World War I and the Crisis of the European Order

Introduction• During WWI the great colonial empires of Europe made increasing

demands on their colonies which led to protests and nationalist movements

• Example-Egypt and the British: British were surprised by the mass Egyptian protests from 1919-1922. The British thought the Egyptians were passive and they didn’t pick up on the signs of oncoming revolts!

• Egyptians were upset over many issues including: British confiscation of Egyptians draft animals, rising prices of everything, outstretched food supplies, increasing demands on female labor in factories, increased labor demands in sweatshops and fields, meager wages, demands on Egyptian men as bearers, animal tenders, and etc during the war.

• British focused heavily upon Egypt b/c of its proximity to Turkey and Germany and of course the importance of the Suez Canal in connecting all of the British empire for soldiers, laborers, raw materials, loans, and donations.

• Egyptian women, especially from the lower classes were very active in protests and were aggressively taking part in bombings and facing police and armed forces. -Shafika Muhammad (F) killed by British in an unarmed demonstrations

• It is important to understand that imperialism turned WWI into a global war reaching far corners of the world and have long lasting effects

Coming War: Long March to War• Germany had been working for economic supremacy before it even

became a unified state. Germany quickly became highly industrialized which was reflected in its many RRs and supremacy over metals. As you can imagine this worried many of its European neighbors. Germany and Russia did have an alliance (Reinsurance Treaty) however because of German’s support of Austria at the expense of Russia that treaty lapsed and European peace was threatened. Russia turned to France and Britain for alliances (idea was a two-front war if Germany declared war on any of its neighbors).

• Additionally, France was just as worried as Russia. Its defeat in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 made it lose the territories of Alsace and Lorraine and it looked as if the German’s were eyeing even more French land! The British joined the Triple Entente over the threat of the German growing navy and army!

• When Kaiser Wilhelm II of German came to power so also did another alliance system-Triple Alliance known as the Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Italy did have a major problem with Austria because Austria still had some Italian lands under its control which meant that Italy’s role in the alliance could change. In fact in 1915 Italy switched sides and joined the Triple Entente!

Leading up to war• The various powers in Europe had been a part of imperial building

and had competing rivalries. These tensions increased as fewer and fewer lands were available for colonization.

• Nationalism (jingoism) also grew leading to hatred for others• Morocco crisis-France annexed Morocco to its other N. African

colonies and Germany threatened war if the French advancement continued…not supported by other powers. In 1911 Germany again threatened and the French had to give Germany some lands in central Africa to avoid conflict!

• The great powers wanted lands and also didn’t want to see anyone else gain lands at their expense

• Great arms race-imperial powers race for arms, army, and navy! Germany navy threatened the British navy’s supremacy

• Armies grew in size, firepower, and began to practice. With all this technology and large standing well-equipped militaries politicians felt confident in war and felt if one came it would be short.

• Additionally, many of these industrialized European powers had many problems at home: labor strikes and protests. Conflict between European states would be a very nice way to distract its people from their social problems and provide employment.

Outbreak of War• Russia wanted a warm water port and supported nationalist ambitions in the

Balkans against the Turks and Austria. Russia supported Serbs against Austria. • A Serbian nationalist, Gavriel Princip, assassinated the Austro-Hungarian heir

to the throne, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in 1914. The couple was in Sarajevo, Bosnia (under Austrian control) for a speech. The Austrian government was very angry and looked to make Serbs pay. Austria also looked to Germany’s supported which it famously gave Austria a “blank check”. This led to Austria giving Serbia an very harsh ultimatum which the Serbs couldn’t totally give into (which Austria understood…they wanted war to end once and for all Serbian challenges)

• Russia declared its supported for Serbia and the alliance systems were quickly drawn into this small conflict!

• Inept diplomacy, tensions over decades, and the enviable sense of war led to war

• Germany devised a plan in case of war since it knew it would be fighting a two-front war: Schlieffen Plan 1905-attack France first and then fight off the slower Russia.

• British joined war to defend Belgium which was neutral and Germany attacked to launch its attack in France.

• With these major powers came their colonies and even Japan’s support (Canada, Austria, India, African nations, and even New Zealand all found themselves part of the action)

Russia and France

• Russia’s main plan of defense was to mobilize troops prior to war-due to the poor RR system they would not be able to mobilize troops as quickly as Germany

• Began mobilizing troops towards Germany

• French Plan XVII: concentration of troops in one specific area: Lorraine and Alsace

• However, left Paris exposed and the heartland of France exposed to a northern attack

The Schlieffen Plan

• Germany should concentrate on France, swiftly attacking north through neutral states

• After France was taken over then they could concentrate on the Eastern front against Russia

• A group of seven men, including a teacher, all under 28 years sought to kill Archduke Ferdinand

• Ferdinand was not personally an oppressor to their people and had tried to play the role of friend. Serbs and Croats in Austria’s southern provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina actually lived well due to the dual monarchy. The assassins didn’t desire to bring an end to the dual monarchy, but rather to create a bigger and better sun for Serbia.

• Wanted an independent Serbian State

• Prewar Austria-Hungary was run by two strong races the Germans and Magyars. There were Slav minorities in both countries including Czechs and Slovaks north and Serbs and Croats south. The Hapsburgs (feudal German overlords) had difficulties with the largest bloc, the Hungarians. In order to offset the power of the Hungarians they favored certain Slav subjects. Ferdinand was a champion of this policy.

• Because Ferdinand married a northern Slav he falsely thought that he had extra respect with southern Slavs. People of Serbia view Ferdinand as a threat because he advocated “trialism” or triple reorganization of the empire in place of the existing “Dualism”

• Ferdinand thought that by giving Serbs an equal voice against the Germans and Magyars he could create a better empire.

• Why would the Serbs not like this plan???

• The Serbs had problems with this plan because it essentially doomed Serbia from ever become a great, independent state. To Serbian nationalists Franz Ferdinand had become the most serious threat to a Greater Serbia.

• Much of the plotting and scheming for the assassination took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina

• Bosnia and Herzegovina (Serb and Croat) had been controlled by Vienna (Austria) since 1878, when the Turks had been expelled but remained officially Turkish until 1908 when they were annexed to the Dual Monarchy. This action outraged many Serbians. The southern provinces became a breeding ground for subversion and anti-Hapsburg ideas.

• The assassins were not what you would think assassins should be, but they did have one thing

• in common all were suffering from tuberculosis.

• Some of the assassins like Mohammed Mehmedbasic froze and allowed the motorcade with Ferdinand to pass. Others like Nedjelko Cabrinovic missed. The mistake was a wrong turn taken by the car onto Francis Joseph Street where the driver stopped. This put Princip within five feet of Ferdinand. He fired two shots. One hit Ferdinand in the neck and the second struck Sophie in the abdomen.

• Mehmedbasic threw a bomb, but missed Ferdinand. He did injury others that were taken to the hospital. He then took his cyanide tablet and dove into the river (the cyanide tablet didn’t work and only made him sick while the river (Miljacka) was just a few inches deep).

• Ferdinand upon arriving at his speech destination was angry and stated “one comes here for a visit and is received with bombs”

• The Mayor didn’t understand him and they continued with the speech

• After the speech Ferdinand wired home that they were both fine. He decided he should visit bomb victims. They thought another attack was unlikely.

• He didn’t want Sophie to go, but she insisted. On their way to the hospital they took a wrong turn onto Francis Joseph Street and this is were the attack occurred!

• Ferdinand’s dying words “Es ist nichts” (it is nothing). This was the couples 14th anniversary

• Princip then turned his pistol on himself, but the crowd knocked it away. He then turned to his cyanide capsule, which only made him vomit. Princip and Cabrinovic remained alive.

• Emperor Francis Joseph heard of the news of the death of his nephew and thought to himself how careless Ferdinand had been and felt the Hapsburgs had gained something through the elimination of Ferdinand

• “A higher power has restored that order which unfortunately I was unable to maintain”

• Emperor Francis Joseph had never approved of his nephew’s choice in a wife. Sophie was a noble but from an obscure Czech family. Emperor Francis Joseph was so offended by this choice of a mate beneath his station that the they argued over the marriage for 1 year. When the emperor consented, Francis Ferdinand was forced to renounce the rights of succession and rank for his children, taking Sophie as a morganatic wife.

• Initially many countries were shocked, but not provoked by the incident

• Sophie wasn’t permitted to ride in the royal carriage with her husband due to her station and was snubbed all over Vienna by the royals. Ferdinand wanted Sophie to experience being treated like a royal on their 14th wedding anniversary so he took her to Sarajevo b/c in that company she would be treated as such. They rode together in the second car on the parade route.

• Unfortunately for everyone the assassins cyanide capsules didn’t work and they lived. “In this way the pistol and poison failed both the killer and the world” S.L.A. Marshall

• They killers could talk now! If they had died there may not have been any case made against Serbia

Assassination at Sarajevo

• On July 23, 1914 Austria presented Serbia with an ultimatum, which was deliberately harsh

• End to anti-Austrian activity and to allow Austrians to conduct an investigations in their country

• Serbia agreed to most demands, but offered to have several others settled by an international conference

• July 28 refused Serbia’s offer and declared war

Assassination at Sarajevo

• July 28 (same day) Russia also took action and began mobilizing troops toward the Austrian border

• WW1 had now begun• Austria-Hungary and

Russia pulled in their allies

• Germany declared war on Russia-Aug. 1 and France-Aug. 3

• France (mobilization) on July 30

• Great Britain on Aug. 4 after Germany attacked neutral states

• Italy-outside of the conflict• Austrian-Serbian war

became a European wide conflict within a month

World War I

• Trenches ran from the English Channel to Swiss border

• Machine guns, poison gas, and heavy artillery made short work of infantry

• Tanks, flame throwers, poison gas, and barbed wire

World War I

German Offensive• Schlieffen Plan had been

dedicated to the principle that France could be swiftly eliminated

• First Battle of the Marne: Sept. 6-10, 1914—Allies were ready to attack weakened German troops

• On Aug. 2 Germany demanded free passage for her troops via Belgium (12 hrs). Germany had secret information that France was going to invade. If Belgium didn’t remain neutral and allow passage, Germany would see her as an enemy

• Belgium asked Britain for help and appealed to King George V. Grey repeated a line from Gladstone “Could this country stand by and witness the direst crime that ever stained the pages of history and thus become participators in the crime?”

• Britain gave Germany an ultimatum: halt the invasion of Belgium or be at war with Britain by midnight

• By midnight on Aug. 4th the British were at war

• Counterattacks by British and French forces halted the German advance at the Marne River

• forced to drop back• Allies victorious-strategic victory

because allies resisted German advance

War on the Eastern Front• Germany was now forced

to fight a two-front war: western (France) and eastern (Russia)

• Eastern front wasn’t limited to trench warfare due to large border

• Tannenberg Forest-1914: Russians suffered huge loss

Masurian Lakes-1914: last great Russian campaign-almost took out the Austria as a military power

• Germany forced to draw 8 divisions out of Italy, 12 from the Western front-providing relief for Verdun and Somme

• Then the Germans under Ludendorff assumed power over the Austrian military

• Enjoyed success along southern front against Austria until Germans pushed them back (Limanowa)

• Russians suffered incredible losses (2 million)! Support for the war and government began to wane

World War I

War on the Eastern Front

• By 1916 Russia’s war effort was near collapse

• Russia wasn’t industrialized and as a result they continually had shortages on food, guns, ammunition, clothing, boots, and blankets

• Moreover, the Allies were unable to ship supplies to Russian ports because the German fleet blocked the Baltic Sea and in the south the Ottomans controlled the Mediterranean and the Black Sea

War on the Eastern Front

• Russian army had only one asset: its numbers

• Throughout the war the Russian army suffered enormous battlefield losses

• 2 million were killed, wounded, or captured in 1915 alone

• Yet the army continually rebuilt its ranks from the country’s enormous population

• For more than 3 yrs they diverted Germany’s full out assault in the west

War on the Eastern Front• By March 1917 civil

unrest due to food and fuel shortages brought government to brink of collapse

• Czar Nicholas, faced with revolution, abdicated his throne on March 15

• Provisional government was established-pledged to continue fighting war

• However, war-weary Russian army refused to fight any longer

• Nov. 1917- second revolution: Communist leader Vladimir Lenin seized power-insisted upon ending Russia’s involvement in the war

• March 1918: truce: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (lost lands)

War on the Western Front• Now, the German

military was free to transfer most of the eastern forces to the western front

• 1916 Verdun: small fortress in northeast France-German’s attacked. Wanted “to bleed the French white by virtue of our superiority in guns”

• French held their position ten horrifying months

• There was no real winners that emerged from the battle

• Causalities were high-700,000 dead

War on the Western Front

• 1916 Somme: 7 mile advance-were successful, but at a total cost of 1 million lives

• Champagne 1917: French defeat

• Passchendaele offensive 1917 very limited success

• Realized “going over the top” in offensives wasn’t working

• Basically there was a stalemate on the western front…Allies attempted to open up new fronts

Ottoman Empire• Feb. 1915: Allies

attacked Ottomans in the area of the Dardanelles-led to capital Constantinople

• If they could take Dardanelles they could supply Russians

• Known as the Gallipoli (Gaa-lip-O-lee) campaign

• By May turned into another stalemate

• In Dec. Allies gave up campaign and evacuated

• Despite Gallipoli, Allies were still determined to defeat the Ottomans

Ottomans/ Germans• Allied armies took

Baghdad, Jerusalem, and Damascus

• In Southwest Asia, the British helped Arab nationalists rise up against their Turkish rulers

• Asia and Africa: German colonial possessions came under assault -Japan

• British recruited subjects of German colonies-independence

• Naval Battles: 1916 Jutland in the North Sea-no real winner

• Unrestricted submarine warfare: proved to be German's most effect naval weapon-attacked Allied and neutral ships

• 1915 sank Lusitania (British passenger ship)

• 1917: sank 3 American ships

War in Europe• War really did turn into a stalemate on the Western Front.

Germany attacked Belgium which surprisingly fought back and slowed down the giant. While the French fight violently to hold onto their nation plus the British entered the picture to help push the German’s back! The British arrived when the German troops were tired and not well supplied b/c they were away from RRs.

• The Western Front developed a unique style: trench warfare-built down in order to protect themselves against on another’s technology (firepower, machine guns, artillery). This only further compounded the stalemate.

• Western Front was turned into a killing grounds with millions of men losing their lives for little more than a regional conflict in the Balkans? (machine guns, artillery, barbed-wire, poison gas).

• Trenches provided some shelter from the hellish conditions of industrialized war, but by no means was a picnic! The trenches were filled with rats and lice. The rats would eat on the corpses of the dead and the soldiers tried anything to keep them at bay.

• Older generals from another time period did not understand war in the Industrial age and kept using tactics that were basically suicidal.

War in the East• Russia surprised the Germans by launching offenses quicker than they

thought. This made the Germans reorganize and divert troops to the Eastern Front too. The Germans virtually destroyed Russian armies and the Russians had devastating losses to Germans (not Austrians though).

• Russian suffered highest level of casualties of any of the states involved• Aristocratic generals led millions of unprepared/ un-supplied peasants to their

certain deaths! Tsar Nicholas II moved to the front itself to lead the war effort. Russians angry before the war saw millions of the son of the peasant classes dying needlessly. This provided even more ammunition for the Russian protests and revolts.

• Austria-Hungarian forces proved more equal with Russia and Russia did defeat them many times, but the Austrian would ask for help from Germany and they would send troops and equipments which tipped the balance in favor of Austria.

• Austria was quite successful against Italy though (Italy entered war in 1915). Entered war on promised of land gains from the British. The Italians lost offensive after offensive and had to be reinforced with French and British troops from the Western Front to halt Austrian success (opposite of what was supposed to happen). Many Italian troops deserted out of hopelessness. One Italian soldier wounded at the front who would soon change Italian history and be a key figure in WWII was Benito Mussolini.

The Home Fronts in Europe• Soldiers grew angry at political leaders who urged them to continue

fighting the war and civilians who supported it and didn’t understand the horrors and the true price of warfare.

• At home governments dealt with needs of the front through rationing and the government also ran certain sectors like the RRs (Total War)

• The governments also censored media and put down dissent• Developed propaganda departments-so good that the Germans

didn’t even realize that they were on the course to losing and thought their defeat was sudden due to gov. censorship!

• Angry people with the war-led to labor protest and in Russia the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917!

• Women also participated heavily in war being nurses on the front to producing much needed goods in factories. Women challenged traditional gender roles during the war and afterwards demanded more rights and liberties. However, when the men returned home women lost their jobs and many times the government tried to force them back to the home.

War Outside Europe• Because colonies were used for raw materials of people and materials they soon

were drawn into the conflict. Fighting spread to the Middle East, Africa, and Asia.• 1917 US entered the war-Triple Entente • British maintained a naval blockade over the Germans. They were superior at sea

and cut off the Central Powers from their colonies and their supplies! At the same time because of the sheer empire of the British much of the world came into the war.

• 1902 the British made a naval compact with Japan. Japan then attacked German colonies in China and the Pacific…which allowed them to expand their imperialistic goals and eventually led to their dominance over Asia in WWII!

• British White Dominions quickly sent supplies (including men). These soldiers were active in the Middle East and the famous Gallipoli Campaign (1915-Australian forces), and the Western Front. Some colonial areas had been promised freedom in return for their help during the war.

• From tropical dependencies (non settler ) colonies many soldiers and supplies. Germans lost many colonies, but in German East Africa they had a superbly led African soldiers who fought the British 2 weeks after the end of fighting in Europe!

• The Turks entered the war in 1915 on side of Germany. They fought in of course the Gallipoli Campaign, Middle East, as well as Russia. They had severe losses to Russia and turned blamed to the Christian Armenian minority (spanned both empires). Some Armenians did back Russia b/c of earlier pogroms against them by the Turks, but most was loyal or neutral. Turks lost because of poor planning but blamed the Armenians and in 1915 launched an attack…the Armenian genocide killed millions and caused many to leave to Middle East and Russia.

War Outside Europe• US initially didn’t really care about entering the

war and most Americans felt it was a European conflict. The US sold many industrialized and raw materials to the Triple Entente (alliance) and began giving loans too. They soon transitioned from the debtor to creditor and WWI turned US into an international powerhouse.

• Blunders of the Germans that brought US into the war: unrestricted submarine warfare (Zimmerman Note)

• US joined war in April of 1917

Endgame• It did appear that the Germans were going to win the war. They had

defeated British armies and the French were in a retreat while Russia pulled out of the war in a revolution! However, the war on the Western Front once again turned into a stalemate with new weapons and increasing American troops.

• Austria-Hungary broke down and fragmented along national lines –separate republics of Austria and Hungary

• Germany agreed to a armistice November 11, 1918 and the public was surprised by its “sudden” loss and many accepted the myth that the country had been betrayed by socialists and Jewish politicians –”stab-in-the-back theory”. Many soldiers and citizens were horrified by the peace agreement and felt angry. Mixed in with post-war economic conditions it was a breeding ground for discontent and political change allowing disgruntled soldiers like Adolf Hitler and the Nazis to gain power.

• 10 million died, 20 million wounded (society not quite prepared for), billions of dollars of economic loss, destruction of cities, transportation routes, and farmlands led to even more economic losses PLUS an influenza pandemic (killed about another 50 million people worldwide).

Victory 1918

• Nov. 9, 1918 Kaiser Wilhelm II (G) was forced to step down

• Germany declared itself a republic and a representative from the new German government met with Allies

• Signed an armistice or agreement to stop fighting

• Nov. 11, 1918 WWI came to an end

• Now turned toward peace settlement

Settling the Peace• Woodrow Wilson-US• Georges Clemenceau-

France• David Lloyd George-

Great Britain• Wilson: 14 Points (liberal)1-5 included end to secret

treaties, freedom of the seas, trade, and reduction in national armies/ navies

• 6-13 suggestions for changing borders and creating new nations-self determination

• 14-proposed a general association of nations- League of Nations

• France/ Britain showed little sign of agreeing with Wilson-concerned with national security

Settling the Peace• France also wanted to

punish Germany• Conference of Paris

began in January 1919 and the treaty of Versailles was signed June 28, 1919

• “diktat” –dictated peace • (5 yrs to the day after

the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo)

• League of Nations-keep peace (Germany and Russia excluded)

• Punished Germany-”war guilt” clause (place sole responsibility for the war on Germany and they had to pay reparations to the Allies)

• Germans nor Russians not ask to Versailles to take part in the treaty

Settling the Peace• Germany had to return

Alsace-Lorraine to France

• French border was extended to the west bank of the Rhine river

• Germany surrendered all of its overseas colonies in Africa and the Pacific

• Limited the size of the German military

• Prohibited from importing or manufacturing weapons/ subs

• Germany force to pay Allies $33 billion in reparations over 30 years

• Promises to Arabs not kept and France and Britain divided up the Middle East

• Japan targeted China• Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam) ask for

conference with Wilson, who refused!

New Nation-States

• Eastern Europe was most change by peace treaties ending WWI

• Treaties created new states to act as buffer states. They were to stop the spread of communism and German power

• New states: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia

• Old states winning independence: Finland and Poland

• Austria-Hungary separated

New Nation-States• New states were

ethnically diverse• Ethnic unrest stemmed

from minority groups ruling or being left out of the political process

• Many economic problems: no agricultural revolution and borders did not make economic sense

• Border disputes were common among many of these states

• Poland and Russia actually fought a land dispute in 1920

• States characterized by low productivity, unemployment, and overpopulation

• New states were weak and unstable

Failure of Treaty

• War Guilt Clause• Exclusion of Russia• Refusal of the U.S.

Congress to endorse all aspects of the treaty

• Growing desire for isolationism in Great Britain

• Going back on promised to Arabs

Nationalist Assaults • During the war the European states used their colonies on the Fronts

(African and Asia soldiers ended up on the Western Front) and they fed raw materials and goods to the nations.

• Britain even expanded the industrial sector in India to feed its war needs• African and Asians were ordered in the millions to fight against and kill

Europeans…suddenly the divisions between European were revealed. Officers abroad were called back and the posts had to be filled with locals. Additionally, many promises such as independence were made to groups (Arabs). But they interfered with their powers postwar expansion plans.

• Fueled new group of political and intellectual leaders that were anti-colony that had started prior to the war, but the war helped to make the movements very large and justified them.

India: Challenge to British Raj• Asia colonized prior to Africa so independence movements naturally started

here 1st

• India and Egypt provided examples • 1885 National Congress party of India-composed of educated Indians.

Originally only intended to made known the opinions of Indians and thought to protect against independence movements…wrong…they ended up leading the way to independence in India and governed through most of the early years of independence.

• Early on few members and elite centered concerns with many loyal individuals to the British.

• Felt the British government was racist towards Indians and kept them down (limited opportunities and poor pay)

• In the National Congress party they started discussing problems and found out they were similar than they thought. A common Indian identity began to form!

Social Foundations of Movement• National Congress Party soon expanded their efforts to include more

segments of society and found many common complaints• Business men quickly started backing the party due to unfair trade

policies given by the British to British investors over Indian ones!• Indian politicians discussed inequities of British and how they were

draining the Indian people of their resources. Plus Indians were forced to pay for wars outside of India as well as fat salaries of local British administrators.

• British saw India and export economy and kept them from industrializing and competing with British manufactured products (RRs)

• British also pushed for production of cash crops at the expense of food which resulted in regional famines across India. The government did little to help fix.

Rise of Militant Nationalism • B.G. Tilak –early Indian nationalist (prior to WWI): religious oriented

cause along Hinduism (protect cows, no women’s ed. Etc.) He wanted Indians to quite the British Raj administration and military and to boycott British manufactured goods. He advocated independence and was willing to use violence to attain it.

• Not everyone liked his extreme ideas and the British connected him back to dangerous writing so they exiled him to Burma for 6 years –pretty much squashing the movement.

• Hindu communalists-violent break with British (pre WWI), but they were secret (clandestine). Terrorist movement-taught physical fitness, firearm use, and bomb making. British crushed all revolts.

• Well educated Indian lawyers soon led the war: Gandhi, Jinnah, and Nehru

• 1908 Morley-Minto Reforms-expanded Indian rights

Emergence of Gandhi• India was the most important tropical dependency of the British during

the war supplying them: loans, raw materials, manufactured goods, and soldiers. As war dragged on more people of India started to break under the weight of obligation and nationalist movements became popular

• Inflation happened driving prices upward and wages and value of money downward. Result was peasant unrest and even famines!

• British promised movement towards Indian independence if they continued to help during the war-Montagu-Chelmsford reforms 1919-more Indians involved in government -Rowlatt Act-1919 (after montagu reforms)-went back and placed severe restrictions on Indian civil rights like freedom of the press

• After the war the British refused to honor wartime promises only further exacerbating the issue

Mohandas Gandhi• Emerged as a local leader and soon galvanized the people into in all-

Indian independence movement• He was highly intellectual and very religious (guru)-a combination that

made him attract followers and wore out adversaries (lawyer and Hindu). Middle class attracted to Gandhi’s education and training while peasants attracted because they viewed him as a saint.

• Prior to his fame he led a successful resistance movement where he perfected his skills: Gandhi advocated-nonviolent, but aggressive protest tactics that opened him up to both moderate and radical supporters.

• Peaceful boycotts, strikes, noncooperation, and mass demonstrations (satyagraha-truth force)

• This weakened the British because they couldn’t really use violence against them

• Under Gandhi national protest surged in 1920s and 30s

Egypt/ Middle East Nationalism• Egypt-early uprising prior to British-Ahmad Orabi against Armenian

Khedive family…led to British occupation in 1882 (double occupation)• Egypt-Lord Cromer led reforms for political and financial

improvements, but only for Turco-Egyptian elite and bourgeoisie at expense of peasants

• Ayan benefited most from public works projects and became very wealthy while the poor got poorer -more disassociated with rich

• Middle class (effendi) took over nationalistic struggle (business and professional families)-many journalist led the way compared to in India lawyers

• Arab newspapers popped up to expose mistakes of British and corruption of khedives

• Various nationalist parties formed but they were rivals of one another

Egypt and Middle East Nationalism cont• Nationalistic groups didn’t speak for illiterate, poorly paid, and

ignored • Dinshawai incident 1906: British vs. Egyptians-Egyptians had raised

pigeons to supplement their diets. British started hunting pigeons in select villages as a holiday hobby One day while hunting pigeons in the village of Dinshawai the British accidently shot a woman (wife of prayer leader). Villagers mobbed the British who started firing on the crowd…both sides suffered losses. Afterwards the British hung 4 villagers and flogged and forced into labor other villages connected to Dinshawai as punishment.

• Harsh response by British united many Egyptians behind the nationalist movement…even the ayan joined!

• 1913 British started giving into some demands of British-granted a constitution and representation somewhat in Parliament

• BUT these were taken back in WWI-conditions in war strained society even more and led to more nationalistic support like in India

Revolt in Egypt 1919• Nationalist movements grew due to British and

Khedive corruption and the weight of the war. • Wafd party-leader Sa’d Zaghlud –proved mass

base to work from• 1936 Egypt became free of British control, but

the Khedival family still in control until 1952• Didn’t do much to relieve proglems of homeless• Egypt-angry about broken promises and war time

treatment: d• 1952 Gamal Abdul Nasser

War and Nationalists Movements in Middle East

• Ottoman Empire-lost in war and the empire disappeared as Britain, France, Italy, and Greece moved in to take control of the territories

• Mustafa Kemal-Ataturk-(a former Young Turk) was a Turkish officer during war and after war rallied Turkish forces to fight back Greek armies.

• 1923 an independent Turkish republic established • Ataturk drove out ethnic Greeks from Turkey and began radical reforms based on western ideas

(Latin alphabet, women’s suffrage, criticism of veil)• Beirut, Damascus, and Baghdad had been promised freedom in 1915-16 for fight on side of the

Triple Entente, but after the war the Allies went back on deal. They were angry and humiliated, after all they had agreed to attack fellow Muslims (Ottoman Turks). Europeans under the League of Nations gave mandates (government entrusted to European nations in the Middle East after WWI: British occupied Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, and Palestine after 1922).

• Palestine-angry from Muslims over European discussion of a Jewish homeland. During war promised Palestine to both Arabs and Jewish Zionists (return to holy land). Balfour Declaration-pledge by Lord Balfour ,the British foreign secretary, that Jews would return to their homelands in the Middle East

• Growing anti-Jewish sentiment: pogroms in Russia and Romania Zionism became a Jewish and racist idea all in one?(ghettos)

• Dreyfus Affair-French Jew in the military charged with selling secrets-no evident, convicted because he as Jewish.

• Jewish immigration to the Palestine angrered many locals

Beginnings in Africa• Started colonization right before WWI-some limited missionary efforts produced

some western education (many loyal to European state during war). Drew upon colonies for soldiers and raw materials. Africans rebelled over military conscription and labor demands-again Africans soon same war experience as Indians which led to increased nationalism.

• Throughout Africa after the war there were strikes and riots. There were even outright rebellions in some places especially after the Great Depression

• It wasn’t until the 1940s that western education Africans linked up with African urban workers and peasant to really push for independence.

• Pan-African organizations-started typically by African-Americans (W.E.B. Du Bois) in an attempt to arouse all-African loyalty and work together on important issues, but Africans in Africa had very difference problems and experiences than Africans in Europe and the U.S.

• By mid 1920s British and French nationalists had gone their ways and focused on their own independent movements

• Negritude literary movement-celebrated beauty of African people and culture while combating racial stereotyping of Europeans!!!

• With the exception of settler colonies the British started giving greater opportunities to Africans to build political associations-what came of this was groups such as the National Congress of British West Africa that were pan-colony associations. These groups eventually gave way to individual nationalistic movements in colonies.

• In Africa mass followings to nationalistic movements would not come to pass until after the second world war!

World War and Global Upheavals• WWI or the Great War

-did much to undermine the position of dominance by Europe-Disrupted economy and created new competitors: U.S. and Japan-Pressures of war reignited class tensions leading to full blown revolutions like in Russia and liberal parties (labor and socialist) gaining power in Europe -Women’s roles changed and were challenged-Racism challenged

• Triple Entente held onto their colonies in spite of their promises to the colonies of independence-raising much resistance and nationalistic movements such as Ghandi

• Early uprisings in India, Egypt, Vietnam, and China established protest techniques used by others later against their overlords

• Russia supported decolonization efforts around the world

• Black Woman, Lines 10-19• Naked woman, dark woman

Ripe fruit with firm flesh, dark raptures of black wine, Mouth that gives music to my mouthSavanna of clear horizons, savanna quivering to the fervent caress

• Of the East Wind, sculptured tom-tom, stretched drumskinMoaning under the hands of the conquerorYour deep contralto voice is the spiritual song of the Beloved.

• 3. Colonialism• Prayer for Peace (I of V only)

to Georges and Claude Pompidou• I. • Lord Jesus, at the end of this book, which I offer You

As a ciborium of sufferingsAt the beginning of the Great Year, in the sunlightOf Your peace on the snowy roofs of Paris-- Yet I know that my brothers' blood will once more redden The yellow Orient on the shores of the PacificRavaged by storms and hatredI know that this blood is the spring libationThe Great Tax Collectors have used for seventy yearsTo fatten the Empire's landsLord, at the foot of this cross - and it is no longer YouTree of sorrow but, above the Old and New Worlds, Crucified Africa, And her right arm stretches over my landAnd her left side shades AmericaAnd her heart is precious Haiti, Haiti who dared Proclaim Man before the TyrantAt the feet of my Africa, crucified for four hundred years And still breathingLet me recite to You, Lord, her prayer of peace and pardon.

Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo June 28, 1914 before the assassination

EMPEROR FRANCIS JOSEPH I

Emperor of Austria Francis Joseph I (Habsburg Family)

                                  

Csar Nicholas II & King George V

Royal Family of Russia –Romanovs Rasputin

WARNING DISTURBING Pictures of the victims of the Armenian Genocide of 1915

Many believe that because of the lack of involvement by the international community to stop the Turks that later Hitler believed that genocide was the answer to land expansion because no one would really care just like with the Armenians

THE BIG FOUR OF VERSAILLES 1919

Big Four in Peace of Paris

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Map DescriptionHistorical Map of WWI: the Dardanelles and Gallipoli Peninsula - Feb-Apr 1915Illustrating - Defenses of the Straits

- Turkish Dispositions

- Allied Plan for the Landings

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HOME - HISTORY MAPS - FIRST BATTLE OF THE SOMME - 1916

Reference Maps on World War I 1914-1918 Map of Europe in 1914: Allied, Central, and Neutral Powers Map of the Western Front in 1914 Map of the Eastern Front in 1914 Map of the Ottoman Empire 1914 Map of the Serbian Campaign - August-December 1914 Map of Northwest Europe: Opposing Armies - August 2, 1914 Map of the Battle of the Frontiers (North: Belgium and France) - August 1914 Map of the Battle of the Frontiers (South: Eastern France) - August 1914 Map of the Tannenberg Campaign 1914 - Movements August 17-23, 1914 Map of Belgium - August 20, 1914 Map of Northwest Europe - August 26-30, 1914: Allied Retreat Map of the Battle of Tannenberg - August 26, 1914 (Part 1) Map of the Battle of Tannenberg - August 27-30, 1914 (Part 2) Map of Northwest Europe - August 30-September 5, 1914: Allied Retreat Map of the First Battle of the Marne - September 6-12, 1914 Map of the Eastern Front - Sept 28-Nov 1, 1914: Campaign in Southwest Poland Map of the Western Front: Sept 30-Nov 11, 1914 Map of Mesopotamia 1914 - Anglo-Indian Invasion Map of the Western Front 1915-1916 Map of Mesopotamia - January-July 1915 Map of the Battle of the Masurian Lakes - Feb 7-22, 1915 Map of the Dardanelles and Gallipoli Peninsula - Feb-Apr 1915 Map of the Eastern Front - May 1-Sept 30, 1915: German Breakthrough in the Gorlice-Tarnów Area Map of the Battles of the Isonzo - 1915-1917 Map of Mesopotamia July-November 1915 Map of Serbia and the Salonika Expedition - October 7, 1915 Map of the Battle of Verdun - Feb 21-Dec 18, 1916 Map of the Eastern Front - March 1916 - Prior to the Brusilov Breakthrough against Austria-Hungary June–August 1916 Map of the Eastern Front - May-Sept 1916 - the Brusilov Offensive Map of the Battle of Jutland - May 31-June 1, 1916 Map of the First Battle of the Somme - Jul 1-Nov 13, 1916 Map of the Romanian Campaign - Aug 27-Sep 18, 1916 Map of the Romanian Campaign - Sep 19-Oct 25, 1916 Map of the Romanian Campaign - Nov 26, 1916-Jan 7, 1917 Map of the Eastern Front 1917-8 Map of the First Battle of Gaza - March 26, 1917 Map of the Baltic Islands - Oct 10-20, 1917 Map of the Battle of Caporetto - Oct 24-Nov 19, 1917 Map of the Third Battle of Gaza - Oct 31-Nov 7, 1917 Map of the Western Front 1918 - Five German Offensives Map of the Battle of Megiddo - Sep 19-21, 1918 Map of the Western Front - Sept 25-Nov 11, 1918 - Final Allied Offensive Map of the Battles of the Meuse-Argonne - Sept 26-Nov 11, 1918 Map of the Battle of Vittorio Veneto - Oct 24-Nov 3, 1918 Map of the Territorial Losses of World War One Map of Europe in 1919: the national boundary realignments resulting from the First World War Map of the World in 1919: Political Realignment Following the First World War

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Map DescriptionHistorical Map of WWI: the First Battle of the Somme - Jul 1-Nov 13, 1916Illustrating Peronne and Vicinity, Situation July 1, 1916

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B.G. Talik

Gandhi

Lord Cromer

Ataturk

Alfred Dreyfus

Sa’d Zaghlul

Leopold Sedar Senghor

http://swapnilamoda.blogspot.com/2009/06/tilak-extremism-in-indian-politics.html B.G. Talik

http://www.warcrimes.info/shop/html/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=375 Armenian Genocide pics

http://www.curiouschapbooks.com/Catalog_of_Curious_Chapbooks/Victoria_s_Dark_Secrets/VDS-5/body_vds-5.html Rasputin

http://www.parallelsixty.com/famous-russians.shtml Romanov family picture

http://www.philatelicdatabase.com/collections/relax-with-stamps/ Picture of George V and Nicholas II

http://www.emersonkent.com/history/timelines/world_war_I_timeline_1914.htm pic of Archduke Ferdinand and wife, the big four, emperor Joseph I, and all war maps

http://jegans.wordpress.com/2009/10/12/mahatma-gandhi-inventor-of-ahimsa/ Gandhi

http://wpcontent.answers.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/LordCromer.jpg/200px-LordCromer.jpg Lord Cromerhttp://uwmesp.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/ataturk1.jpg Ataturk

http://is.muni.cz/do/1499/el/estud/praf/js09/dejiny/web/img/11/03.jpg Dreyfus

http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/61/44461-003-943FB91B.gif Zaghlul

http://www.web-libre.org/medias/img/articles/6048ff4e8cb07aa60b6777b6f7384d52-2.jpg Senghor