter 2, reflects that the distribution in the Faculty of Arts is 79% academic and

21% non-academic.

5.3 SECTION B

LIFE EVENTS

The presence of stress is universal, but the causes of stress differ, and as a result,

affect individuals differently. Furthermore, stress always manifest as levels that is

different for each person, situation and environment.

While many of the life’s problems are minor, the occurrences of several important

changes at one particular point in time may contribute to increased individual

vulnerability to illness, or in extreme cases, stress can be fatal. The Homes-Rahe

Scale (Hanson, 1987:61) is used as a guideline for stress measurement. An interesting

aspect of the Homes-Rahe Scale is that 10 of the top 15 stressors on the scale are not

work-related. In Paragraph 3.9.1.5, Chapter 3, work-life balance was addressed and

Ivancevich, Lorenzi, Skinner and Crosby (1997:66) indicated that family and personal

stress is a widespread source of stress in every workplace. The Homes-Rahe Scale

(depicted below) was used to determine the stressors within the target group. In

65

addition the scale was enhanced to reflect (as percentage) the respondents who were

subjected to the various stressors.

PLEASE INDICATE WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING LIFE EVENTS YOU HAVE

EXPERIENCED DURING THE LAST 12 MONTHS

Indicate

by

Tick in

this box

Life Event For

office

use

(Value)

Results

%

Death of spouse 100 0%

Divorce 73 2%

Marital separation 65 2%

Jail term (you or close family member) 63 0%

Death of a close family member 63 20%

Personal injury or illness 53 20%

Marriage 50 0%

Fired from work 47 0%

Marital reconciliation 45 5%

Retirement 45 0%

Change in family member’s health 44 17%

Pregnancy 40 7%

Sex difficulties 39 7%

Addition to family 39 15%

Business readjustment 39 10%

Change in financial status 38 35%

Death of a close friend 37 23%

Change to different line of work 36 10%

Change in number of marital arguments 35 10%

Mortgage or loan over R500 000 31 28%

Foreclosure of mortgage or loan 30 0%

Change in work responsibilities 29 46%

Son or daughter leaving home 29 7%

66

Trouble with in-laws 29 7%

Outstanding personal achievement 28 25%

Spouse begins or stops work 26 5%

Starting or finishing school/university 26 12%

Change in living conditions 25 17%

Revision of personal habits 24 20%

Trouble with boss 23 17%

Change in work hours, conditions 20 30%

Change in residence 20 12%

Change in schools 20 0%

Change in recreational habits 19 12%

Change in church activities 19 5%

Change in social activities 18 7%

Mortgage or loan under R500 000 17 23%

Change in sleeping habits 16 38%

Change in number of family gatherings 15 23%

Change in eating habits 15 33%

Vacation 13 30%

Christmas season 12 35%

Minor violation of the law e.g. speed tickets 11 28%

Health Risk

< 15054%

151 - 30028%

301 >18% < 150

151 - 300301 >

In Paragraph 3.9.1.6, Chapter 3, the concept of adapting to certain stressors were

discussed. It is however not about adapting but, rather the limits and the costs one

67

pays to adapt to these stressors. Of the respondents, 54% have a 30% chance of a

serious change in their health within the next year. Of the respondents 28% have a

50% chance and 18% have an 80% chance of a serious change in their health within

the next year. The nature of this change in health is highly individual based, and will

probably involve the person’s weakest link, no matter how healthy the person thinks

he/she is.

5.4 SECTION C

IDENTIFYING STRESS AT WORK

In Paragraph 3.8, workplace stresses, Paragraph 3.8.1, potential sources of workplace

stress, and Paragraph 3.9.1, in Chapter 3, stressors in Higher Education were

addressed. The results from the survey returned the following data.

Question C1

Very Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very dissatisfied

1. How satisfied are

you with the

organization you

work for compared

with other

companies you

know

22,5%

27,5%

50%

Of the respondents 50% were dissatisfied to work for TUT, 22,5 % were satisfied and

27,5% were neutral. Various factors can add to dissatisfaction. One such factor

being the ‘psychological contract’, defined by Cartwright & Cooper (1997:50) as “…

a set of expectations held by and individual employee that specifies what the

individual and the organization expect to give and receive in the working

relationship”, has changed. Other factors that may have an influence are that people

loose their sense of belonging, they lack adequate opportunities to participate in

68

decision making, and they are not included in office communications and

consultations. It may also be the manifestation of a deeper problem namely ‘self-

deception’. It does not matter what the organization is doing on the ‘outside’, people

primarily respond on how they are feeling about themselves on the ‘inside’ (Pienaar,

2007:22).

Question C2

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

2. How satisfied are

you with your job –

the kind of job you

do?

67,5%

20%

12,5%

Of the respondents 67,5% were satisfied with the job they do, 20% neutral and 12,5%

dissatisfied.

Question C3

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

3. How satisfied are

you with your

physical working

conditions (heat,

light, noise etc.)

40%

12,5%

45%

Of the respondents 45% were dissatisfied, 40% were satisfied and 12,5% were

neutral, and 2,5% did not respond to the question, regarding the working conditions.

In Paragraph 3.9.1.6, Chapter 3, the researcher explained that the design or physical

settings and surroundings of the workplace may be another source of stress. It can

affect the mood and overall mental state of staff members.

69

Question C4

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

4. How satisfied are

you with the extent

to which people you

work with cooperate

well with one

another. (Including

staff in other dept.

e.g. human

resources,

administration, etc.

54,5%

21,5%

24%

Of the respondents, only 54,5% were satisfied with the cooperation they get from

colleagues. In Paragraph 3.9.1.3, Chapter 3, support at work is addressed, and it is

highlighted that Higher Education institutions has two distinct social structures,

namely ‘academic staff and ‘non-academic’ staff. However, the two structures map

each other closely in terms of strategic objectives, and delivery of products and

services. Hans Selyle the father of stress observed that “…good relationships

between members of a group are a key factor in individual and organizational health”

(Cartwright & Cooper, 1997:18).

Question C5

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

5. How satisfied are

you with your pay,

considering your

duties and

responsibilities?

20%

17,5%

62,5%

70

Of the respondents, 62,5% were dissatisfied with the salaries what they get, 17,5%

were neutral and 20% were satisfied. Dissatisfaction with the pay a staff member get

may create financial stress. However, financial stress is not a workplace stress, it is a

life events stress, but have a definite influence on the workplace. Financial stress may

also apply to two extremes – people who are working hard and making a good wage,

but lack perspective and discipline in managing their money. Very few people realize

the emotions that money creates. Price (2000:6) indicates that “…money possesses

an energy and life of its own. It contains a duality similar to that present in our own

nature. It is spiritual and material, creative and destructive, loving and cruel”.

Question C6

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

6. How satisfied are

you with your pay,

considering what

other organizations

pay for similar types

of work?

10%

20%

70%

Of the respondents, 70% were dissatisfied with the salaries they get comparing to

what other companies pay, 20% neutral and 10% were dissatisfied. This result also

closely map to the results gleaned from question C5.

71

Question C7:

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

7. How satisfied are

you with your

advancement to

better jobs since you

started to work with

your organiation?

15%

27,5%

57,5%

Of the respondents, 57,5% were dissatisfied with the advancement to better jobs since

they start working at TUT, 27,5% were neutral and 15% were satisfied. Career

development conditions create stress reactions especially when there is a disparity

between the individual’s perceptions of where he or she should be in a work

organization, is in contrast to reality. It arises when a person does not have a clear

picture of work objectives, and the scope and responsibilities of his or her job.

Question C8:

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

8. How satisfied are

you with the extent

to which your

present job makes

full use of your

skills and abilities?

60%

17,5%

22,5%

Of the respondents, 60% were satisfied with the extent to which their present job

makes use of their skills and abilities, 17,5% were neutral and 22,5% were

dissatisfied.

72

Question C9:

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

9. How satisfied are

you with the level of

mental ability

requirements of your

present job (problem

solving, judgement,

technical

knowledge, etc.)?

67,5%

30%

2,5%

Of the respondents, 67,5% were satisfied with the level of mental ability requirements

of their present job, 30% were neutral and 2,5% were dissatisfied.

Question C10:

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

10. How satisfied are

you with the level

of average time

demands of your

present job (hours

worked, as opposed

to mental ability

demands)?

30%

45%

20%

Of the respondents, 30% were satisfied, while 45% were neutral, 20% dissatisfied and

5% of the respondents did not respond to this question. Time is a limited resource

that can be used to good or bad effect. Proper time management reduces stress.

73

Question C11:

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

11. Considering

everything, how

would you rate your

overall feelings

about your

employment

situation at the

present time?

25%

30%

45%

Of the respondents, 45% were dissatisfied with their employment situation, 30% were

neutral and 25% were satisfied. Dissatisfaction with their employment situation are

linked to question C1, where 50% of the respondents were dissatisfied to work for the

TUT, and question C12 where 62, 5% of the respondents are insecure regarding their

employment.

Question C12:

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

12. How satisfied are

you with the

security of your

employment?

17,5%

15%

62,5%

Of the respondents, 62,5 % were experiencing insecurity, 15% were neutral, 17,5%

feel secure and 5% of the respondents did not answer this question. In Paragraph

3.9.1.1, Chapter 3, the researcher discussed insecurity and research has shown that

insecurity is one of the largest sources of stress for staff members at tertiary

institutions.

74

Question C13:

Very

Satisfied

Satisfied Neutral Dissatisfied Very

Dissatisfied

13. How satisfied are

you with your

administration tasks

e.g. compiling of

class lists, study

guides, etc.

33%

20%

42,5%

Of the respondents 42,5% were dissatisfied with administration tasks, 33% were

satisfied with the administration tasks, while 20% were neutral, while 4,5% of the

respondents did not answer this question.

Question C14: If you have your way, will you be working for your present

organization five years form now?

Circle one: 1. Certainly

7. Probably

8. I’m not at all sure

9. Probably not

10. Certainly not

11. I’ll be retired in five years.

Of the respondents 35% were not sure, 22,5% will certainly not, 10% will certainly

and 5% will probably still work for TUT, five years from now. Of the respondents

32,5% did not answer this question. The reasons why the staff members will not

work for TUT within five years from now may be different, but it might also be an

indication of the insecurity the staff members experience, and that they feel they must

start searching for other jobs.

75

5.5 SECTION D

WORK-LIFE BALANCE

Work-life balance was addressed in Paragraph 3.1.9.5, Chapter 3. Work-life balance

not only affects the individual, but it also effects the organization. Results from the

work- life balance questions, returned the following.

Question D1: Do you take work home most nights?

Of the respondents, 57,5% do take work home most of the nights. According to

McClean (1985:81) the pressure of having too much work to do would seem to be

fairly obvious stressors. However it may sometimes be necessary for staff member’s

especially academic staff members to take work home, because of students coming in

and out of their offices for extra help, and also to do preparation at home where there

are less disturbances.

Question D2: Do you frequently think about work-problems at home?

Of the respondents, 92,5% confirmed that they do think frequently about work-

problems at home.

Question D3: Do you voluntarily work long hours?

Of the respondents, 75% do work long hours on the campus and 25% do not.

According to Cartwright & Cooper (1997:15), studies have shown that working long

hours do take a toll on employee health and also that working beyond 40 and 50 hours

a week, results in time spent that is increasingly unproductive.

76

Question D4: Do work problems affect your sleeping habits?

Of the respondents sleeping habits of 52,5% are not affected by work problems.

Efficient sleep is of tremendous importance in terms of improving a person’s

resistance to stress.

Question D5: Do your family and friends complain that you spend too little time

with them?

Family and friends of 52,5% of the respondents complain that too little time is spent

with them. This answer can be as a result of Questions D1 and D3, where the

majority of the respondents do either take work home or work long hours on the

campus. To socialize with family and friends are a powerful stress management

technique.

Question D6: Do you find it difficult to relax and forget work?

Of the respondents, 62,5% do find it difficult to relax and forget about work. This,

correlates with the results in Questions D1, D3 & D5.

Question D7: Do you find it difficult to say “no” to work requests?

Of the respondents, 85% find it difficult to say ‘no’ to work requests. This may be the

result of the merger. During a merger, many individuals feel that they and their jobs

are on ‘trial’ and so become obsessed with personal survival. They often act to

promote a desirable image of themselves that may impress those whom they think

have and influence in the decision making process. Typical behaviors are: saying yes

to any job they are asked to do, working longer hours and piling their work stations

with papers and files etc. The negative of this dispensation is that it is stressful to the

individual and furthermore in the long term, it may have no useful purpose

whatsoever.

Question D8: Do you find it difficult to delegate?

Of the respondents, 45% do find it difficult to delegate.

77

Question D9: Is your self-esteem based largely on your work?

Of the respondents, 40% self-esteem is based on their work.

Question D10: Do you have a hobby?

Of the respondents 67,5% indicated that they do have a hobby.

Question D11: Do you practice an active relaxation technique (yoga, meditation,

imagery, etc.)?

Of the respondents, 60%, do not practice an active relaxation technique. Relaxation

stimulates the body’s parasympathetic nervous system, which controls stress

responses such as: respiration, heart rate and digestion. Relaxation techniques may

be unfamiliar to most of the staff members.

Question D12: Do you exercise for at least 20 minutes; three times a week?

Of the respondents, 62,5% indicating that they do not exercise for at least 20 minutes,

three times a week. The researcher in Paragraph 3.10, Chapter 3 discussed exercises

as a stress management technique. According to Brewer (1995:55), exercise counters

the negative effects of stress by allowing the body to react to the “fight and flight”

alarm as discussed in Paragraph 3.3, Chapter 3.

Question D13: Do you smoke?

Of the respondents 72,5% indicated that they do not smoke.

Question D14: Do you take sleeping pills?

Of the respondents 82,5% indicated that they do not take sleeping pills.

Question D15: Do you drink more than 8 cups of caffeinated drinks or alcohol

each day?

Of the respondents 90% indicated that they do not drink more than 8 cups of

caffeinated drinks or alcohol each day. This figure however is questionable.

78

5.6 CONCLUSION

In Paragraph 3.8.1, Chapter 3 potential sources of workplace stress are discussed and

nine categories were identified. The survey returned that 4 of the 9 categories are

prevalent: workload, working hours, career development, status and pay which

include job security and the fourth one home work interference. The survey also

returned that the physical working conditions create stress. Life events are also a

major source of stress for the staff members. Furthermore, the survey returned that

46% of the staff members have a 50% or more chance of a serious change in their

health within the next year, which map to the high percentage of chronic conditions

for which principal members younger than 65 are most commonly registered at the

Tshwane University of Technology, as discussed in Paragraph 1.4, Chapter 1. The

results of section D of the questionnaire indicate that there is no work-life balance,

and also no positive evidence of stress management. The results indicate that the

stress levels are very high in the Faculty of Arts at the Tshwane University of

Technology.

79

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

In this concluding chapter, a general reflective overview of the study is provided. The

research design and methodology, the research problem, research question and

investigative questions will be re-stated and elaborated upon. The key research

objectives will be addressed. Research findings will be mapped to the research

content and specific recommendations will be made to mitigate the research problem

as stated in Paragraph 1.4.1 of Chapter 1.

6.2 THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION DESIGN AND

METHODOLOGY

The research approach in this study is both qualitative and quantitative in nature. A

qualitative approach was used for the following reasons:

Stress occurs in the real world environment of TUT.

The respondents describe their daily experiences as it relates to stress.

The researcher was enabled to interact with what is being studied.

A quantitative approach was used for the following reasons:

To explain and predict.

To confirm and validate.

To test theory.

The primary research method was a literature study of stress and of stress in the

workplace. A questionnaire was distributed to permanent staff members of the

Faculty of Arts of TUT.

80

6.3 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM RE-VISITED

The research problem formulated in Paragraph 1.4.1 of Chapter 1 reads as follows:

“Unacceptable high levels of stress in the Faculty of Arts at TUT, adversely impacting

on employee well being”. The research problem in this dissertation, in the opinion of

this author can be mitigated successfully should the recommendations which are

elaborated upon in Paragraph 6.7 of this Chapter are implemented at the TUT.

6.4 THE RESEARCH QUESTION RE-VISITED

The research question formulated in Paragraph 1.5 of Chapter 1 reads as follows:

“Can the type of stress experienced by staff members at the Faculty of Arts be

identified, classified and ultimately mitigated.

From the questionnaire analysis reflected in Chapter 5 the following stressors are

prevalent:

Life events: 46% of the respondents have a 50% chance of a serious change in

their health within the next year.

Stress at work: Are created by the organization and pertain to, the physical

working conditions, salaries, insecurity, no promotion opportunities and work-life

balance.

6.5 THE INVESTIGATIVE QUESTIONS RE-VISITED

The investigative questions which were researched in support of the research question

are analyzed below.

Investigative Question 1:

“Can it be determine whether the staff members at the Faculty of Arts experience

stress and furthermore which type of stress are most common”?

From the questionnaire analysis in Chapter 5, the conclusion can be drawn that the

staff members at TUT positively experience stress. The types of stress can be

divided in three categories:

Life events: The presence of stress is universal, but the causes of stress differ,

and as a result, affect individuals differently. Furthermore, stress always manifest

81

as levels that differ from person, situation and environment. While many of the

life’s problems are minor, the occurrences of several important changes at one

particular point in time may contribute to increased individual vulnerability to

illness, or in extreme cases, stress can be fatal.

Workplace stress: Was created by the physical working environment, insecurity,

salaries, and no promotion.

Work-life balance: From the questionnaires it was evident that there is no work-

life balance among the respondents.

Investigative Question 2

Can practical stress management techniques be implemented to address stress as

experienced by staff members of the Faculty of Arts at TUT?

Stress management techniques can be implemented; however stress management

programs need to be addressed from a holistic perspective. Presenting stress

management techniques and programs often seems that for every step forward there

are two taken backward. Stress management need to start with the individual.

Gone are the days when the workplace operates as a family and companies looked

after the individual. Today employees have to take responsibility for the own

wellbeing. However, it may seem that people do take responsibility for their own

wellbeing, but most of the time it is a reactive action and not a pro-active action.

Furthermore, individuals need to find an answer for the reasons why they are

making personal sacrifices and how long it will last, because stress without context

is more stressful and unchecked stress, can be unendurable.

While employers present stress management courses for staff members, they do not

address the stressors in the workplace that creates the stress. From the

questionnaires it was evident that the physical work environment is not satisfactory,

calling for the employer to make the necessary adjustments. Poor personal financial

planning behaviours are also a breeding ground for stress, an aspect the researcher

experienced during her employment as an Employee Assistance Practitioner,

presenting courses in financial management and personal finances, which returned

that such courses does not solve the problem for the majority. Proper money and

financial coaching was however more effective. Furthermore, TUT can address

small incremental improvements that can help to manage stress, for example the

82

restaurants and kiosks on the campuses only sell junk food, and no healthy food is

available. Stress is a reality that both the individual as well as the employer

experience. Both the individual as well as the employer need to co-operate with one

another in order to manage it, for the benefit of both parties. Stress management

programs need to be measured properly, in order to determine if there is a drop in

the stress levels.

6.6 KEY RESEARCH FINDINGS

The key research findings of this research are the following:

The staff members of the Faculty of Arts, at the Tshwane University of

Technology do experience high levels of stress.

The main stressors are life events, insecurity, salaries, and the physical work

environment.

6.7 RECOMMENDATIONS

The recommendations which are to serve as an approach to mitigate the research

problem and serve as a directive to TUT, the following:

Primary Prevention:

The organization as well as each employee need to be made aware that the

organisation recognises the current high stress levels and should where

possible institute remedial action to lower the stress levels.

Improve the ergonomics to comply with the standards as prescribed by the

Department of Labour.

Changing the demands of work e.g. by changing the way the job is done.

Review the workloads to map with each individual’s physical and mental

capabilities. Give employees the opportunity to participate in the design of

their own work situation. Design the technologies, work organization and job

content in such a way that the individual is not subjected to physical strain of

mental stress which may lead to illness or accidents. Introduce flexi-time to

accommodate different employees.

Reduce bureaucratic processes and red-tape.

83

Review the adequacy of current pay, promotion, reward and recognition

systems. Determine if there are better ways in which outstanding performance

can be recognised and rewarded?

Providing balanced menus in the workplace restaurant and cafeterias.

Secondary Prevention

Reduce stress through worker education and training in stress management,

time management, assertiveness, relaxation etc.

Develop programs and processes to reduce job insecurity and/ or assist staff to

cope with job insecurity.

Make sure staff knows whom to talk to about their problems.

Monitor staff satisfaction and health on a regular basis.

Tertiary Prevention

Reduce the impact of stress by developing more sensitive and responsive

management systems. Train managers in dealing with work stress, so that

their attitude, knowledge, understanding and their skills to deal with it is as

effective as possible.

Develop a more friendly and supportive organization culture.

Increase the amount and quality of support staff members receive, e.g. allow

interaction among employees, and encourage co-operation and teamwork.

Implement wellness days.

6.8 KEY RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE

RESEARCH

The key research objectives with this research study are:

To determine whether the staff members of the Faculty of Arts at TUT experience

stress.

To identify the causes of stress as experienced by the staff members of the Faculty

of Arts at TUT.

To identify practical stress management techniques that could mitigate the

primary research problem.

84

The objectives of this research are met within the ambit of the literature study as well

as in the results of the questionnaires.

The significance of this research stems from the fact that:

This research is the first research executed on stress, in the TUT after the merger.

Should the recommendations made in this dissertation be acceptable, it would

facilitate a relatively stress free working environment in a much needed stress

environment.

High stress levels and the effect it have on individuals as well as organizations, is a

world wide concern. The significance of this research is therefore embedded within

the context that if a practical, well-measured stress management program or model

can be implemented in the targeted institution, it can have a broader application for

similar higher tertiary education institutions in South Africa.

6.9 PERSONAL REFLECTION

During the duration of this study as well as work-related situations, the author came to

the conclusion that Higher Education Institutions in South Africa did not spend

enough time on creating policies and programs for assisting staff members to deal

with stress. The institutions also do not create working environments were staff

members, supervisors and managers realize what stress is, how to recognize it, and

how to manage it. There is great pressure on people to remain operational in spite of

work pressure. Most of the institutions have a reactive approach by implementing

counselling services.

Further research can be done to formulate a proper stress management model, which

assists each staff member suffering from undue stress. The challenge would be to

formulate a model that will benefit also the person who do not want to take

responsibility for his own health, and also will not attend stress management

programs.

85

6.10 CONCLUSION

Higher Education is an important link in the progress of a country. It is a dynamic

environment, constantly exposed to change in order to meet the demands of the

country and the world outside. Therefore, it is of the utmost importance that Higher

Education Institutions operates with a healthy workforce, which can set as an example

for student who will enter the workforce.

.

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