Working Paper on Learning Disabilities in India

8/18/2019 Working Paper on Learning Disabilities in India

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Mahatma Gandhi Instituteof Education for Peaceand Sustainable Development

United NationsEducational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization

POLICY AND PRACTICE IN

POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION:The transitional experience

for students with learning

disabilities in India

Melinda (Mindy) EichhornGordon College, Massachusetts, USA

Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Educationfor Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

Working Paper: Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

WORKING PAPER NOVEMBER


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Mahatma Gandhi Instituteof Education for Peaceand Sustainable Development

United NationsEducational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization

UNESCO MGIEP

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization | Mahatma Gandhi

Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development

35 Ferozshah Road, ICSSR Building,1st Floor, New Delhi- 110001, INDIA.

October, 2015

© UNESCO MGIEP

Author:

Melinda (Mindy) Eichhorn

Gordon College, Massachusetts, USA

ISBN 978-81-89218-49-2

The UNESCO Mahatma Gandhi Institute for Education for Peace and

Sustainable Development (MGIEP) Working Paper Series critically explores

contemporary issues related to learning and teaching for a more peaceful

and sustainable world. With a special focus on pedagogies and policies,

the authors seek to spark conversation, generate debate, and foster

innovation that will eventually lead to systemic change. Each paper

undergoes a rigorous peer review process before publication. The views

expressed are the sole responsibility of the author, and do not necessarily

reflect the position of UNESCO MGIEP

Any communication concerning this publication may be addressed to:

Printed in India

POLICY AND PRACTICE IN POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION:The transitional experience for students with learning disabilities in India


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POLICY AND PRACTICE IN

POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION:

The transitional experiencefor students with learning

disabilities in India

Melinda (Mindy) EichhornGordon College, Massachusetts, USA

Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Educationfor Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

Working Paper: Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities


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Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development / UNESCO

2 | November, 2015

Only six states in India currently acknowledge learning disabilities as a category of disability

(Al-Yagon et al., 2013). Although some research has examined the experiences of students with learning

disabilities in Indian secondary schools (see Karande, Sholarpurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011; Karande,

Mahajan, & Kulkarni, 2009), the role of policy in students’ transition into postsecondary education has

been largely unexplored. This paper critically examines educational policy and its impact on students’

transition to postsecondary education, drawing on an exploratory study of students with mathematical

learning disabilities in junior colleges and degree colleges in Mumbai (Eichhorn, 2014). This policy

review is conducted from a sociocultural perspective, in which educational policy is reconceptualized

as a complex social practice which involves diverse actors interacting in diverse institutional contexts

(Levinson & Sutton, 2001; 2009). The findings suggest that students with learning disabilities are

presented with many barriers to postsecondary education, such as poor advice from secondary

school counselors, exclusionary practices of junior colleges, the stigma associated with the learning

disabilities label and accommodations, and peer bullying. Current interventions in Mumbai, as well as

recent international approaches to inclusive teaching and learning in higher education, are reviewed

and implications for policy and practice are discussed.

Key words: Learning disabilities; postsecondary; transition; policy; India

Abstract

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY AND RESEARCH

Recommendations for Policy

· Provide counseling to students with learning disabilities transitioning from secondary

education to postsecondary.

· Provide mentors to students with learning disabilities entering higher education.

· Implement Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Enhanced Anchored Instruction (EAI) in

all colleges and universities through training instructors in best practices for both of these

approaches.

· Create and implement alternative assessment methods.

· Provide alternative courses such as “Maths for Business” that provide students with alternative

options within content areas.

· Include the voices of current and former students with learning disabilities in policymaking

discussions.

Potential Future Research Questions

· Do students with learning disabilities in other parts of India have similar experiences of being

stigmatized or bullied?

· How do other states in India prepare students for postsecondary transition, especially with

regards to mathematics?

· How do typically achieving students (without learning disabilities) and college lecturers

across India view students with various abilities, including LD?


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November, 2015 | 3

WORKING PAPER:Higher Education and Students with Learning Disabilities

Introduction

Imagine going to work and not being able to do your job. Now

imagine that you can’t leave your job. Imagine having to

do that every day. This is what life is like for children with

learning disabilities.Dr. David Urion

Director, Neurology and Learning Disabilities Program

Children’s Hospital, Boston

(Public Broadcasting Service, 2002)

Students and adults with learning disabilities are

individuals who, at an academic level, perform

substantially below their peers, and whose poor

performance cannot be explained by any deficit

in vision, speech, hearing or intelligence. It is,

in a sense, “unexpected underachievement”

(Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, & Barnes, 2007, p.

27; American Psychiatric Association, 2013a,

2013b). Students with learning disabilities have

average to above average intelligence, yet exhibit

differences in cognitive abilities, which may

lead to deficiencies in academic performance

(Lewis, 2011). Learning disabilities, which can

occur in the areas of reading, mathematics and/

or written expression, contribute to students

experiencing low self-esteem due to their poor

academic performance and negative school

reports (Fletcher et al., 2007; Gibson & Kendall,

2010; Lahane et al., 2013). Students with learning

disabilities have experienced years of failure

and frustration in academia (Jones, Wilson,

& Bhojwani, 1997). Students with learning

disabilities may feel incapable of performing their

daily tasks of reading, writing, and mathematics.

In India, learning disabilities are commonly

referred to as dyslexia, dyscalculia and

dysgraphia. Approximately 5-15 per cent of

children have a learning disability (Karande,

Sholapurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011). Learningdisabilities may arise from difficulties in one or

more of the following areas: Phonemic awareness,

number sense, working memory, visual-spatial

processing, sequencing, processing speed,

language and attention (Allsopp, 2008; Raghubar

et al., 2009; Little, 2009; Fletcher et al., 2007).

Students with learning disabilities have complex

learning profiles of strengths and challenges but

the current academic system in India is not built

for diverse learners.

In India, students have typically been diagnosed

as having a learning disability based on the IQ-

achievement discrepancy model. This model,

from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of

Mental Disorders (DSM –IV), reveals a severe

discrepancy between a student’s achievement

in an academic area and his/her age, schooling

and level of intelligence, as well as significant

impairment in real-life activities (American

Psychiatric Association, 2000). However, theDSM was revised in 2013, and the discrepancy

model has been replaced with new criteria,

including evidence of symptom persistence for at

least six months, despite extra help or targeted

instruction (Tannock, 2014). Organizations in

India are moving towards the DSM-5 criteria

for diagnosing learning disabilities (M. Khan,

personal communication, September 30,

2014). In Maharashtra, students receive a

learning disability certificate from one of threegovernment hospitals in Mumbai (Nair, Sion, and


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4 | November, 2015

King Edward Memorial (K.E.M.)), or a recognized

testing center, such as the Maharashtra Dyslexia

Association (MDA). Generally, though, there is

an extreme lack of awareness about learning

disabilities among Indian teachers (Unni, 2012).

Consequently, diagnoses of disabilities are often

inconsistent.

Although some research has examined the

experiences of students with learning disabilities

in Indian secondary schools (see Karande,

Sholarpurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011; Karande,

Mahajan, & Kulkarni, 2009), the role of policy

in students’ transition into postsecondary

education has been largely unexamined. The

national government of India does not currently

recognize the term “learning disability” so

there are no uniform guidelines for assessment,

diagnosis or eligibility. In India, education is

a responsibility of both the national and state

governments. The national government performs

an advisory role, but allows states the freedom

to adapt or adopt policy and curricula, since the

context varies considerably from state to state

(M. Jain & K. Sharma, personal communication,

July 5, 2013). Only six states (out of 29 states

and seven union territories) consider learning

disabilities as a category of disability. These

states are Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala,

Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu (Al-Yagon et al.,

2013).

Providing students with learning disabilities

access to postsecondary content and equal

opportunities to pursue their personal interests

and courses of study are also relevant goals

of international policies rooted in ideals of

inclusion and equality. According to Article 2

of the Salamanca Statement notes: “education

systems should be designed and educational

programmes implemented to take into account

the wide diversity of these characteristics

and needs” (UNESCO, 1994, p. viii). Article 2

continues by stating: “regular schools with

this inclusive orientation are the most effective

means of combating discriminatory attitudes,

creating welcoming communities, building an

inclusive society and achieving education for

all” (UNESCO, 1994, p. ix). These policies also

align with frameworks associated with peace

education. For example, Galtung (1969) argues

that unequal power structures (or structural,

indirect violence) lead to unequal life chances;

people are constrained and their true potential is

not realized (Barnett, 2008). Structural violence

can be overcome through inclusive education

systems.

This paper is the first step in beginning to

understand the way special education policy

– or lack thereof – and the current education

system in India impacts upon students’ academic

abilities and their postsecondary education

options. One goal of this paper is to describe the

current experience for students with learning

disabilities as they transition to postsecondary

education and to highlight strategies that

“promote integration and participation, combat

exclusion…and seek to bring about a genuine

equalization of opportunity” (UNESCO, 1994,

p. 11). On the whole, very little is known about

the transitional experience of postsecondary

students with learning disabilities in India. Thispaper attempts to address this knowledge gap.

The national government of India

does not currently recognize the term

“learning disability” so there are no

uniform guidelines for assessment,

diagnosis or eligibility. In India,

education is a responsibility of both

the national and state governments.

The national government performs

an advisory role, but allows states the

freedom to adapt or adopt policy and

curricula, since the context varies

considerably from state to state


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November, 2015 | 5


This paper addresses the following questions:

· What factors impact upon students with

learning disabilities before they leave

secondary school?

· What factors have an effect on students with

learning disabilities once they are enrolled

in junior college?

· What support systems exist for students

with learning disabilities in higher secondary

settings?

· How can students obtain better access to

postsecondary content through inclusive

teaching and learning practices?

Throughout this paper, I will cite examples

from Mumbai, as Maharashtra is one of the

few Indian states that has taken steps to make

adaptations in the examination procedures for

students with learning disabilities. I also focus

on mathematics courses in secondary and

postsecondary education, since mathematical

learning disabilities was the focus of an

exploratory mixed-methods study I conducted in

Maharashtra between 2012 and 20131 (Eichhorn,

2014).

1 Pseudonyms have replaced all names of students,parents, lecturers, administrators, and colleges in the

exploratory study and this paper.


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6 | November, 2015

National Special EducationPolicy

The Persons with Disability (PWD) Act, 1995

(Rehabilitation Council of India, personal

communication, August 6, 2013) is the landmark

legislation in India regarding disabilities. It

includes ten categories of disabilities. Initially,

only seven were listed, namely blindness, low

vision, leprosy-cured, hearing impairment,

locomotor disability, mental retardation andmental illness, but in 1999 a further three

conditions, autism, cerebral palsy, and multiple

disabilities, were added through the National

Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism,

Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple

Disabilities Act (Ministry of Social Justice and

Empowerment, 2009b). In addition, the PWD

Act currently has a draft amendment pending

in Parliament (Rehabilitation Council of India,

personal communication, August 6, 2013; Shelar,2013; Unni, 2012). According to the Ministry of

Social Justice and Empowerment (2009a), the

proposed changes will add “education of children

with learning disabilities” to Section 27 (p.3). If

the amendment is approved, the government

shall take necessary steps to ensure that:

(i) Learning disabilities in children are

detected at the earliest;

(ii) Suitable pedagogical and other measures

are taken so that the child is enabled to

overcome such disabilities at the earliest,

and is able to fully develop its potential.

(Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment,

2009a, p. 38).

The amendment includes conditions such as

attention deficit disorder, dyslexia, dysgraphia,

dyscalculia and dyspraxia under the category of

learning disabilities (Ministry of Social Justice and

Empowerment, 2009a). It is unclear as to when

this amendment, introduced in 2011, is expectedto be reviewed and voted upon (Rehabilitation

Council of India, personal communication,

August 6, 2013).

Prevalence of LearningDisabilities in India

According to one experienced doctor, who wished

to remain anonymous, the most common learning

disabilities diagnosis in Mumbai governmenthospitals is dyslexia and dysgraphia (learning

disabilities pertaining to reading and written

language). The next most common diagnosis

is a combination of dyslexia, dysgraphia, and

dyscalculia (exact statistics were not available for

public information) (personal communication,

March 26, 2013). However, without uniform

guidelines and a lack of general awareness, it is

extremely difficult to report on the prevalence of

learning disabilities in India.

Currently, there are no standardized measures

available to assess students who study in

vernacular-medium schools (where the language

of instruction is not English), and debate is

ongoing as to whether standardized tests used

in Western countries, such as the Woodcock-

Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities or the

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC),

are culturally appropriate for Indian students

studying in English-medium schools (Al-Yagon et

al., 2013). While the WISC IQ test has an Indian

adaptation test, there are no standardized

Indian measures for academic achievement.

Centers like MDA use the academic achievement

battery standardized on the U.S. and U. K. but

place emphasis on “error analysis and give a

qualitative report with rationales for diagnosis

and accommodations” (M. Khan, personal

communication, March 6, 2014). In Mumbai,

the learning disabilities clinics at Nair and Siongovernment hospitals also use tests that are not

Background


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November, 2015 | 7


standardized on the Indian population, while

K.E.M. government hospital uses curriculum-

based tests for students in English-medium

schools (Al-Yagon et al., 2013). More research

needs to be done to develop curriculum-based

tests for diagnosis of learning disabilities in

India, especially in the 21 official languages, most

of which have distinct, non-roman alphabets.

Another reason why language disabilities remain

undiagnosed is that although students with

learning disabilities may be behind their peers

academically, some are able to mask their

difficulties in college. Students with learning

disabilities who have attended English-mediumschools have much better English language

skills than their peers who attended vernacular-

medium schools. Nearly all of the degree

colleges in Mumbai use English as the medium

of instruction – with the exception of Shreemati

Nathibai Damodar Thackersey (SNDT) University

(M. Bose, personal communication, February

18, 2013). Therefore, students with learning

disabilities such as dyslexia and dyscalculia

have better spoken, written and receptiveEnglish language skills than their peers who have

limited English proficiency, thereby masking

their disabilities (K. Currawalla, personal

communication, January 15, 2013). Therefore,

postsecondary lecturers may be unaware of

which of their students have learning disabilities.

Special Education Policyin Maharashtra at the

Postsecondary LevelMost junior colleges in Maharashtra are affiliated

with the Higher Secondary Certification Board

(HSC). In HSC colleges, there is a 3% quota

(or reservation) for admission to 11th standard

(or grade) for physically disabled students,

which includes visually impaired students,

speech and hearing impaired students, and

students with orthopedic disorders and

learning disabilities (dyslexia, dysgraphia and

dyscalculia) (Maharashtra Secondary and Higher

Secondary State Education Department, 2001).

Degree colleges (for Bachelor’s and Master’s

degrees) are affiliated with the University of

Mumbai, but both types of institution make the

same accommodations available (MDA, 2014).

Students with learning disabilities receive an

extra half hour on each exam (two hours in total),

exemption from drawing figures and no penalty for

number reversals (Government of Maharashtra

Higher & Technical Educational Department,

2004). If the student fails, he/she gets “20 grace

marks to pass the exam” which can be applied

to one subject or spread across several subjects

(Government of Maharashtra Higher & Technical

Educational Department, 2004, p. 1). Despite the

accommodations, many students with learning

disabilities in Mumbai continue to experiencedifficulties in the transition to postsecondary

education. Therefore, the MDA decided to

explore why students with learning disabilities

were having more difficulty, especially in the area

of mathematics.

Students with learning disabilities

such as dyslexia and dyscalculia

have better spoken, written and

receptive English language skills

than their peers who have limited

English profciency, thereby masking

their disabilities.


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8 | November, 2015

Between April 2012 and November 2013, while

employed by the MDA, I conducted a mixed-

methods exploratory study in Mumbai examining

the impact of policy on students’ transition

from secondary to postsecondary education.

I interviewed five secondary students and six

post-college adults with learning disabilities,

conducted a large group interview with 19 eleventh

standard students with learning disabilities at

one of the south Mumbai colleges and interviewed

four secondary mathematics teachers and 18college lecturers in mathematics. All interviews

were conducted in English. Furthermore, in

my visits to seven colleges, I observed three

postsecondary mathematics classes in two

of the colleges, collected survey data from 28

mathematics lecturers, and reviewed documents

from educational institutions across Mumbai.

The survey was used to collect descriptive

statistics regarding the lecturers’ experience,

teaching methods and class attendance. Inaddition, lecturers were asked to remark on

students’ current mathematical skills and areas

of improvement.

The participants in this study are from

predominately middle and upper-middle class

areas of Mumbai and all have completed their

education in English. The students/adults that

were interviewed for case studies are broken

down as follows:

TABLE : STUDENTSADULTS WITH LEARNING

DISABILITIES: CASE STUDIES

Education level Sex Board or degree

Secondary

students

3 females;

2 males

3 ICSE, IGCSE,

1 SSC

Postsecondary

adults

1 female; 5

males

3 B.Com., 1 B.Sc.,

2 B.A.

I examined the data through a sociocultural

perspective of policy (Levinson & Sutton,

2001). Using this lens, I considered how diverse

social actors like students and teachers make,

interpret and engage policy through their

practice. Broadly, I wanted to know how policy

is implemented, based on different interests,

responses and scenarios of the participants

involved.

Even though I employed rigorous research

methods, my study does have some limitations.

For example, much of this paper has referred

to the particular case of Maharashtra, and it

is one of only six states currently identifying

learning disabilities as an actual category of

disability. The exploratory study also involved

students from middle and upper-middle class

backgrounds. I also acknowledge that policy

may be constructed differently according to

a particular location or environment, due to

the interactions among diverse policy actors(Levinson & Sutton, 2001). Future researchers

can build upon the present work by investigating

students with learning disabilities from various

socio-economic backgrounds and explore special

education policies in other states.

Moreover, I acknowledge that the current

methods of identifying which students have

a learning disability are problematic. The

eligibility criteria make a judgement betweenwhat is “normal” and what is a learning

“disability.” Consequently, it is often found that

the “‘problem’ of disability” is seen as being

the student’s fault, instead of questioning why

institutional norms and classroom practices

have not been changed (Hehir, 2015, p. 181).

In this article, I examine the way learning

disabilities policy affects participants in various

roles and contexts by prioritizing student

voices, ensuring that these voices are heard,recognized and valued.

Methodology


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Researcher Positionality

With my background as a special educator, I

recognize that this paper is strongly influenced

by my pro-inclusion stance. I believe that

diversity and differences in ability are normal,

and education systems should be more flexible

to accommodate learning diversity. Students

with learning disabilities need allies in learning

– people who do not limit their achievement,

but believe in intellectual growth and the talent

of all students (Dweck, 2006). I am also aware

of my position as an outsider, an American,

although I have lived and worked in India for

more than six years. Therefore, my positionality

should be considered in the interpretation

of the results and recommendations in this

paper.

Results

Factors Impacting Studentswith Learning Disabilities

before they Leave SecondarySchool

In India, schools and colleges are associated with

various boards, or curricula, such as the Indian

Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) Board and

the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE).

Depending on the board affiliation of the school,

students with learning disabilities in Mumbai are

eligible for “provisions,” or accommodations,

ranging from extra time to dropping mathematics

after 8th standard (Karande, 2008; Karande &

Gogtay, 2010; Kulkarni, et al., 2006; MDA, 2014).

Students with learning disabilities are presented

with barriers to postsecondary education as early

as the 7th standard. These barriers include poor

advice from secondary school counselors to drop

courses, the stigma of the learning disabilities

label and using accommodations, bullying and

exclusion from college courses due to poor exam

results or dropping courses in secondary school.

In the following section, I explore some of these

barriers in more detail.

In accordance with Maharashtra special

education policy, students with learning

disabilities are exempt from the mathematics

content in the 10th standard Secondary School

Certificate (SSC) Board exam, as well as algebra

and geometry. Instead, they are tested at the

Students with learning disabilities

are presented with barriers to

postsecondary education as early

as the 7th standard. These barriers

include poor advice from secondary

school counselors to drop courses,

the stigma of the learning disabilities

label and using accommodations, bullying and exclusion from college

courses due to poor exam results

or dropping courses in secondary

school.

7th standard level during the 10th standard

government exam, and they can choose to

take lower-level mathematics (Kulkarni etal., 2006). Unfortunately, these policies are

focused on ensuring that students pass the 10th

standard exams, rather than preparing them

for postsecondary education. According to one

parent of a secondary student with learning

disabilities, there is no separate mathematics

class offered other than grade-level instruction

(T. Davis, personal communication, September

22, 2012). When students opt for lower-level

mathematics in the SSC schools, they do not

actually receive any instruction. Instead, they

either sit in the regular mathematics class (and


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10 | November, 2015

study on their own), or they go to the school

library or an empty classroom, with supervision

if available. Moreover, if they fail the SSC board

exam, students with learning disabilities can be

awarded as many as 20 grace marks, or extra

points (S. Kapadia, personal communication,

February 6, 2013). Alternatively, students

with learning disabilities can replace their

mathematics courses with work experience

courses, such as typing at secondary level.

Secondary students with learning disabilities in

the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education

(ICSE) Board have the option of dropping

mathematics and/or science after the 8thstandard, and must take one or two other

subjects instead, such as commercial studies

or commercial applications (R. Khan, personal

communication, October 24, 2012). Students

make this choice in the 8th standard, and cannot

change their decision once it has been made.

Although course substitutions or modifications

may be considered as an accommodation insecondary school, the same courses may be

required at higher secondary level (Shaw,

2009). For example, students may decide to

drop mathematics in secondary school, only

to discover later that it is a required course

in the first year of their Bachelor’s degree in

commerce.

Beginning in secondary school, students with

learning disabilities can be restricted from

obtaining mathematical content knowledge,

which can unevenly distribute the access

of education resources and inhibit students

from realizing their potential. Secondary

school counselors can play an important role

in helping students to prepare and transition

to postsecondary education (Milsom & Dietz,

2009). They may have low expectations for

students with learning disabilities, which can

lead to the students having limited exposure

to prerequisite courses, such as mathematics

(Dunn, Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson, 2012). In

Mumbai, some counselors have advised students

with learning disabilities to drop mathematics

or take lower-level mathematics as early as

possible (sometimes after the 7th standard) (A.

Kumar, personal communication, November 27,2012). Yet, college lecturers recommend that

all students take mathematics throughout their

academic careers, especially since it is required

for competitive entrance exams for furthering

postsecondary education (K. Kapoor, personal

communication, January 21, 2013). Mr. Kumar, a

lecturer at Gandhi College, suggests: “Since we

cannot change the syllabus, we can change the

way we counsel students about maths courses,

especially secondary school counselors” (A.Kumar, personal communication, November 27,

2012). Thus, according to this example, secondary

school counselors’ advice is disconnected from

the recommendations and expectations of

mathematics lecturers.

Factors Affecting Studentswith Language DisabilitiesEnrolled in Junior College

Methods of Instruction andAssessment

According to a Shri Ram college mathematics

lecturer, the Indian educational system is

very exam-focused, and the teaching style is

reflective of the system (P. Yadav, personal

communication, January 30, 2013). Much of the

assessment in postsecondary education focuses

on rote learning and producing answers straight

from the textbook (Chib, 2011). Students are

expected to write narrative and essay-length

Although course substitutions or

modifcations may be considered

as an accommodation in secondary

school, the same courses may be

required at higher secondary level.


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answers for the HSC (12th standard) exam. In

Indian postsecondary education, very little room

is allocated for life application and creative

problem solving.

Instead of understanding mathematics, the

focus of postsecondary instruction is on

practicing and memorizing. Mathematics

lecturers acknowledge the need for daily

practice in mathematics (K. Kapoor, personal

communication, January 21, 2013; U. Jain,

personal communication, January 21, 2013). In

the exam-centric environment of postsecondary

education, students are given few other

means of expressing what they actually knowand understand. In my observations of

postsecondary mathematics classes, all

students copied diagrams, formulae and

equations with no reference to life application

problems (Shri Ram College, observation,

January 30, 2013, February 11, 2013; Ambedkar

College, observation, February 8, 2013). For

example, at Ambedkar College, I observed an

11th standard lesson on finding the equation

for a circle. In class, students dutifully copied

diagrams and formulae that the lecturer wrote

on the chalkboard (directly from the textbook)

(observation, February 8, 2013). I observed a

lesson on the same topic at Shri Ram College.

Students were expected to have pre-requisite

knowledge and quick recall of vocabulary,

such as radius, diameter, locus, concentric,

square roots, coordinates and the Pythagorean

Theorem. Students had to copy quickly from the

chalkboard (which was difficult to see from the

back of the classroom) and, in some instances,

to process what the teacher had orally dictated

and write it in their notebooks. Students had to

use auditory discrimination skills, since noisy

fans were running on the highest speed and

the lecturer was inconsistent in the use of the

microphone (observation, January 30, 2013).

This environment and tasks may be difficult

for a student with learning disabilities as their

educational difficulties may arise from working

memory, visual-spatial processing, sequencing,processing speed, language and/or attention.

The students I interviewed were unsatisfied

with this pedagogical approach. For example,

students from a large group interview at Gandhi

College said that they would rather understand

mathematical concepts instead of merely

studying materials purely for the purposes of

a test. They also reported that they would like

more time to prepare, fewer exams and more

opportunities to show their knowledge through

other means, such as assignments and projects

(11th standard students at Gandhi College,

personal communication, December 13, 2012).

Generally, students desire accessible alternatives

to assessment.

Barriers Faced by Students

Being labeled as “learning disabled” can attach

a certain stigma to a student’s identity (Baglieri,

Valle, Connor, & Gallagher, 2011; Connor, 2012;

Goffman, 1963). As learning disabilities are

an invisible disability, students may reject

accommodations and assistance to conceal

their disability and avoid the associated stigma

(Goffman, 1963). Students may or may not be

willing to embrace this aspect of their identity,

depending on how they imagine others will

perceive them (Schifter, 2015). Students with

learning disabilities that accept accommodations

are sometimes ridiculed, teased, bullied and

subjected to academic and social exclusion

(Wilson et al., 2012). Consequently, when students

with learning disabilities transition to higher

secondary level, they may not want their peers

and lecturers to know about their difficulties,

or to be singled out for special instruction or

accommodations (Pierce, 2015). According to Mr.

Kumar, a lecturer at Gandhi College:

Most students with LD do not disclose their

diagnosis. They get bullied. Other students

are very strong and harsh towards students

with LD. In fact, many students do not want

to meet me during school hours, for fear that

their peers might see them getting extra help.

(A. Kumar, personal communication,November 27, 2012).


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12 | November, 2015

In colleges that offer accommodations to

students with learning disabilities, such as extra

time on exams, students may feel uncomfortable

with the ways in which colleges implement such

policies, potentially isolating students from

their peers (Chib, 2011). For example, Vinod felt

uncomfortable about the prospect of having to sit

his exam in a separate room in order to have extra

time, so he did not disclose his learning disability

to the college (personal communication, April

25, 2013).

Vinod outlined why he did not want to seem

different from his peers, and consequently did

not ask for accommodations in college for his

learning disabilities:

It is not always so easy to ask for help. If you

get provisions, then you have to take your

exam in a different room. You will be seated

in the roll number order during the exam.

People will notice you aren’t there and they

will ask you, “Why didn’t you give your exam?”

“Where were you?” No one was aware that I

had dyslexia in college.

(Vinod, personal communication, April 25, 2013)

Likewise, some students may make different

choices about accommodations in secondary

school and college. For instance, Vinod said

that he used accommodations during his 10th

standard exam, but then did not disclose his

disability in college:

I didn’t ask for help in college, but the

environment was such that they also did

not advertise help. The environment was

not helpful. I wasn’t sure how I would be

perceived. It is easier in secondary school

– you know the people and they’ve known

you for years. It is easier to ask for help and

people don’t judge you.

(Vinod, personal communication, April 25, 2013).

For students like Vinod, the differences in the

educational environments of secondary and

postsecondary settings affected his ability to

accept accommodations (Hamblet, 2014).

However, some students are satisfied with the

approaches adopted by their colleges. Kunal,

for example, reported that Shri Ram college was

“cooperative, offered special classes, and kept

track of our progress” (personal communication,

March 13, 2013). Others are grateful for the

separate settings because they then do not have

to discuss their answers with their peers. John

told me: “I would avoid talking to friends after the

exam about how they solved the sums. I would

always do it differently, and that would freak me

out” (John, personal communication, June 10,

2013). Some also claimed to benefit from the

quiet environment of a separate setting, away

from distractions of the busier main exam hall(Chib, 2011). Students with learning disabilities

have different profiles, which can lead to different

preferences regarding accommodations.

In my interactions with lecturers in the colleges, I

found that only a few are aware of, and advocate

for, students with learning disabilities, such as

Mr. Kumar at Gandhi College. The majority of

lecturers and administrators in my sample did not

express empathy towards students’ difficulties.

Since having learning disabilities is an invisible,

or hidden, disability, lecturers may not believe

consider it an authentic difficulty, and may

perceive these students to be lazy or incapable

(Dunn, Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson, 2012). This

may be a result of low awareness of learning

disabilities among faculty at the postsecondary

level. For instance, when asked about the

concessions offered for students with learning

disabilities at Singh College, one of the science

college principals questioned the authenticity of

the learning disability certificates:

Most students are applying for dyslexia

(and other LD certificates) because they

get concessions and benefits. We question

the authenticity of the government hospital

certificate. We question whether or not the

student really has a problem or difficulty. Are

parents taking advantage of the system?

(V. Jha, personal communication, February 6, 2013)


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Another lecturer at Narsee College also wondered

how the authenticity of learning disability

certificates can be verified: “Some of these

dyslexic students (with certificates) don’t have

spelling mistakes, but for others, you can make

out their mistakes. How do you know if a student

really has a difficulty?” (S. Parikh, personal

communication, August 23, 2013). Unless lecturers

and administrators understand what learning

disabilities involve and the way it affects a student’s

ability to complete academic tasks, colleges may

continue to question the authenticity of learning

disabilities, which could affect the overall support

they are willing to offer. In this way, students are

constrained by structural violence and their trueacademic potential is not realized. Lecturers and

administrators maintain power over students by

not accommodating diverse learning profiles.

Elective Courses andExclusionary Practices ofJunior Colleges

According to the syllabus for standards 11 and

12, college students only have three compulsory

subjects: English, environment education, and

health and physical education. Students can

then choose four other electives (42 electives are

listed in the syllabus) to complete the required

coursework each year, including mathematics

(Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and

Higher Secondary Education, 2012). In the HSC

Board, students can substitute secretarial

practice (SP) for mathematics during the 11th

and 12th standards. However, SP requires nomathematical skill. For this subject, students

need only to understand English (SP college

lecturer, personal communication, December 19,

2012).

In all of the junior colleges in my sample, students

must choose, as one of their electives, either

mathematics or SP. In some colleges, students

have an open choice between mathematics

or SP while other colleges have a cut-off score

requirement for entry to mathematics courses

and all other students must take SP. At Ambedkar

College, only students who have scored 87-88

per cent on their 10th standard exam are eligible

to enroll in 11th and 12th standard mathematics

classes (L. Ghose, personal communication,

February 6, 2013). The case is the same at Singh

College, except that the acceptable passing

percentage for the 10th standard exam is a little

lower, at 83% (or 125 out of 150). Only students

who qualify for mathematics based on their

10th standard exam score are eligible to enroll

in mathematics in the 11th standard (V. Jha,

personal communication, February 6, 2013).

At St. Joseph Junior College, if a student took

general mathematics or lower-level mathematics

for their 10th standard exam (an accommodationfor students with learning disabilities in the

SSC Board), they are ineligible to enroll in

11th standard mathematics (U. Jain, personal

communication, January 21, 2013).

In my study, students themselves confirmed this

policy of eligibility. For example, Malik mentioned

that he did not have the option of taking

mathematics in junior college: “I had to take

SP. I did not get the necessary marks on the SSCexam (70%)” (Malik, personal communication,

August 25, 2013). In this way, some colleges force

students to take SP instead of mathematics.

When junior colleges require students with

learning disabilities to take SP, students are

excluded from mathematical content and skills

required for mathematics courses at degree

colleges, thereby unevenly distributing access

to mathematical content knowledge and access

to career pathways that require foundational

mathematics courses.

Support Systems for Studentswith Learning Disabilities inHigher Secondary Settings

Despite the barriers to postsecondary education

outlined above, some students with learning

disabilities persevere and complete a Bachelor’s

degree. The following section explores specific

strategies used by students with learning

disabilities to finish their degree.


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Current Interventions in MumbaiColleges

If students have difficulty understanding

mathematical concepts in junior college and

degree colleges, most lecturers will offer them

extra classes. However, these are open to all

students and are not remedial. Three colleges in

my sample offer extra classes, or tutorial classes,

once a week. At Shri Ram College, during one of

the free periods, four lecturers simultaneously

offer classes (30 students each) to review a

concept (R. Archarya, personal communication,

February 11, 2013). At Ambedkar College, tutorials

are also offered, but the students are not willingto do the extra practice problems assigned by the

lecturers (L. Ghose, personal communication,

February 6, 2013). Ambedkar College also offers

a mentor cell for “differently-abled students”

(L. Ghose, personal communication, February

6, 2013). At Narsee College, all teachers offer

extra lectures, which they call remedial classes

(H. Borde, personal communication, February 6,

2013).

Only a few colleges in south Mumbai offer special

“dyslexia cells.” These “cells,” or programs,

are primarily support services for students

with learning disabilities (A. Kumar, personal

communication, November 27, 2012; R. Archarya,

personal communication, February 11, 2013;

Getzel & Thoma, 2008). However, some students

chose not to self-disclose their learning disability

to the postsecondary faculty and therefore

declined the provisions (Getzel, 2008).

Shri Ram College, for example, has a special

dyslexia cell for students with learning disabilities,

where students learn strategies and study

skills (R. Archarya, personal communication,

February 11, 2013). According to the head of

the mathematics department, in these cells,

mathematics lecturers “train students to pass the

exam” (R. Archarya, personal communication,

February 11, 2013). As part of this strategy, in

the first year of the B. Com. Mathematical and

Statistical Techniques course, the mathematics

lecturers tell students with learning disabilities

“to focus on sections they find easier, such as

statistics or simple and compound interest, while

dropping other sections that they find difficult,

such as derivatives” (R. Archarya, personal

communication, February 11, 2013). However,

the mathematics sections vary for individual

students depending on what they find easier or

more difficult.

During tutorials, the lecturer might be able to give

more attention to individual students, but he/she

does not use alternative, differentiated teaching

methods tailored to students with learning

disabilities. None of the college administratorsin my sample mentioned changing their teaching

methods to cater for the learning needs of

students with learning disabilities. Vinod verified

this, by stating:

The whole system – how it is dealt with when

you come to college and are dyslexic – needs

to change. I could go to 50 extra classes, but

it won’t help unless it is catered to my needs

and helps to bridge the gaps in my learning.

Teachers need to further understand dyslexia

and learning disabilities – they need to

understand how to teach me so that I can

learn – because I did not learn the way they

taught me.

(Vinod, personal communication, April 25, 2013)

One student, Kunal, reported how he focused

on passing the exam in the Mathematical and

Statistical Techniques course with a private tutor:

I took Secretarial Practice (SP) in junior

college, so I had a gap of 2 years with no

mathematics. Plus, I wasn’t really comfortable

with maths in the first place. During my first

year of B. Com, I had a private tutor. He came

to my house three days a week and taught me

for two hours. Then, he gave me homework

and practice problems. For six days a week,

I studied math. I had to work really hard at

math.

(Kunal, personal communication, March 13, 2013)


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November, 2015 | 15


Kunal was solely focused on passing the class: “if

you dedicate your time, and study for three hours

a day, you can easily get 18 marks on a 50 mark

paper” (which is 36%, just enough for passing).

Kunal worked with his tutor to strategically pass

the exam and score the minimum.

Vinod contrasted his experiences in

postsecondary education in India and in the U.K.

He reported that: “The Indian system can’t cater

to individuals. The UK has a different system. It

caters more towards individual’s needs. There

are various methods of assessment” (Vinod,

personal communication, April 25, 2013). Vinod

speaks from personal experience, since he

went to London to study media upon finishing

his Bachelor of Arts degree in Mumbai. As

there are many barriers in the Indian education

system, some students with learning disabilities

attend a foreign university or an International

Baccalaureate (IB) school, if their families can

afford it (A. Kumar, personal communication,

November 27, 2012). Increasingly, students with

learning disabilities with the resources to do so

choose to go abroad, like Vinod, where they can

get the services they need to make the most of

their abilities.

BOX : RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY AND RESEARCH

Recommendations for Policy

· Provide counseling to students with learning disabilities transitioning from secondary

education to postsecondary.

· Provide mentors to students with learning disabilities entering higher education.

· Implement Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Enhanced Anchored Instruction (EAI) in

all colleges and universities through training instructors in best practices for both of these

approaches.

· Create and implement alternative assessment methods.

·

Provide alternative courses such as “Maths for Business” that provide students with alternativeoptions within content areas.

· Include the voices of current and former students with learning disabilities in policymaking

discussions.

Potential Future Research Questions

· Do students with learning disabilities in other parts of India have similar experiences of being


· How do other states in India prepare students for postsecondary transition, especially with


·

How do typically achieving students (without learning disabilities) and college lecturers acrossIndia view students with various abilities, including LD?

Discussion: Recommendations for Policy

Although there are some support systems in place

for students with learning disabilities in higher

education settings in Mumbai, I would suggest

that additional approaches be added to college

and university environments to promote greater

inclusion of students of diverse abilities to provide


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more peaceful and equitable classrooms. Based

on the findings of the exploratory study in Mumbai

and my review of the literature, there are other

ways students can obtain even more access to

postsecondary content through inclusive teaching

and learning practices.

Counseling Services for allStudents

Beginning with secondary schools, all students,

especially students with learning disabilities,

need competent counselors that can prepare

them for the transition to vocational or higher

education (Dunn, Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson,

2012; Shaw, 2009). Secondary school students

with learning disabilities in Mumbai receive little

guidance about their postsecondary options(Gregg, 2007; Sparks & Lovett, 2009). Secondary

school teachers and counselors should advise

students about the potential repercussions

of dropping mathematics. Secondary school

counselors could attend professional

development workshops, targeting the process

of transition to postsecondary options. By

following this approach, counselors would have

knowledge of the potential routes students could

pursue and the way their choices could impact

upon their future courses of study. Counselors

could then guide students and parents in the

decisions regarding secondary mathematics

courses and provisions for students with learning

disabilities, since educational counseling

has been a successful transitional service for

students with learning disabilities in the U.S.

(Kosine, 2007; Aune, 1991). Counselors must

be aware of their powerful role in distributing

access to mathematics education resources.

At college level, specific lecturers can take on

the role of mentors, such as Mr. Kumar at Gandhi

College, which can serve as a counseling program

(Shaw, 2009). Mentors can encourage students to

persevere in taking the necessary steps for their

career paths (Dunn, Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson,2012). Having a mentor would also make students

feel more visible, despite the large class sizes. A

mentor can frequently check in with the student

and follow up if he or she has not been attending

classes. However, it is important that these

services are available to all college and university

students so that students with learning disabilities

are not singled out or seen as being different, as is

the case at Ambedkar College. Perhaps students

with learning disabilities could be given priorityfor these programs and services, if they have

chosen to report their disability to the college.

Universal Design for Learning(UDL)

UDL has been developed by the Center for

Applied Special Technology (CAST), a non-profit

organization dedicated to the improvement of

teaching and learning for all types of students.UDL utilizes overarching principles and methods

that eliminate barriers and allow the content

to be accessible to all students, not only those

with learning disabilities (Dunn, Rabren, Taylor,

& Dotson, 2012; Rose, Harbour, Johnston, Daley,

& Abarbanell, 2006). Using UDL, lecturers

will anticipate having diverse individuals in

their classrooms and plan their lectures and

assignments with this in mind.

Lecturers could use a variety of teaching

methods and have multiple ways of representing

Having a mentor would also make

students feel more visible, despite

the large class sizes. A mentor can

frequently check in with the student

and follow up if he or she has not

been attending classes. However, itis important that these services are

available to all college and university

students so that students with

learning disabilities are not singled

out or seen as being different, as is

the case at Ambedkar College.


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November, 2015 | 17


content knowledge, allowing students to

perceive and comprehend information in various

ways, which can engage and motivate students

to learn. Students could have multiple options

for expressing what they know as well (CAST,

2011). This would eliminate the need for specific

accommodations for students with learning

disabilities, which could lessen the stigma and

bullying that occurs with accommodations

(Dunn, Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson, 2012). With

UDL, lecturers are equally distributing resources

to students with learning disabilities to help

achieve their potential.

There are multiple ways to begin UDL in the

Indian postsecondary context. Lectures can be

recorded (audio or video) and uploaded on the

college website (Rose, Harbour, Johnston, Daley,

& Abarbanell, 2006). Students with language-

based learning disabilities and students from

vernacular-medium secondary schools will find it

helpful to be able to review and repeat sections

that contain difficult vocabulary. Students with

attention difficulties can review the video to fill in

gaps or to break down information into segments.

Lecturers could also use powerpoint slides with

visuals, graphics, and/or videos to supplement

their lectures (Rose, Harbour, Johnston, Daley,

& Abarbanell, 2006). Student notes could be

collected and made available for all students, not

just those with learning disabilities. These notes

could then be uploaded on a website. Groups

of students could rotate and be responsible for

notes on different days, which can be part of their

participation grade (Rose, Harbour, Johnston,

Daley, & Abarbanell, 2006). In terms of formativeassessment, students could be given an option

of an exam, research paper, or using media, such

as video, to showcase their knowledge. Lecturers

could provide models for students, from previous

courses, to help students understand the

lecturer’s expectations.

Incorporating changes across the instructional

spectrum and curriculum would allow all

students greater access, including students

with learning disabilities (Pierce, 2015). Not all

students with learning disabilities have a similar

learning profile, therefore, the same strategy

will not improve the learning environment for

everyone (McBride, Scatton, & Coley, 2007).

If all students have additional choices, such

as multiple ways to interact with the content

and lecture, or the amount of support they can

receive, then motivation to engage in course

material is likely to increase (Rose, Harbour,

Johnston, Daley, & Abarbanell, 2006).

Enhanced AnchoredInstruction (EAI)

Students learn more when they compute and

problem solve in concept-rich contexts, such as in

EAI (Gagnon & Bottge, 2006; Maccini, Strickland,

Gagnon, & Malmgren, 2008; Strickland &

Maccini, 2010; Evmenova & Behrmann, 2012). In

EAI, students learn mathematics through hands-

on projects, such as designing and building. EAI

makes use of the concrete, semi-concrete, and

abstract sequence (Gagnon & Bottge, 2006).

Furthermore, when problem solving is embedded

in a real-world context, students are better able

to activate their conceptual knowledge and

demonstrate increased motivation, participation

and generalization skills (Maccini & Gagnon,

2000; Gagne, Yekovich, & Yekovich, 1993;

Polloway & Patton, 1997). With EAI, students see

how they use mathematics and why they need to

know the concepts (Woodward, 2006).

Lecturers could use a variety of

teaching methods and have multiple

ways of representing contentknowledge, allowing students

to perceive and comprehend

information in various ways, which

can engage and motivate students to

learn. Students could have multiple

options for expressing what they

know as well


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18 | November, 2015

Various EAI-based programs have been

successful in improving basic mathematics skills

and motivation to learn mathematics among

middle and high school students with learning

disabilities (Bottge & Cho, 2013). These programs

have evolved to include multi-media based

problems with an accompanying computer-

based learning model, as well as hands-on

application (Bottge, Grant, Stephens, Reuda,

2010). Implementation of the programs has

ranged from 21 days to seven months (Bottge,

Rueda, LaRoque, Serlin, & Kwon, 2007; Bottge,

Hienrichs, Mehta, Rueda, Hung, & Danneker,

2004; Gagnon & Bottge, 2006).

Alternative Course Options

A major problem in the current mathematics

courses for the commerce stream is that

the syllabus is created by mathematics and

statistics teachers, or lecturers from the

Bachelor of Science programs. Therefore, the

current coursework is not application-based

for students in a commerce degree program

(A. Kumar, personal communication, July 19,2013). Students with and without learning

disabilities become unmotivated and see

no application for mathematical ideas when

teachers use drill-orientated approaches,

as is the case with current extra/remedial

classes (Woodward, 2006). Students need

more mathematics lecturers with a business

or economics background (A. Kumar, personal

communication, November 27, 2012).

Based on the findings of the exploratory study,

I recommend a pilot model course for business

mathematics in junior college. This “Maths for

Business” course should be embedded in a

realistic context of the way these students will

use mathematics in their future careers, and

should be open to all students. The course will

motivate students to complete mathematics

problems, using fractions and algebra, by

applying mathematics to commerce-related

situations and multi-media based problems.

The goal of this pilot course would be to

improve students’ foundational mathematics

skills required for postsecondary mathematics

and their overall perception of the subject.

This course could be based on EAI courses that

have been implemented in the U.S., along with

a combination of explicit instruction using

the models and manipulatives for hands-onapplication. These courses have greatly improved

the problem solving performance of average-

and low-achieving students (Bottge & Cho, 2013).

All algebra content and word problems will be

applied to a business situation and during the

course all students will have access to calculators

and extra time to complete projects and tests.

In this course, students can begin to address

misconceptions and improve their criticalcomponent skills needed for postsecondary

mathematics. Also, by embedding mathematics

in a realistic and motivating context catered to

their needs, students with learning disabilities

may foster an appreciation for mathematics,

instead of feelings of anxiety. Students should

see mathematics as valuable and be able to

apply their knowledge to specific commerce/

business situations (Rose, Harbour, Johnston,

Daley, & Abarbanell, 2006). Students will then

increase their access to education resources,

such as mathematics content knowledge through

the “Maths for Business” course.


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November, 2015 | 19


In conclusion, to provide all students with greateraccess to postsecondary education, I suggest

that postsecondary lecturers and administrators

take part in professional development

opportunities, especially in the areas of

mentoring/counseling and UDL. To implement

any changes in the curriculum, colleges and

universities need to support their lecturers and

strengthen their capacity through professional

development. Centers for teaching could be

established at the different colleges to offerresources to lecturers and professors regarding

effective instructional practices and integration

of technology. An alternative would be for a

larger institution, such as Mumbai University, to

offer training via Distance Open Learning (DOL)

(Sharma & Deppeler, 2005). Lecturers should

have high expectations for all students, including

those with learning disabilities, balanced with

an understanding of their learning profiles, so

that they have equal access to content (Dunn,

Rabren, Taylor, & Dotson, 2012). College lecturers

should be aware of learning disabilities, since

the difficulties students with learning disabilities

have in academics will not disappear as they

transition from primary to secondary and on to

postsecondary education. Lecturers and college

administrators also need to be aware of the

power they have, to distribute resources – either

equally or unequally – to students, which can

impact upon their future career paths.

Implications for Policy andFuture Research

These findings will be useful for inclusive

education advocacy groups in India as they work

with policy makers and enforcers at the national

and state level, to revise policy and procedures

for students with learning disabilities across

India. As these policies are revised, I suggest that

policy makers consult with adults with learning

disabilities who have experienced the transition

from secondary to postsecondary education. Itis important to involve participants in diverse

roles and contexts, including former students

with learning disabilities, to begin to diminish

the power structures in policy formation and

implementation. As students in this study

reported, policy and curriculum changes could

reflect more accommodations and options that

are available to all students, so students with

learning disabilities can avoid the stigma of being

different or separate from their peers.

In addition, specific research questions derived

directly from the findings of this study include:

• Do students with learning disabilities in other

parts of India have similar experiences of being


• How do other states in India prepare students

for postsecondary transition, especially with


• How do typically achieving students (without

learning disabilities) and college lecturers

across India view students with variousabilities, including LD?

Conclusion

To implement any changes in the

curriculum, colleges and universities

need to support their lecturers and

strengthen their capacity through

professional development. Centers

for teaching could be established

at the different colleges to offer

resources to lecturers and professors

regarding effective instructional

practices and integration of

technology.


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On the whole, a comprehensive approach to

providing all postsecondary students better

access to the curriculum, as well as increasing

their participation and motivation, is necessary

(UNESCO, 2009). In this article, I have suggested

multiple, unobtrusive ways that lecturers and

administrators can create a more inclusive

learning environment at the postsecondary level

and anticipate diverse learning needs in their

classrooms. No student should be excluded

from a desired career path due to their learning

profiles or differences. For students with

learning disabilities, the “dis” in “disability”

can overshadow their strengths and unique

talents (Connor, 2012, p. 24). Giving all students,

including those with learning disabilities,

additional options to understand the content

and express what they know, will make higher

education more accessible.

The author wishes to thank the MDA in Mumbai

for their support in the exploratory study in

2012-2013, especially Mrs. Kate Currawalla and

Ms. Masarrat Khan. In addition, the author is

grateful to Dr. Mathangi Subramanian and three

anonymous reviewers for their comments and

suggestions to improve this paper.


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