World Halal Research 2009 Abd Karim Alias@2009 1whr.hdcglobal.com/whr2009/downloads/paperThree Dr Abdul Karim Alias.pdf · World Halal Research 2009 4 Global halal food trade approx

World Halal Research 2009 1Abd Karim Alias@2009

World Halal Research 2009 2

“As three Japanese and four Indonesian officials from PT Ajinomoto Indonesia were arrested by local police, the largest Islamic body in the country admitted that it knew months ago that pork enzymes were being used in the production of the widely used flavour enhancer, monosodium glutamate (MSG). The Indonesian Ulama Council (MUI) uncovered the illegal use of bactosoytone when it began an audit of the company in September 2000”

―International outrage over Ajinomoto's use of

pork enzyme in halal food escalates‖

Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])

Important issue to be

addressed by food scientists!!


Country/region Population (millions)

Asia 805

Africa 300

ASEAN 250

Middle East 210

Europe 18

North America 9

World Muslim population ~ 2.0 billion; projected 3 billion by 2010; 30% of the global total by 2025)

Muslim World & Prospects for Halal Food Market



Global halal food trade approx. USD 150 billion – pegged

to grow at a rate of 7% annually

Halal food – an excellent business & lucrative market for

domestic and international trade

Increasing awareness of Muslim consumers worldwide –

greater demand


Muslim World & Prospects for Halal Food Market


The market for halal ingredients for food products

approx. USD 30 billion annually – but insufficient supply

Billions of tons of food ingredients such as emulsifiers,

stabilizers, gelling agents, flavourings, enzymes, etc.

are required every year for manufacturing food

products

90% of the world’s supply of gelatin, which is usually

extracted from animals (bovine and porcine), is non-

halal


World Halal Research 2009 6Abd Karim Alias@2009 ([email protected])


Gelatin – a common food ingredient (gelling,

stabilizing, foaming, emulsifying, etc.)

Versatile excipient for pharmaceutical & medical

applications

Also finds many non-food applications



Listed in various Pharmacopoeia as an excipient for

the manufacture of capsules

American Pharmacopoeia; USP XIX/NF 24): “Gelatin

is a product obtained by the partial hydrolysis of

collagen derived from the skin, white connective

tissue, and bones of animals”

European Pharmacopoeia (EP V 2005) explicitly lists

raw materials obtained from poultry & fish, also

hydrolyzed non-gelling type



Gelatin -- high MW polypeptide derived from collagen

(primary protein component of animal connective

tissue, which include bone, skin & tendon) by acid or

alkali treatment

Glycine accounts for ~one-third of all the amino acids

in gelatin; gelatin is also very rich in proline &

hydroxyproline

Proline & hydroxproline dictates the gelling ability of

a gelatin




Food ingredient – gelling,

foaming, stabilizing agent

(confectionery, frozen

food, beverages, bakery

products, meat products)

Pharmaceutical &

biomedical products –

soft/hard capsules, plasma

expander, wound dressing,

sponges for surgery

Non-food applications –

photography,

carbonless paper,

cosmetics, matchstick,

paintball, high-gloss inkjet paper


Unique functional properties that serve multiple

functions/applications

Well established as a pharmaceutical excipient

GRAS status

Highly reproducible production

Minimized immunogenecity

Well-controllable physical parameters

Amphoteric biopolymer



It gives high-quality, thermoreversible gels in dilute

solution with a clean ‗melt-in-mouth‘ texture

(melting point < 37ºC)

At higher concentrations, it gives elastic gum-like

textures which slowly dissolve in the mouth

It is an effective emulsifying & foaming agent


None of the hydrocolloids currently on

the market is capable of covering all

of the above-mentioned properties in

all applications


Properties associated with gelling:

Gel strength, gelling time, setting and melting

temperatures, viscosity, thickening, texturizing, and

water binding

Properties associated with surface properties:

Emulsion formation and stabilization, protective

colloid function, foam formation and stabilization

(such as in marshmallow), film formation, and

adhesion/cohesion



Fruit gummies/jellies – form thermoreversible gel, absorb water rapidly in the mouth & melt – releasing the aromas & flavours

Gelatin as a gelling agent


Frozen cream products use 0.25% of a 250 Bloom gelatin to inhibit the crystallization of ice & sugar – give smooth mouthfeel

Ice cream use 0.5% of a 250 Bloom gelatin to prevent crystallization;

Gelatin in frozen dairy products


Marshmallow incorporate up to 1.5% gelatin to prevent crystallization & stabilizes the foam during processing, transport & storage;

Gelatin as an emulsifying &

foaming agent


Gelatin hydrolysate as a binding agent enables the sugar content of bars to be reduced

Gelatin as a binding agent


Gelatin can be used in soft & hard cheese to replace most of the fat with water

Gelatin as fat substitute


Fining process in fruit juice, beer & wine processing –remove unwanted colour, aroma, bitterness, astringency, unpleasant odors, etc.

Gelatin as a clarifying agent


The global demand for gelatin has been increasing

over the years

The issue of gelatin replacement has existed for

many years for the vegetarian, halal and kosher

markets

Concern over BSE (―mad cow desease‖) during

1980‘s in Europe

90% of the world‘s supply of gelatin, which is

usually extracted from animals (bovine and

porcine), is non-halal


Pigskin – first used for the manufacture of gelatin in 1930s

Pig skin-derived gelatin (46% of world gelatin production)

From every pig slaughtered, some 3-4 kg of processable skin is obtained

Annual world output of gelatin ~326,000 tons: pig skin-derived gelatin (46%), bovine hides (29.4%), bones (23.1%), and other sources (1.5%)


Non mammalian – fish & poultry gelatin

Polysaccharides – chemically/enzymatically modified

(deacytelated gellan, thermoreversible starch); mixed

polysaccharide system

Microbial gelatin via genetic engineering


Can be extracted from warm- and cold-

water fish skins, bones, and fins

Fish skin is a major by-product of the fish-

processing industry – provide a valuable

source of gelatin

Relatively low extraction yield: 6-18%

Production still very low – contributing ~ 1%

of the annual world gelatin production


Sub-optimal physical & functional properties

compared to mammalian gelatin (e.g., low gelling

& melting temperature, low gel modulus)

Fish gelatin typically has a Bloom value ranging

from as low as 0 to 270 (compared to 200 to 240

for bovine/porcine gelatin)

Fish gelatin (especially from cold water fish) does

not gel at room temperature—the gelling

temperature of cold water gelatin is typically below

8-10°C


Type of fish Bloom strength (g)Gelling

temperature (C)Melting point (C)

Sin croaker

Shortfin scad

124.9

176.9

Bovine: 239.9

7.1

9.9

Bovine: 19.6

18.5

24.5

Bovine: 28.9Sole

Megrim

Cod

Hake

350

340

~90

~110

18-19

18-19

11-12

11-12

19.4

18.8

13.8

14Catfish 243-256 15-18 23-27

Yellofin tuna skin 426

Porcine: 295

Bovine: 216

18.7

Porcine: 25.6

Bovine: 23.8

24.3

Porcine: 36.5

Bovine: 33.8Young Nile perch

Adult perch

222

229

13.8

19.5

21.4

26.3

There seem to be many challenges before fish gelatin finds widespread

usage as an alternative to mammalian gelatin in the food

industry.


Gelatin can be modified via its amino, carboxyl, & hydroxyl groups

Most modifications, however, are via lysine, hydroxylysine & the amino groups of the N-terminal amino acids


Method DescriptionEnzyme crosslinkingof gelatin using enzymes

The addition of microbial transglutaminase to a fish gelatin can considerably raise the melting point, gel strength, and viscosity.

Chemical crosslinking of gelatin

Genipin and phenolic acids (caffeic, chlorogenic, and ferulic) have been found to increase the gel strength of fish gelatin

IrradiationFish gelatin exposed to UV radiation has been found to increase the gel strength of fish gelatin significantly


Method Description

Mixed gel systems Creating mixed gelling systems consisting of fish gelatin combined with other high Bloom gelatins or with suitable plant hydrocolloids which may give higher gel strength, gelling and melting temperature

Addition of solutes (such as different salts)

The addition of neutral salts (such as MgSO4, (NH4)2 SO4, or NaH2PO4) have been found to increase the gel strength of fish gelatin


Can be obtained from skin, bone & feet

Poultry skins contain a lot of fat & the

concentration of collagen is low – feet is

preferable

If using bones, a precipitation step after

extraction is necessary (because the bones are

not demineralised after conditioning)

Relatively high costs involved – more suitable

for niche products


A misnomer!! – gelatin is derived ONLY from

animal

Vegetable gelatin – plant polysaccharides (pectin,

carrageenan, agar, alginate, konjac) used to

replace some functionalities of mammalian

gelatin


Food application

Desired gelatin properties

Current alternativesTechnical constraints of

alternative

Desert gels RTEClarity, elastic texture, melt in mouth

Algin, gellan and carrageenan systems

Hot viscosity, higher set temperature

High-solids confectionery

Elastic texture, clarity, low hot viscosity, low set temperature

Gellan gum blends, carrageenan systems, thinned-starch systems

Set temperature and hot viscosity, texture-elasticity gels

Foamed confectionery –marshmallows

Whipping/aeration agent, foam stabiliser, elastic texture

Gellan/starch/emulsifier blends, modified starch/emulsifiers

Textural constraints –low elasticity and/or high set temperature

Sour creamSmooth texture, creamy mouthfeel

Gellan gum with modified starch

High set temperature during processing


Food application

Desired gelatin properties

Current alternativesTechnical constraints of

alternative

Low-fat spreads

Elastic gel texture, fatlike melt mouthfeel, emulsion stabilization

Sodium alginate/gellan/inulin/simplesse/maltodextrin/gum blends

Cost competitive, but good application for alternatives

Stirred yogurt

Creamy mouthfeel, gelled network prevents separation or syneresis

Gellan/modified starch/xanthan/LBG/pectin/modified starch

High viscosity and high set temperature in culture/production process

Desserts –Mousses

Whipping agent, creamy consistency, low set temperature

Alginate/starch blendsCurrent production process, stored prior to aeration chilling

Gelatin alternatives based on mixed polysaccharide systems

It is unlikely that a universal polysaccharide system will replace gelatin in every food application – the approach to developing gelatin alternatives for the

food industry should be application/process-specific.


Thermostable amylomaltase modifies potato starch

to form a thermoreversible gel with gelatin-like

properties

The gel strength is lower and the setting time is

longer

The mouthfeel is different from gelatin – it melts

partially at 37 C (100% melting at 60 C)

Thermally reversible starch gel

Amylomaltase-modified starch should not be regarded as a replacement for gelatin but rather as an extension of the variety of available gelling products with their

own specific applications


High acyl gellan produces soft, elastic gels, which

are thermoreversible

Blends of high (HA) and low (LA) acyl gellan gum

can produce intermediate gel textures

In the water-based dessert gel formation (15%

solids), a partially deacylated form of HA gellan

can closely match the gelatin texture

High acyl gellan gum


High acyl gellan

gum vs gelatin

Higher melt-set temperature, which is advantageous for rapid-set formulations and for stability in hot climates


Gelatin capsules – single-dose solid drug

forms

Two types – soft & hard

~90% of pharmaceutical gelatin is processed

to capsules


Alternative capsule materials – have been

sought since the 19th century

Current market share < 10%

A gelatin substitute for capsule materials

must posses two basic properties:

• Excellent film-forming polymer

• Have good gel-forming properties


Methyl cellulose (the 1st gelatin-free capsule)

Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) for

hard capsule

Hydroxypropyl starch + iota carrageenan

Kappa-carrageenan

Starch (e.g. potato)

Synthetic polymer (PVA)

ISSUES/CHALLENGES• Thermostability & thermoreversibility• Mechanical & surface properties (e.g., elasticity) • Machinability (normal capacity: 100 000-200 00/h)• Differences in dissolution rate/release kinetics between

gelatin & non-gelatin capsule (e.g., unsatisfactory in vivo dissolution of hard capsules made from MC)

• Differences in oxygen permeability (affect the active substances)

• Legal approval


Recombinant gelatin has been expressed in

Pichia pastoris and Hansenula polymorpha

Pichia was shown to be a highly productive

system for gelatin production

Transgenic corn as a viable way to produce

gelatin and potentially other products

The prospect of producing microbial gelatinthrough genetic engineering akin to microbial polysaccharide via fermentation systems (e.g.,

xanthan, gellan) is very exciting, and more extensive efforts should be directed on this area


Improve methods for fish gelatin extraction to

increase yield and improve quality

Explore the use of other enzymes (e.g., tyrosinase)

for modifying functional properties of fish gelatin to

enhance its value

To increase the value of fish gelatin, more specific

applications for fish gelatin should be identified


Explore the use of natural plant-derived

components (ferulic, tannin, genipin) for protein

(gelatin) cross-linking.

Explore other chemical cross-linking methods,

e.g., via Maillard reaction


Explore physical methods of cross-linking including

exposure to gamma or ultraviolet radiation


Many gelatin alternatives have been studied but

none can match the full spectrum of functional

properties of mammalian gelatin

Fish gelatin seems to be a promising alternative

but need to address problems such as inferior

gelling property

There are possibilities of exploring the genetic

engineering approach to develop recombinant

collagen and gelatin expression – but still a long

way to go


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World Halal Research 2009 Abd Karim Alias@2009 1whr.hdcglobal.com/whr2009/downloads/paperThree Dr Abdul Karim Alias.pdf · World Halal Research 2009 4 Global halal food trade approx