Workshop Designing and Planning Learning Activities
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Content What is learning? Underpinning knowledge and theory for
learning design Different learning methods Memory & the
transfer of learning Pre-designing materials and being
creative!
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Learning
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Before you can design effective learning you need to be clear
about you mean by learning ..
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Definitions of learning A relatively permanent change in
behaviour resulting from experience (Kimble, 1961) A relatively
permanent change in an organisms behaviour due to experience
(Myers, 1995) Learning is the process by which a person acquires
new knowledge, skills and capabilities (Reynolds et al., 2002)
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Research into what adults think learning is .. 1. Quantitative
increase in knowledge 2. Memorising storing information that can be
reproduced 3. Acquiring facts, skills and methods 4. Making sense
of abstract meaning and understanding relationships in subjects 5.
Interpreting and understanding reality (Saljo, 1979)
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.. other meanings.. is it? An increase in factual knowledge?
Being able to memorise & reproduce Applying and using knowledge
Understanding abstract concepts Performing well in assessments?
Learning to do something (e.g. presentations) Solving problems?
Developing creativity? Developing an analytical approach? Change
within oneself as a consequence of understanding the world
differently? Something else? (Fry et al., 2009)
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Psychology subject domains relating to learning Behaviourist
Psychology Social Learning Theory Cognitive Psychology Experiential
Learning (Stewart, 1999)
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Underpinning knowledge & theory .. to enable the effective
design of learning
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Threshold Concepts Is there a hierarchy in concepts in what you
are teaching . i.e. the student must completely understand A to be
able to understand B For example (in accountancy) must a student
have an understanding of arithmetic BEFORE they can learn how to
produce a companys annual report and accounts .? The relevance of
threshold concepts in designing learning is . ?
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Student approaches to learning Surface Deep Strategic /
achieving (Fry et al., 2009)
Compare Kolb with Honey & Mumford Learning CycleIndividual
Learner Styles
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If you were a ski or tennis instructor how would you Apply a
different form of learning to best meet each of the Honey and
Mumford Learning styles?
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Another individual styles model Myers Briggs (based on Jungian
Theory) EXTROVERT (E) or INTROVERT (I) drawing energy from outside
or within INTUITIVE (N) or SENSING (S) drawing energy from holistic
big picture thinking intuition or from the five other senses)
FEELING (F) or THINKING (T) basing decisions on personal
information or on logic/rules PERCEIVING or JUDGING (preferring
ongoing development / spontaneity or organization & goal
completion) So you can be an ENTJ or an ISFP or an ESTP etc(Swart
et al., 2005)
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What are your Learning Objectives seeking for students learn
change in? (Cannon and Newble, 2000) Knowledge Skills Attitude
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Well written learning objectives govern all the design that
follows . Race, (2007: 23- 26) has a list of 24 tips on designing
learning objectives
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The process of learning design Decide whether it is Knowledge
and/or Skills and/or Attitude that is to be learned Write the
Learning Objectives (differentiate between Knowledge, Skills &
Attitude) Decide on the mix of methods which will best deliver the
most effective change / learning in Knowledge / Skill and / or
Attitude Decide on a mix of methods so that students of all
learning styles have the chance to be reached and the Kolb Learning
Cycle can be applied Check the timing of the activities in your
session (s), to see that it all fits and flows
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The process of learning design Consideration must also be given
as to how you are going to check / assess whether what you intended
to be learned has been learned and when will you do this?
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The process of learning design Two slides above the process was
presented in a linear fashion however it is an ongoing improvement
cycle:
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Systematic approach to course / module planning Fry et al
(2009)
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Consider the aspect of student motivation when you are
designing learning See table 3.3 in Fry et al (2009: 35-36)
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How could you use this underpinning knowledge in making the
design of Learning and Teaching effective? Write notes on this for
10 minutes
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Different learning methods
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Sample of Methods Lecturing Listening to presentations
Discussion Guided reading Case studies Informal skills / knowledge
assessments quizzes, tests, skills questionnaires Self reflection
exercises Log books, diaries, PDPs
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Sample of Methods Using technology BB, pod casts, videos,
online learning tools, computer assisted learning Learning from
feedback Group work Role plays Games & competitions
Brainstorming Problem solving
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Sample of Methods Work experience Simulations Experiential
learning Outdoor learning Carrying out experiments Discovery
learning Vicarious learning Coaching / Mentoring Action
learning
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Consider practical aspects Facilities available rooms, texts,
online resources, technology required, materials (take or get
students to bring) Timing and sequencing (mix more passive sections
with more active sessions) Timing of assessment & feedback
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Activity Activity compare the learning design in each exercise
on the next 5 slides
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For use following Stress Management Lecture Pairs exercise Aims
of this exercise: To aid students to consider what issues causes
them most stress To get students to reflect on what they have
learned which might help them manage the stress situation better
Exercise: Ask students to spend 2 minutes making a note of the 2
issues that currently cause them most stress. Spilt them into pairs
and ask them to take a turn each at describing an issue and
discussing possible solutions for those reflecting on what they
learned from the book / lecture materials.
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For use following lecture on Conflict Management Group exercise
Aims of this exercise: To get students to consolidate their
learning on types of ways of dealing with conflict. Exercise: Split
students into groups of 5. Ask them to nominate one person to give
the feedback. Ask them to complete the following table (taken from
the points on P. 389 of 7 th edn Whetton & Cameron) by: Giving
a definition for each type of approach to dealing with conflict.
Giving 1 advantage of that approach Giving 1 disadvantage of that
approach Deciding on which approach might be a more usual best
approach Requires: 5 printed copies of the attached This can be
printed on acetate and acetate pens taken along if you want them to
give their feedback in a more presentation from the front
format.
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Brainstorming In groups of 10 and appoint one person as The
police person who must make the others follow the rules of
brainstorming ie monitor the group (when they are doing the
brainstorming) to make sure that the group does not break these
rules: Each person should take a turn go round the group in
clockwise direction making sure each person has to contribute
something when it gets to them The ideas should be short No one is
allowed to evaluate it (say oh thats good / bad / the same as has
already been said) You can build on an idea from before When a
person gets stuck wait until that person comes up with something
before moving on Wild ideas are allowed The topic to be
brainstormed is: How to deal with a difficult boss
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Reflecting on group presentations Aims of this exercise: To
give Tutors an exercise where they can mix the students up, to get
them to meet and work with other students To give students an
opportunity to get used to being a spokesperson in informal group
work To aid students to be reflective about how they can improve
presentation skills To encourage students to use a constructive
feedback technique (ie to feedback what is done well and what could
have been done better To encourage students to reflect on the
learning from the lecture / tutorial Exercise: After presentation
Invite students to go into your groups (possibly their own
presentation groups A/B/C/D or if you want to encourage them to
work with others split them into groups of e.g. 5 students) Ask
them to elect a spokesperson to give feedback (make sure that
everyone takes this role over the 10 tutorials: 2 things that the
group presenting did well 1 thing that they could improve on The 3
main lessons learned from the case presentation / the chapter / the
lecture Ask each group to give the feedback
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For use following Power and Influence Lecture Aims of this
exercise: To get students to stop and reflect on how people can be
more powerful than their position suggests. To get them to plan how
they could benefit from applying similar behaviour. Exercise: Ask
the students to think of someone who they respect as being more
influential their position, some one who punches above their
weight. (i.e. more influential than their position in natural
hierarchies in the family / work place / friends group hierarchies
which can be based on position, financial wealth etc) The person
can be a friend, work colleague, someone in their family, someone
famous etc. Then ask them to write for 5 minutes on what it is that
person does that makes them so influential. Then ask them to spend
3 minutes making notes of 3 things they could do differently to
benefit from observing the behaviour of this person who they
respect.
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Learning, memory & the transfer of learning (Primary source
for memory: Baddeley et al., 2009)
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Learning Conditioning & Reinforcement Classical (Pavlov)
Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Positive /negative reinforcement
Lesson consciously consider what reinforcement messages you are
giving and how often (also relevant for managing the learning
environment)
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Other useful concepts from the domain of psychology Learned
helplessness Cognitive mapping Insight Vicarious learning Discovery
learning Behaviour modelling Source lecture handouts Dr Ian
Bushnell was Strathclyde University now School of Psychology,
Glasgow University
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Memory - two sides of the coin is it what you have.... ?
Remembered (retention) or what you have Forgotten (retrieval)
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Types of memory Knowledge Feelings Behaviour Skills
(presentation / interpersonal / language / creativity) Motor skills
(driving / cycling / skating)
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Student Learning and Memory IN OUT
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Effective Memory IN OUT Getting things into the (long term)
memory effectively Getting things back out effectively i.e.
Retrieval Time in between
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The memory process getting things in and out
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Memory Sensory memory: Echoic / Iconic Short term, working
memory: Verbal / Spacial Long term: Explicit Episodic / Semantic
Implicit Conditioning / Skills
From short term into long term memory Rehearsal Coding
Decisions Retrieval strategies
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(Ebbinghaus, 1885, in Baddeley et al.2009) If you double the
number of frequencies you rehearse / learn / practice there is a
complete positive correlation with what you remember AND
Distributed practice is more effective
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Encoding - organising what goes in to memory can make it easier
to retrieve
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Encoding - if some mentions Spectrophotometer do you relate it
to... Atomic absorption Mass spectometry Infra-red spectometry No?
But a Chemistry student might .. What does this tell us about
(encoding) putting things IN to the memory? Depth of processing
Craik and Tulving, 1975 in Badderley et al., 2009)
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A list of names of friends I have had: Sally Steve Anne Tiami
Karen
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Can you remember What was the first time you had a piece of
clothing in the colour red?
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A list of names of friends I have had: What was the fourth name
on the list?
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Which list of my friends is the correct one? Sally Steve Anne
Thomasina Karen Sally Steve Anne Tiami Karen
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Different levels of remembering? Is the level of RETENTION /
RETRIEVAL required to enable: Recognition.... and / or Recall....
and / or Repetition (in full)
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Theories related to forgetting Interference Theory Delay Theory
Primary and Recency Effect
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The Kolb learning cycle has another use - consolidation (to get
things from the STM into the LTM)
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Cues Can help us access memories
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How could you use this information about the different levels
of memory in Learning and Teaching design?
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Tips and techniques to improve memory
http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/m emory/improve/
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Transfer of Learning Perkins and Salomon (1992) Occurs when
learning in one context enhances (positive transfer) or undermines
(negative transfer) a related performance in another context.
Includes near transfer (to closely related contexts and
performances) and far transfer (to rather different contexts and
performances). Transfer is crucial to education, which generally
aspires to impact on contexts quite different from the context of
learning.
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What about TRANSFER? IN OUTTRANSFER
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Transfer of Learning Perkins and Salomon (1992) Findings from
various sources suggest that transfer happens by way of two rather
different mechanisms: Reflexive or low road transfer involves the
triggering of well- practiced routines by stimulus conditions
similar to those in the learning context. Mindful or high road
transfer involves deliberate effortful abstraction and a search for
connections. Conventional educational practices often fail to
establish the conditions either for reflexive or mindful
transfer.
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Pre-design activities and be creative!
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Pre-design of activities Activity
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Be creative http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-b2xUb0VofQ
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Conclusions To design effective learning, we need to be clear
about what we mean by learning on each different occasion There is
a range of underpinning theory which can help us to understand how
to more effectively design learning There are different forms of
learning, it is considered more effective to use a mixture Theories
on memory are useful when thinking about the input and the output
of the learning process Consideration of how the learning is to
transferred is essential Prepare activities ahead and be
creative!!
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References Armstrong, M. (2006) A Handbook of Human Resource
Management Practice. Kogan Page, London. Baddeley, A., Eysenck, M.,
Anderson, M. (2009). Memory. Psychology Press, Hove. Fry, H.,
Ketteridge, S., Marshall, S., (2009). Handbook for Teaching and
Learning in Higher Education, (3 rd Edn). Routledge, London.
Cannon, R., Newble, D. (2000) A Handbook for Teachers in
Universities and Colleges (4 th edn). Kogan Page, London. Kimble,
G. A. (1961). Cited in Catania A. Charles. (1998) Learning (4 th
edn). Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Myers (1995) cited in Stewart, J.
(1999) Employee Development Practice. Prentice Hall, Harlow.
Perkins, D., Salomon, G. (1992) Contribution to the International
Encyclopedia of Education (2 nd edn). Pergamon Press, Oxford Race,
P (2007) The Lecturers Toolkit (3 rd edn). Routledge, Abingdon.
Reynolds et al. (2002) cited in Armstrong, M. (2006) A Handbook of
Human Resource Management Practice. Kogan Page, London. Saljo
(1979) cited in Ramsden, P. (2003). Learning to Teach in Higher
Education (2 nd edn). Routledge Farmer, London. Stewart, J. (1999)
Employee Development Practice. Prentice Hall, Harlow. Swart, J.,
Mann, C., Brown, S., Price, A. (2005) Human Resource Development.
Elsevier, Oxford.
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Extremely useful list under Teaching for learning section Fry
et al. (2009: 22-23)
