ARCHITECTURE HERITAGE and DESIGN

WORLD HERITAGE and KNOWLEDGERepresentation | Restoration | Redesign | Resilience

Carmine GambardellaXVI INTERNATIONAL FORUM

Mercanti VieLe dei

ARCHITECTURE HERITAGE and DESIGN | 2Collana fondata e diretta da Carmine Gambardella

ARCHITECTURE HERITAGE and DESIGN | 2Collana fondata e diretta da Carmine Gambardella

Scientific Committee:

Carmine Gambardella,UNESCO Chair on Landscape, Cultural Heritage and Territorial GovernancePresident and CEO of Benecon,Past-Director of the Department of Architecture and Industrial DesignUniversity of Studies of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”

Federico Casalegno,Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston

Massimo Giovannini,Professor, Università “Mediterranea”, Reggio Calabria

Bernard Haumont,Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture, Paris-Val de Seine

Alaattin Kanoglu,Head of the Department of Architecture, İstanbul Technical University

David Listokin,Professor, co-director of the Center for Urban Policy Researchof Rutgers University / Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, USA

Paola Sartorio,Executive Director, The U.S.- Italy Fulbright Commission

Elena Shlienkova,Professor, Professor of Architecture and Construction Institute of Samara State Technical University

Luis Palmeiro Iglesias,Director UNESCO Chair Forum University and Heritage,Universitat Politècnica De València UPV, Spain

Nicola Pisacane,Professor of Drawing – Department of Architecture and Industrial Design_University of Studies of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”Head of the Master School of Architecture – Interior Design and for Autonomy CoursesDepartment of Architecture and Industrial Design - University of Studies of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”

Pasquale Argenziano,Professor of Drawing – Department of Architecture and Industrial Design_University of Studies of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”

Alessandra Avella,Professor of Drawing – Department of Architecture and Industrial Design_University of Studies of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”

Alessandro Ciambrone,Ph.D. in Architecture (University of Campania) and Territorial Governance (Université Paris X) UNESCO Vocations Patrimoine 2007-09 / FULBRIGHT Thomas Foglietta 2003-04

Rosaria Parente,Professor in Architecture, construction and geodesy, EPU European Polytechnic University Sofia (Bulgary)

Riccardo Serraglio,Professor in Architectural History, Department of Architecture and Industrial DesignUniversity of Studies of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”

Danila Jacazzi, Professor in Architectural History, Department of Architecture and Industrial DesignUniversity of Studies of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”

Sabina Martusciello,Professor in Industrial Design, Department of Architecture and Industrial DesignUniversity of Studies of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”

Editorial Committee:Pasquale ArgenzianoAlessandra AvellaGiovanni BelloAlessandro CiambroneMaria Luigia Di BennardoRosaria ParenteNicola Pisacane

Carmine Gambardella

WORLD HERITAGE and KNOWLEDGERepresentation, Restoration, Redesign, ResilienceLe Vie dei MercantiXVI International Forum di Studi

Editing: Giovanni Bello, Alessandro Ciambrone, Maria Luigia Di Bennardo

Il volume è stato inserito nella collana Architecture, Heritageand Design, fondata e diretta da Carmine Gambardella, in seguito aa peer review anonimo da parte di due membri del Comitato Scientifico.

The volume has been included in the series Architecture, Heritage and Design, founded and directed by Carmine Gambardella,after an anonymous peer-review by two members of the Scientific Committee.

©Proprietà letteraria riservata

ISBN 978-88-492-3633-0

È assolutamente vietata la riproduzione totale o parziale diquesta pubblicazione, così come la sua trasmissione sotto qualsiasi forma e con qualunque mezzo, anche attraverso fotocopie,senza l’autorizzazione scritta dell’editore.

Carmine Gambardella

WORLD HERITAGE and KNOWLEDGERepresentation, Restoration, Redesign, Resilience

Le Vie dei Mercanti _ XVI International Forum

Conference Topics:

Heritage

Tangible and intangible dimensions

History

Culture

Collective Identity

Memory

Documentation

Management

Communication for Cultural Heritage

Architecture

Surveying

Representation

Modeling

Data Integration

Technology Platforms

Analysis

Diagnosis and Monitoring Techniques

Conservation

Restoration

Protection

Safety

Resilience

Transformation Projects

Technologies

Materials

Cultural landscapes

Territorial Surveying

Landscape Projects

Environmental Monitoring

Government of the Territory

Sustainable Development

WORLD HERITAGE and KNOWLEDGERepresentation, Restoration, Redesign, Resilience

Le Vie dei Mercanti XVI International Forum

Napoli | Capri14 - 15 - 16 June 2018

President of the Forum

Carmine GambardellaPresident and CEO Benecon,UNESCO Chair on Cultural Heritage,Landscape and Territorial Governance

International Scientific Committee

Components:

Aygul Agir, Professor, Department of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

Ahmed Abu Al Haija, Professor and Head, Environmental Design, Urban and Architectural Heritage, Faculty of Engineering,Philadelphia University, Jordan

Ali Abu Ghanimeh,Vice president Al al-Bayt University Almafraq – Jordan

Pilar Garcia Almirall,Professor, UPC Ecole Tecnica Superior d’Arquitectura Barcelona, Spain

Harun Batirbaygil, Head, Department of Architecture, Okan University, Istanbul, Turkey

Artur Beu, Professor, University of Art, Tirana, Albania

Cevza Candan, Professor, İstanbul Technical University, Turkey

Federico Casalegno,Professor, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

Alessandro Ciambrone,Benecon UNESCO Chair, UNESCO and Fulbright Former Fellow, Italy

Joaquín Díaz, Professor and Dean, Technische Hochschule Mittelhessen-University of Applied Sciences, Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Germany

Yurdanur Dulgeroglu, Professor and Head of the Department of Architecture, İstanbul Technical University, Turkey

Yonca Erkan, Chairholder UNESCO Chair, Kadir Has University, Turkey

Kutgun Eyupgiller, Professor, Department of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

Yankel Fijalkow, Professor, Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture Paris Val de Seine, France

Xavier Greffe,Professor and Director, Centre d’Economie de la Sorbonne Paris, France

Manuel Roberto Guido, Director Enhancement of Cultural Heritage, Planning and Budget Department, Italian Ministry of Heritage and Culture, Italy

Bernard Haumont, Professor, Ecole Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture Paris Val de Seine, France

Tatiana Kirova, Professor, Polytechnic of Turin, Italy

Alaattin Kanoglu, Professor, İstanbul Technical University, Turkey

Ilknur Kolay, Professor, Department of Architecture, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey

Mathias Kondolf, Professor, and Chair, Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning, University California Berkeley, USA

David Listokin, Professor, Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Rutgers University, USA

Andrea Maliqari, Professor and Rector of the Polytechnic University of Tirana, Albania

Sabina Martusciello, President of the Degree Course in Design and Communication, University of Campania ‘Luigi Vanvitelli’, Italy

Massimo Menenti, Professor, Department of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands

Rusudan Mirzikashvili, Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Georgia

Doe Morelli, Professor, University of Campania ‘Luigi Vanvitelli’, Italy

Louise Mozingo, Professor, and Chair, Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning, University California Berkeley, USA

Maria Dolores Munoz, Professor, UNESCO Chair, EULA Environmental Centre, University of Conception, Chile

Florian Nepravishta, Professor and Dean of the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Polytechnic University of Tirana, Albania

Luis Palmero Iglesias, Professor, Director of the Forum UNESCO University and Heritage (FUUH) Programme UniversitatPolitècnica de València UPV, Spain

Jorge Peña Díaz, Professor, Facultad de Arquitectura, Instituto Superior Politécnico José Antonio Echeverría, Cuba

Rosaria Parente, Professor in Architecture, construction and geodesy, EPU European Polytechnic University Sofia (Bulgary)

Michelangelo Russo, Professor, Università di Napoli Federico II, Italy

Paola Sartorio, Executive Director, The U.S.- Italy Fulbright Commission, Italy

Lucio Alberto Savoia, Ambassador, Secretary General Emeritus, Italian National Commission for UNESCO, Italy

Maria Anita Stefanelli, Professor, Department of foreign lenguagers, literature and Culture, Università degli studi RomaTRE, Italy

Elena Shlienkova, Professor, Professor of Architecture and Construction Institute of Samara State Technical University, Russia

Eusebio Leal Spengler, Professor, Historiador de la Ciudad de La Habana, Presidente de Honor del Comité Cubano del ICOMOS, Cuba

Isabel Tort, Professor, Universitat Politècnica de València UPV, Spain

Andrey V. Vasilyev, Professor and Director, Institute of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Togliatti State University, Russia

Yaliang Xiang, Professor, China Academy of Art, China

Yang XiuJing, Professor and Director, China Academy of Art, China

Zirid and Hammadid palaces in North Africa and its influence on

Norman architecture in Sicily

Lamia HADDA University of Naples “Suor Orsola Benincasa”, Naples, Italy lamia.hadda@laposte.net Abstract In 973, the Fatimid caliph al-Mu'izz, abandoned the two royal cities of Tunisia, al-Mahdia and al-Mansuriya, for Cairo leaving power of the Ifriqiya to the Berber tribes of Beni Ziri. The capital city, Ashir, was established in Algeria on the slopes of mount Lakhdar that dominates the entire high plains of the steppes. After some years, Prince Buluggin ibn Ziri abandoned central Maghreb and its capital, and transferred it to Kairuan in Tunisia. The protection of the old capital of the Zirid kingdom was entrusted to the Hammadids who, profiting from this new situation, built in 1007 a royal city: the Qal’a of Beni Hammad, located in the Hodna Mountains in north-central Algeria. Unfortunately, the glorious Fatimid palatial architecture has all but disappeared. Neither Mahdia, nor al-Mansuriya, nor Cairo allows us to define the planimetric and spatial characteristics. To somehow return to the Fatimid palaces, would require the studying of the design settings of other more direct noble buildings constructed during the Zirid and Hammadid periods which also show certain analogies with several Norman palaces. Keywords: Islamic palatial architecture, Zirid and Hammadid, Norman architecture, Ashir, Qal’a of Beni Hammad. The heritage of Fatimid and its palatial architecture has unfortunately been totally destroyed. Not one building survived. In fact, neither Mahdia, nor al-Mansuriya nor al-Qahira allow us to define its main architectural features. Mahdia, the first Fatimid capital of Tunisia, had two palaces where archaeologists discovered only the vestiges of a hallway outside the palace with an ornamental room in the form of a large iwan [1]. Even the ruins of archaeological remnants of Sabra al-Mansuriya do not allow us to know anything more about the volumetric and stylistic configuration of the Fatimid palaces. Until today field research has revealed only a residential complex “palace al-Bahr” with a large water basin and a courtroom in the form of an iwan. The great palace of Cairo however, has completely disappeared under the constructions of successive dynasties that have followed over the centuries. Actually, our knowledge of the concept of Fatimid palatial architecture is based more on the palaces of their own vassals, located in the Maghreb and Sicily, rather than on the remains of their own buildings. In fact, some Zirid and Hammadid palatial architecture is relatively well known. At the heart of central Maghreb, the city of Ashir in Algeria occupies an ideal area for a capital, situated on the hillside of the Lakhdar mountain dominating all the high plain of the steppes. According to the Arab geographer al-Bakri (11th century) «Ashir is an important city, we are sure that throughout the region there is no place that is more secure, more difficult to take over or more likely to deter an enemy» [2]. Ashir, the Zirid capital from 935 to 972, was founded by Ziri ibn Manad, head of the Berber tribe of the Sanhaja. It consists of a city and a palace built around 947 [3]. The residence can be considered the main singular embodiment of the stately Fatimid and Zirid architecture in North Africa, for some of its specific characteristics: entrance at avant-corps with an elbow passageway, a cross courtroom with three alcoves, housing units opened around a courtyard. Moreover, in the palace of Ashir, an absolute symmetry and a refined arrangement of the space, still visible in its foundations, emerge from the ground. The regulatory layout of the Zirid residence starts from the central core forming a transversal

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symmetry that aligns North/South. Even if there is a complex internal articulation, the planimetrical organization follows in the formula of a triparte division. In fact, the central core is flanked by two lateral wings, in turn divided into two housing units of very similar volume. Concerning its layout, the Ashir palace recalls an oriental tradition, in particular that of Qasr Mshatta or Qasr Kharana in Jordan of the Umayyad era, and also in Iraq in the Abbasid palace of d’Ukhaidir (erected around 775) maybe of Persian tradition. The entrance at avant-corps, fortified city walls, the secondary dwellings, the cruciform throne room and the symmetrical courtyards are themes that are equally followed by the oriental palatial architecture [4]. The Architectural standard of the palace of Ashir is remarkable in a region that seems to have known only dispersed and summary settlements. We know that caliph al-Qa’im ibn al-Mahdi helped Berber tribes to build Ashir, sending architects, workers and materials, wanting to show them his gratitude for services rendered after the 945 revolt of Abou Yazid the Sāhib al-Himār “Possessor of the donkey”. The text of al-Nuwayri (14th century) shows us that al-Qa’im bin sent to Ziri «an architect more able than the others of Ifriqiya» [5]. It is likely that this is rare material evidence of what was once the organization of Fatimid buildings in Tunisia.

Fig. 1: Algeria, Ziri palace in Ashir Fig. 2: Plan of the Ziri palace

From 1007, the Hammadids founded an authentic royal city, taking inspiration from the model of Sabra al-Mansuriya, in Tunisia, and not the model of Ashir. Al Qal’a of Beni Hammad, constructed by Hammad ibn Buluggin ibn Ziri, extends to the slopes of Takerboust in the mountains of Hodna. The site, relatively unexplored, has considerable archaeological value. The rich material, discovered during the excavation campaign, gives a lot of information about the Hammadids heritage and the prosperity in which they lived [6]. Qal’a was surrounded by 7 km city walls, which have almost disappeared. Literary sources mention artisanal and commercial districts and also magnificent gardens, a large mosque and several palaces. in fact, excavations have identified a number of large palatial complexes, such as the Palace of Health, the Palace of Star, the Palace of Emirs and the Palace of Manar. In the middle of the ruins a wonderful minaret of the Great Mosque still standing, gives an idea of the architectural standard of the whole city. The stone minaret divided into three vertical registers by means of blind niches and overlapping arcades [7]. The Palace of the Emirs is a big palatine complex that includes several private residences of the Emir and his family separated by pavilions, warehouses and vast gardens. The most important building is Dar al-Bahr, the Palace of the Sea, used only for official receptions. The anonymous author of Kitab al-Istibsar left a detailed description: «Beni Hammad built Qal’a and other important buildings, fortified castle, refined architecture located on the relief. Dar al-Bahr was the one which stood out from the others, at its centre there was a large basin where nautical games were held. This palace, which dominates an important waterway, adorned by marble and decorated by columns, so as to present an architectural complex beyond any description. It included other palaces and remarkable buildings inside its fenced area» [8]. Dar al-Bahr has a rectangular shape with a clear planimetric longitudinal symmetry oriented to East-West. At the centre of the eastern facade we can find the only monumental elbow entrance with avant-corps, which resembles the solution found in the Palace of Ziri at Ashir. This solution at the entry could have a military justification, but also a goal of inserting it between the inside part and the outside of the building. The large courtyard, surrounded by arcades on all four sides, was entirely occupied by an artificial basin. Describing this basin, the French archaeologist Lucien Golvin evoked the splendour of the basins of Alhambra in Granada, Andalusia: «This enormous space located in an arid pebbly landscape brings us back to riyād of Andalusia, built three centuries later, but it is much larger than the

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court of the myrtles of Alhambra and it is no wonder to admire this whim of the Prince in the mountains, in a region where water is very limited despite the constant provision of the Oued Fredj» [9]. To the west, there is another building joined by three main rooms. Probably, at the beginning they were covered with domes and they could be used for official events. The two smallest rooms, situated on both sides were directly connected to the basin. The much larger central room was connected to the second courtyard by an elbow passage. The layout of this building follows a tripartite division formulation with a certain kind of primacy of the median side on the two lateral parts. On the north side, there is a building composed of three rooms and the central one has three alcoves. Semi-cylindrical niches sumptuously adorned the facade. According to Lucin Golvin, these buildings could evoke a room for ceremonies or nautical festivals, mentioned by al-Istibsar. The Palace of the Emir, composed of various residential units that developed horizontally, reflects the typical layout of Arabic-Islamic palatial buildings. Dar al-Bahr with its large water basin and its luxuriant gardens recalls the residences of the Norman Kings in Sicily: Zisa, Cuba, Favara and Scibene, although the chronological antecedent is to be found in Sabra al-Mansuriya in Tunisia. Still in Qal’a of Beni Hammad, the palace of al-Manar rises at the edge of a gorge, which dominates the Fredj river. It is a remarkable palace, partially preserved, combining the functions of a reception building, a fortification and a watchtower. The keep of al-Manar was the main part of a palace. Archaeological studies still need to be completed. The building was organized on two levels with a square planimetrics and it had vertical avant-corps on both facades. Three sides are adorned by niches with semi-circular platforms. At the centre of the western side there is an entrance with an avant-corps covered by a dome with painted muqarnas. The interior had two rooms, one above the other. The basement, low and dark, was used as a warehouse or prison [10]. The largest room, located on the ground floor, has a cruciform layout made up of three alcoves with rectangular niches with flat backs. Remains of pendatives in each corner indicate the existence of a dome above. It could be very raised, as the poet Ibn Hammad (died in 1230) said, bringing out the beauty of the palace: «I see again the arcades of al-Manar on bushy parterre with blooming cheeks/it could be said that the domes rise on the horizon like stars appearing in the Aquarius sign» [11]. Given its location and some other typical features of military architecture, the building could be described as a fortification, but the elegance of the dome, the ample underlying space with its representation function and some ornamental elements gives an idea of a fortified residence within a royal city. In fact, the immediate proximity to a fountain and a portico shows how al-Manar can be considered a place designated for vacation and receptions although Golvin assumes that it is only the throne room.

Fig. 3: Algeria, Qal’a of Beni Hammad

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Fig. 4: Qal’a of Beni Hammad, palace of the Emirs

Fig. 5: Qal’a, Dar al-Bahr, East entrance Fig. 6: Qal’a, keep of al-Manar The stately Zirid and Hammadid architecture has some analogy with various Norman palaces of Sicily. It is likely the design planning between Zirid, Hammadid and Norman residences can be compared to Fatimid palaces, which were at the origin of this architectural and artistic tradition. In fact, the Hammadids at Qal’a largely took up the stately Fatimid models and the ornamental innovations of Sabra and Mahdia. We know that the monumental portal of Great Mosque of Mahdia that offers a decorative and abstract collection of volumes carved in stone, very different from the older Aghlabid example. This building, considered as the prototype of Fatimid architecture, will be recalled later in Ifriqiya and in Egypt [12]. Niches and arcades connected by cornice reliefs alternate the lateral facade of Sidi Ali Amar mosque in Sousse (11th century), the dome of al-bahu of the Great Mosque Zaytuna of Tunis (the end of the 10th century). We can notice this type of ornament on the different buildings of the Cairo Fatimid, such as the Mosque al-Aqmar (1125), the Mosque al-Guyushi (1085), the mausoleum Sayyida Ruqayya (1132), and others. At the same we can see the surface divided into three vertical ranges, using blind niches overlapping on the minaret of Qal’a of Beni Hammad and on the outside facade of the al-Manar tower. Above all, the prestige of Fatimid-Zirid ha age, in the history of Muslim art, is due to the sobriety of ornamental elements: niches, polylobed arches and blind arcades, reflecting the motif of the cornice. These are all essential elements used for the outside decoration of buildings. The same artistic elements are used for Norman palaces in Sicily. The importance given to niches, often semi-circular arcades and recessed arches. In Palermo, the Tower Pisana of the royal palace is cube-shaped with blind niches on the outside. Moreover, the external walls of Zisa have arcades like those of the Tower Pisana. Cuba, built by Guglielmo II, has much in common with Zisa. Its facade is crowned at the top by an Arab inscription that introduces the beauty of the building. The muqarnas decoration particularly used to decorate iwan, alcoves and domes and it was attested for the first time in the Maghreb at the Qal’a of Beni Hammad, where a very particular terracotta shape was used, which later became one of the key elements of Islamic ornamental architecture. This element of Sassanid origin was introduced in Sicily from North Africa. A spectacular example of a muqarnas decoration in Palermo is the iwan of Zisa, but above all the wooden ceiling of the Palatine chapel in the royal palace. In the 10th century in Sabra al-Mansuriya and later at Qal’a of Beni Hammad a lot of water basins were developed. The basins built in front of the buildings are a feature of Islamic provinces. It is not a

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coincidence that the palatine complex of Samarra in Iraq were preceded by large water basins. In Ifriqiya the residence of Raqqada was equipped with rectangular tubs, of which some vestiges remain [13]. Other similar examples are known in the Arab world, such as the large basin of Menara in Marrakech, Morocco, established by the Almohad in 1157, which covers approximately 3 hectares. Another more recent example could be the Court of the Myrtles at the Alhambra in Granada, which gives us a clear idea about the importance of this kind of basin, built in royal buildings. In Norman Palermo we can find the huge basins. This is a probable legacy of the Kalbids, who installed ingenious hydraulic systems that capture the springs to supply all the palaces. The origin of the name Favara (from Arab fawwara “water source”) or Maredolce recalls the importance of water in this residence and it evokes the great birka, which surrounds the building on two sides, where a small artificial island was built. Cuba was considered as an island and it was built at the centre of a water basin, where only a bridge allowed access. A pool with a pavilion, whose foundations were found during the excavation campaigns, was realised at the foot of the main facade of Zisa [14]. Actually, the basins represented a kind of mirror reflecting the facades of the palaces and they were considered as a symbol of the power and wealth of the rulers. The presence of these large basins with the construction of pavilions located in the centre allowed the kings to cool down during the hot months. The fountains inside the buildings were designed to aesthetic rules. In addition to the visual aspect was added the sound of water, pouring continuously into a bathtub or on a shadirwan. The sound, due to the murmur of water flows, served to accompany the rest and relaxation of the daily life of the sovereigns. We know that the sound of water plays an essential role in the design of Islamic gardens, considered as paradise on earth (jannat al-hard). The sound of water is regulated with great attention and tuned as carefully as you tune the strings of a flute “‘ud” [15]. The Cruciform room of Zisa preserves one of the most beautiful examples of a fountain that animates the bottom of the central alcove. Water flows from the wall and then it flows down on a shadirwan, then discharges at the salsabil by two small square tanks. The Hydraulic duct ends in an artificial basin situated outside. This waterway system clearly resembles eastern salsabil and shadirwan. Golvin’s research at Qal'a revealed the vestiges of a shadirwan very comparable to that of Zisa.

Fig. 7: Portal of Great Mosque of Mahdia Fig. 8: Minaret of Mosque in Qal’a of Beni Hammad

Fig. 9: Tunis, dome of al-bahu Fig. 10: Sousse, mosque Sidi Ali Amar Fig. 11: Cairo, Mosque al-Aqmar of the Great Mosque Zaytuna

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Fig. 12: Palermo, palace of Zisa Fig. 13: Palermo, palace of Cuba

Fig. 14: Palermo, palace of Scibene Fig. 15: Palermo, royal palace, Tower Pisana

Zirid and Hammadid influence introduced another important innovation in Norman Sicily, the planimetrical formulation, namely tripartion and transversal and longitudinal axis of symmetry. In fact, the search for an axis of symmetry determined by the central room, characterizes the throne rooms of the Ziri palace at Ashir and the Dar al-Bahr palace at Qal'a of Beni Hammad. No matter how many levels have been erected, the planimetric study of some Sicilian buildings reveals a symmetrical organization of the interior space and a clear tripartite division. There is a very evident prevalence of the median part, which determines the axis of symmetry with respect to the lateral apartments. The central hall, generally with three alcoves, is intended for public functions or ceremonies. This organization, inaugurated in Caronia, is echoed in the palace of Zisa in a more sophisticated and extended way. A similar distribution can be found in the small Scibene building. Cuba, the last residence built by a Norman king, adopts the layout of Zisa with some variations. The inside tripartite groove inside is constantly reflected in the external decoration of the monument. For Caronia and Cuba, the cruciform room is located at the side of the central space. This is the reason why the layout follows an axis of longitudinal symmetry. On the contrary, in Zisa and in Scibene, tripartite division follows an axis of transversal symmetry that starts from the central room with its three alcoves. Using symmetry and a tripartite layout for palatial architecture is typical of the eastern tradition, in particular in the Sassanid Kingdom before the advent of Islam. In Persian buildings there is a very evident prevalence of the median part over the lateral apartments, with the central body determining the axis of symmetry. It can be noted that the model of Persian bayt, used for public and ceremonial functions, consists of an large deep iwan with two adjacent rooms opened onto the central courtyard. The iwan, the central courtyard and the sovereign’s apartments are aligned along a longitudinal axis. Some of the most representative examples are the famous Persian palaces: such as the palace of Ardashir I (224-241) at Firuzabad in Iran around the 3rd century, the palace of Taq Kasra of Khosrau I (531-579) in Ctesiphon in Iraq at the beginning of the 6th century and also the palace of Khosrau II (590-628) in Qasr Shirin in Iran in the 6th century. This Eastern tradition was adopted a few centuries later by the Umayyads, who built numerous palaces in the territory of Syria and Jordan. A singular example is the Umayyad palace of Mshatta (first half of the 8th century), where the rule of symmetry and tripartition is evident. The layout of the building is divided into three sections by two walls, the central part is wider than the two lateral wings arranged parallel to the axis of symmetry that refers to the entrance, the central courtyard and the cruciform room reserved for public hearings.

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Fig. 16: Iwan of Zisa Fig. 17: Alcove of centre room of Cuba

Fig. 18: Muqarnas decoration in Qal'a Fig. 19: Wooden ceiling of the Palatine chapel in the royal palace, salsabil and shadirwan We can see the same planimetric system in the palaces of Kharana, al-Tuba in Jordan (8th century) and in the Abbasid palace of Ukhaide in Iraq (9th century). The architectural lessons of the East probably came to Sicily via the Maghreb. In fact, the simple comparison of the different types of planimetric organization shows some very surprising formal similarities, especially between the Ziri palaces in Ashir and the Palermo buildings. However, in Ashir the cruciform room and its antechamber are separate entities, without any lateral apartments [16]. The tripartition appears clearly in the different monuments without being traced back to a strictly identical model. Cruciform rooms are structured starting from a square or rectangular shape. This setting, in Sicilian architecture, must be considered as a reception room, a transition marked by an ornament without ever showing a stately character comparable to eastern or northern-African examples. Sicilian architecture is inspired by the forms of the Arab-Muslim repertoire, adapting them to its own criteria. Sicilian architecture, Zisa, Cuba, Caronia, Scibene and also the Royal Palace with the Tower Pisana and the Gioaria, show a clear and sharp stereometry of volumes. The wall surfaces are squared and decorated only with by simple niches or mouldings that at the first glance, despite their Arab influence, they retain in the globality of their architectural structures a typological origin, that must be sought in transalpine residential and military buildings beyond the Alps. This is why volume and architectural vertical development is a trait of Sicilian palaces, imitating the rectangular keep built in Normandy and in England during the 10-12th century [17]. In order to research the origin of the design matrix adopted by Norman architects to build the residential buildings in Sicily after the conquest of the island (1061-1091) we must abandon for a moment the idea of finding a direct formal reference in the nearby Arab architecture, while it is necessary to focus attention on Northern France in the 10th century. In fact, it is in the buildings of the Loire Valley, Anjou and Touraine (for example, the keeps of Langeais, Montbazon and Loches) that the typological matrices of the Norman and Anglo-Norman keeps built during the 11th and 12th centuries must be sought (for example, the dungeons of Rochester in England and Chambois in Normandy) [18].

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Fig. 20: Iran, palace of Ardashir I in Firuzabad (3rd century)

Fig. 21: Cruciform rooms at Sicilian palaces

Looking more closely at Palermitan palatial buildings we could not find any of the defensive components of Norman keeps, because they are open to the ground floor over the gardens or on the basins that surround them. Norman residences of Sicily imitate the pomp and splendour of Arab and Byzantine artistic tradition, that is still alive on the island, as Malaterra says: «thanks to the variety of contributions coming from an experienced artistic workforce for the building carried out from faraway places, such as Greek or Arab territory» [19]. It is clear that the monumentality, represented by the significant heights of the Sicilian palaces, derives from the architectural heritage related to the motherland, Normandy of the 11-12th century. Analysing Sicilian monuments it should be noted, as for Zisa, that in the space surrounding the central core, made up of two big overlapping rooms (the fountain room and the tetrastyla room), there is a certain analogy with the reception rooms of the castles in Normandy, where we find a large reception area and, behind it, the camara, namely the alcove for the rest of the feudal lord [20]. One must not forget that Islamic buildings were composed of different independent housing units, defended by town walls. As in the palace of Ashir and of Qal’a of Beni Hammad. Also the Fatimid palaces of Cairo, described by al-Maqrizi (1364-1441), had many rooms (qa’at) and pavilions. In the

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text ʺal-Khitatʺ we read: «Know that caliphs possessed palaces and recreational pavilions in Cairo and its surroundings; there were the big eastern palace founded by General Jawhar, the small western palace and the palace Yafi, palace of Gold, palace of Prosperity, palace of Victory, palace of Tree, palace of Spine, palace of Emerald, palace of Sapphire, palace of Harem, palace of River - all organized with rooms (qa’at), belvederes and pavilions (manadhir)» [21]. Given the high number of buildings in only one complex, we could suppose that they didn’t develop in height because the apartments were, generally, autonomous and connected. A famous example of an Arab palace, which confirms the typical horizontal organization with various autonomous housing units, is the 8th century Umayyad residential citadel of Amman in Jordan. Through the general layout you can easily see the various independent apartments, which are all connected with the main patio and the throne room. However, the Alhambra in Granada (half of 13th century) is still the most remarkable example of an Arab royal palace. This Nasrid building is composed of several independent housing units including the Comares Tower, similar in height to the Tower of al-Manar at Qal’a and very similar to the Tower Pisana of the Norman Palace in Palermo. Its main function was military defence as well as residential. It is well known that in the Arab world there is no parallelepiped building that develops in height with exclusive residential functions. The only exception could be represented by the palace of Ashir, with its external shape and height, although the interior has the classic layout of four apartments with small courtyards, located around a central patio. In conclusion, these brief considerations led us to suppose that the origin of the external volumes on the Norman buildings in Sicily are the result of an inheritance coming from the North of France, while the artistic decoration, the layout and the organization of the surface around, dedicated to the gardens and monumental basins, remains wedded to the Arab cultural influence, of which Sicily was fully immersed at the time.

Fig. 22: France, keep of Langeais in Touraine Fig. 22: France, keep of Loches in Touraine

Fig. 23: France, keep of Chambois in Normandy

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Bibliographical References

[1] HADDA, Lamia. L’architettura palaziale tra Africa del Nord e Sicilia normanna (secoli X-XII). Napoli: Liguori Editore, 2015, p. 29-50.

[2] AL-BEKRI. Description de l’Afrique Septentrionale. Mac Guckin De Slane (éd.), Alger: Adolphe Jourdan, 1913, p. 142.

[3] For a description of Ashir: IBN KHALDUN. Histoire des Berbères. De Slane (éd), II. Paris: Librairie orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1999, p. 6-9; GOLVIN, Lucien. Le palais de Ziri à Achir (10 sec. Après j.c.). In Ars Orientalis, n° 6, 1966, p. 47-76; HADDA, Lamia. Il palazzo Ziride di Ashir (XI s.) in Algeria. In Restauro archeologico, n° 3, Firenze: Alinea Editrice, 2013, p. 19-23. ID. L’architettura palaziale…, cit., p. 66-78.

[4] GRABAR, Oleg. Al-Mushatta, Baghdad et Wasit. In J. Kritzeck and R.B. Winder (eds), The World of Islam, Studies in Honour of P.K. Hitti. London: Macmillan, 1959, p. 99-108.

[5] AL-NUWAYRĪ. In IBN KHALDŪN, Histoire des Berbères…, cit., II, p. 489. [6] About Qal’a of Beni Hammad architecture: GOLVIN, Lucien. Recherches archéologiques à la Qal’a des Banū Hammād. Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1965; HADDA, Lamia. L’architettura palaziale…, cit., p. 78-93.

[7] LEZINE, Alexandre. Le minaret de la Qal’a des Banu Hammad. In Bulletin d’Archéologie algérienne, n° 2, 1966-1967, p. 261-270; HADDA, Lamia. La moschea e il parco archeologico della Qal’at Banu Hammad (XI s.) in Algeria. In Restauro archeologico, n° 1, Firenze: Alinea Editrice, 2007, p. 29-32.

[8] Kitāb al-Istibsār fi ‘ajā'ib al-amsār. S.Z. Abd al-Hamid (éd), Casablanca: Dar al-Nashr al-Maghribiyya, 1985, p. 101.

[9] GOLVIN, Lucien. Le Magrib Central à l’époque des Zirides. Recherches d’archéologie et d’Histoire. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques, 1957, p. 188-189.

[10] Ivi, p. 187-188.

[11] The poet Ibn Hammad cries before the ruins of the Qal'a nostalgically recalling the splendor of the past in a poetry of which al-Tijani has preserved three fragments in its book: AL-TIJANI. Rihla. H.H. Abdul-Wahab (éd), Tunisi: al-Dar al-‘Arabiya li al-Kitab, 1981, p. 116.

[12] MAHFOUDH, Faouzi. La grande mosquée de Mahdia et son influence sur l’architecture médiévale ifriqiyenne. In L’Egypte fatimide, son art et son histoire. M. Barrucand (éd), Acte du congrès international, Paris 28-30 mai 1998, Paris: Presses de l’Université de Paris-Sorbonne, 1999, p. 127-140.

[13] AL-BEKRI. Description de l’Afrique …, cit., p. 678; MAHFOUDH, Faouzi. Architecture et urbanisme en Ifriqiya Médiévale. Tunis: Facutlé des Lettres de la Manouba, 2003, p. 96-103.

[14] CALÒ MARIANI, Maria Stella. Utilità e diletto. L’acqua e le residenze regie dell’Italia meridionale fra XII e XIII secolo. In Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome - Moyen Âge. n° 104/2, Rome: École Française de Rome 1992, p. 346-348.

[15] RUGGLES, Fairchild. Los jardines de la Alhambra y el concepto de jardín en la Espagna islámica. In Al Andalus, Las Artes Islámicas en España. J.D. Dodda (ed), Madrid: Ediciones El Viso, 1992, p. 162-171.

[16] HADDA, Lamia. L’architettura palaziale…, cit., p. 163-172.

[17] Ivi, p. 173-183.

[18] IMPEY, Edward. LOTANS, Elisabeth. MESQUI, Jean. Deux donjons construits autour de l’An Mil en Touraine. Langeais et Loches. Paris: Société française d’archéologie, 1998; DECAЁNS, Josrph. Les origines du donjon rectangulaire. In L’architecture normande au Moyen Age. M. Baylé (éd), Actes du colloque de Cerisy-la-Salle 28 septembre - 2 octobre 1994, I, Caen: Presses universitaires de Caen, 1997, p. 181-195; RENN, Derek Frank. Norman Castles in Britain. London: J. Baker, 1968, p. 12-75.

[19] MALATERRA, Goffredo. De rebus gestis Rogerii Calabriae et Siciliae comitis et Roberti Ducis fratris eius. E. Pontieri (ed), Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, III, Bologna: N. Zanichelli, 1928. p. 32.

[20] RENOUX, Annie. Résidences et châteaux ducaux normands au XII siècle. In L’architecture normande…, cit., p. 213-216; WEAVER, John. Richmond castle and Easby Abbey. London: English Heritage, 1989, p. 1-19.

[21] AL-MAQRIZI. Al-Mawa’idh wa al-I’tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-Athar. II, Cairo: Bulaq, 1970, p. 341.

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