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Working Paper 295
TRADE COMPETITIVENESS OF INDIAN DAIRY
INDUSTRY: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS
Yashobanta Parida, Avinash K. Ghule and Priyankkumar Dudharejiya
Working Paper 295
TRADE COMPETITIVENESS OF INDIAN DAIRY INDUSTRY: AN
EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS
Yashobanta Parida, Avinash K. Ghule and Priyankkumar Dudharejiya
Institute of Rural Management Anand
Post Box No. 60, Anand, Gujarat (India)
Phones: (02692) 263260, 260246, 260391, 261502
Fax: 02692-260188 Email: [email protected]
Website: www.irma.ac.in
September 2019
The purpose of the Working Paper Series (WPS) is to provide an opportunity to IRMA
faculty, visiting fellows, and students to sound out their ideas and research work before
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paper is to be considered as a pre-publication document of the Institute. This is a pre-
publication draft for academic circulation and comments only. The author/s retain the
copyrights of the paper for publication.
This work was supported by the Verghese Kurien Centre of Excellence (VKCoE) under its
sponsored Project “ Trade Competitiveness of Indian Dairy Industry: An Empirical
Analysis”
Trade Competitiveness of Indian Dairy Industry: An Empirical Analysis
Yashobanta Parida1, Avinash K. Ghule2 and Priyankkumar Dudharejiya3
Abstract
The study examines major markets, trade direction, and competitiveness of Indian dairy
products. Data shows that India became a net exporter of dairy products after 2000. Yet it
remains a minor player in the context of exporting dairy products in spite of being the largest
milk producer in the world. South Asia, the Middle East, and South East Asia are the major
destinations for India’s dairy products. The Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC) shows that
the Indian dairy industry, as a whole, lacks export competitiveness because the export prices
of dairy products in India exceed the world export price. The product-wise NPC estimates
show that India is relatively more competitive in the area of exporting cheese and curd
products. Additionally, the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) coefficient confirms
that India hardly enjoys any comparative advantage for exporting its dairy products. The
econometric results suggest that the world per capita income and exchange rates may
influence the export of dairy products as a whole, while trade liberalisation exerts a positive
impact on dairy exports to an extent.
1 Research Fellow (Economics Area), VKCoE, Institute of Rural Management Anand. Email:
[email protected] 2 Research Fellow (Dairy Economics Area), VKCoE, Institute of Rural Management Anand.
Email: [email protected] 3 Assistant Professor, Food Technology, Ganpat University, Mehsana, Gujarat.
Email: [email protected] Earlier, Research Assistant (Dairy Technology Area), VKCoE, Institute of
Rural Management Anand.
2
1. INTRODUCTION
India is the largest milk producer in the world; milk and other dairy products account for
about two-thirds of the value of the Indian livestock sector while supporting the livelihoods
of nearly half of India's rural households (GoI, 2018). Milk production in India increased
from merely 20 million tonnes in 1961 to 176 million tonnes in 2017-18, with a Compound
Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 4 per cent (NDDB, 2018; FAO, 2018). It accounted for
about 22 per cent of the global milk production of around 843 MT in 2017-18 (FAO, 2018).
India’s dairy sector is expected to reach Rs 9.4 trillion (US$ 146.2 billion) in 2020 (IBEF,
2018). Before 1999, India was a net importer of dairy products. The successful
implementation of the ‘Operation Flood’ programme and trade reforms caused the direction
of India’s dairy trade to change marginally. After 2000, India becomes a net exporter of dairy
products. Statistics show that India’s export share of dairy products over world dairy exports
increased marginally from 0.1 per cent in 2001 to 0.2 per cent in 2016, while its import share
of dairy products over world dairy imports increased marginally from 0.018 per cent in 2001
to 0.063 per cent in 2016. The Middle East, South Asia, South East Asia, and USA are the
major markets for India’s dairy products. Conversely, India is a favourable market for the
European Union, New Zealand, Australia, UAE, and US dairy products.
As far as the cost of milk production is concerned, India is a competitive producer (Ohlan
2012a). Given that the country is the largest producer of milk and is well endowed with the
natural resources required for increasing dairy production, India’s dairy industry can
potentially increase the volume of its production along with exports (World Bank 2011).
Being home to the largest cattle population with a more developed milk co-operative network
in place across regions has led to increased milk production in India. Nevertheless, higher
input prices, poor milk quality, inadequate milk procurement and processing infrastructure
along with trade restrictions, especially non-tariff barriers to trade (NTBs), are mainly
responsible for affecting the export performance of Indian dairy products. Therefore, the
objectives of this study are to examine the trade direction, level of competitiveness, and
major markets for Indian dairy products. The study employs a Nominal Protection
Coefficient (NPC) and Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) for measuring the
competitiveness of India’s dairy industry with the help of product-wise dairy export data for
the period 2001-2017. The study analyses product-wise export and import performance of
dairy products as well as the major markets for dairy products. The study also attempts to
assess the impact of currency exchange rates and world income on the export of dairy
products.
The remaining part of the study is described below. Section 2 describes a brief review of the
literature related to trade competitiveness of the dairy sector. Section 3 analyses the major
markets for Indian dairy products. Data sources, methods, and measures of competitiveness
are discussed in section 4. Finally, the findings of the study and policy implications are
presented in section 5.
3
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The self-sufficiency rate, defined as the ratio of a country’s or region’s share of global milk
production and global milk consumption, is important for influencing the degree and
direction of trade flows (Shadbolt and Apparao, 2016). Most trade theories focus on sources
of comparative advantage while postulating that all nations can gain from trade by
capitalising on their production-related strengths (Ortiz-Ospina, 2018). A few studies do
examine the competitiveness of the dairy industry in India. Ohlan (2014) studied the
competitiveness and determinants of the export of dairy products in India. The study
observed that world market size, exchange rate, and trade liberalisation play a significant role
in terms of enhancing dairy exports from India. Rakotoarisoa and Gulati (2006) deployed the
NPC to examine how the world dairy policy affected dairy trade and competitiveness of the
Indian dairy industry using the annual dairy trade data between 1975 and 2001. They noted
that Indian dairy products lack competitiveness in the world market. Their results also
showed that India is more competitive in the area of whole milk powder (WMP) while also
being a net exporter. Jha (2004) examined the role of tariff, milk price, milk production, and
employment opportunities related to the Indian dairy sector. The study confirmed that free
import of milk has adversely affected employment opportunities of the dairy sector. Rajarajan
et al. (2007) observed that India had been importing more dairy products from developed
countries compared to developing countries. The study states that India gained competitive
advantage in terms of exporting SMP, WMP, and ghee after the introduction of trade reforms.
Kumar (2010) analysed the competitiveness of livestock products and key factors affecting
the export of livestock products. The work showed that trade liberalisation had enhanced the
export performance of livestock products. The study further noted that India lacks
competitiveness in the area of exporting milk and milk products.
3. COUNTRY WISE TRENDS IN EXPORT AND IMPORT IN THE DAIRY
SECTOR
Theoretically speaking, the value of exports of a particular commodity from one country
should match the value of its imports in another country for the year under consideration. In
practice, however, one often encounters some discrepancy because the exports are recorded
FOB (Free on Board) while imports are recorded under CIF (Cost, Insurance and Freight)
(Joshi, 2012). Therefore, we have provided India’s dairy exports and imports – to and from
the world – separately. In this section, the country-wise exports of dairy products as a whole,
from 2001 to 2016, have been presented. Table 1 shows the dairy exports of major 15
countries in the world. In 2001, Germany exported around 16 per cent of its dairy products to
the world, which was the highest; this figure slightly declined to almost 13 per cent in 2016.
4
Table 1: Country-wise dairy export to the world
Country
2001 2008 2016
Rank
Value 000
USD
Share
(%)
Value 000
USD
Share
(%)
Value 000
USD
Share
(%)
Based on
2016
Germany 4324516 15.8 9478290 14.3 8089599 12.5 1
New Zealand 2664188 9.7 6562092 9.9 7819257 12.1 2
Netherlands 3331185 12.2 6907739 10.4 7098551 11 3
France 3500867 12.8 7379107 11.2 6301599 9.7 4
United States 598650 2.2 2977259 4.5 3328278 5.1 5
Belgium 1743558 6.4 3397511 5.1 3004900 4.6 6
Italy 945503 3.5 2309230 3.5 2975661 4.6 7
Denmark 1286544 4.7 2562313 3.9 2280439 3.5 8
Ireland 947217 3.5 2096019 3.2 1912793 3 9
Belarus 148656 0.5 1090112 1.6 1815082 2.8 10
United Kingdom 781924 2.9 1497435 2.3 1632948 2.5 11
Australia 1555839 5.7 2207709 3.3 1628380 2.5 12
Poland 369548 1.3 1717809 2.6 1589521 2.5 13
Austria 499591 1.8 1377478 2.1 1221282 1.9 14
Saudi Arabia 129352 0.5 663451 1 1155563 1.8 15
India 39714 0.1 269995 0.4 130531 0.2 48
Top 15 22827138 83.3 52223554 79 51853852 80.2 -
Rest of the world
(194) 4564858 16.7 13920034 21 12798746 19.8 -
Total 27391996 100 66143588 100 64652597 100 -
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS).
In terms of milk production, Germany was the sixth largest milk producer in the world
contributing around 4 per cent to global milk production in 20164. Similarly, New Zealand
was the second largest dairy exporter exporting 12 per cent of its total dairy products. Yet in
terms of milk production, it contributed around 3 per cent globally5. The Netherlands’ exports
accounted for around 11 per cent, followed by France (10 per cent), and the US (3 per cent),
and so on in 2016. In the global context of milk production, the Netherlands contributed 1.8
per cent, followed by the US (12 per cent), and so on in the same year6. Table 1 reveals that
more than 50 per cent dairy products were exported by the top five developed countries and
80 per cent by the top 15 countries. It may also be noted that India is a minor player in the
world market in terms of exporting dairy products while being ranked the world’s single
largest country producing dairy animals (including dairy cows and buffalo) (Salois, 2016)7.
India’s export share of dairy products marginally increased from 0.1 per cent in 2001 to 0.2
4 Authors’ own calculation. Sources: Food and Agriculture Organization. 5 Ibid. 6 Ibdi. 7 Ibdi.
5
per cent in 2016, while its share of milk production increased from 14 per cent to 22 per cent
in the same period8. Overall, the data shows that the top 15 countries, also major players in
dairy exports, are all developed nations. Milk production, on the other hand, is mainly
dominated by five countries namely India, US, Pakistan, China, and Brazil. Except for the US
(Food and Agriculture Organization) all the rest are developing nations. An interesting
finding of the study is that dairy exports for half the top 15 trading countries (Germany, the
Netherlands, France, Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, the UK and Australia) declined while for
the remaining countries (New Zealand, the US, Poland, Belarus, Saudi Arabia, Italy, and
Austria) it increased between 2001 and 2016 (see Table 1). A country like Belarus, despite
some demand-related limitations from its neighbour (the Russian Federation), has witnessed
augmented output stimulated by government efforts aimed at identifying new export markets
in Europe and beyond (FAO, 2017).
Table 2 shows the country-wise import of dairy products covering the period between 2001
and 2016. It shows that Germany was the leading importer of dairy products, dominating 9
per cent of the world’s total dairy in 2016. Next in line is Italy (5.4 per cent) followed by
China (5.25 per cent), the Netherlands (5.21 per cent), France (5.05 per cent), and the UK (5
per cent). With the exception of China (which is a developing nation) 61 per cent dairy
products were imported by the top 15 developed countries in that period. The data shows that
the import share of dairy products of most top 15 countries declined over the period 2001-
2016, barring a few nations including China, Russian Federation, Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia,
and the UAE where it increased. Interestingly, China’s demand for milk increased manifold
over the same period. While China’s dairy industry continues to grow rapidly, its
consumption has outpaced domestic supply. It is for this reason that exporters from New
Zealand, Europe, Australia, and the United States are locating new opportunities in China’s
dairy market (Gooch, et al. 2017).
Table 2: Country-wise dairy import from the world
2001 2008 2016
Countries
Value in
000 USD
Share
(%)
Value 000
USD
Share
(%)
Value 000
USD
Share
(%) Rank
Germany 2844278 10.34 6780742 10.62 5990836 9.34 1
Italy 2397728 8.72 4777436 7.48 3487660 5.44 2
China 215942 0.79 861671 1.35 3371298 5.25 3
The Netherlands 1645361 5.98 3189480 4.99 3345020 5.21 4
France 1844363 6.71 3318301 5.20 3241572 5.05 5
United Kingdom 1666528 6.06 3833549 6.00 3179704 4.96 6
Belgium 1862070 6.77 3431689 5.37 3134099 4.89 7
United States 1021305 3.71 1679549 2.63 1966013 3.06 8
Russian Federation 391343 1.42 1485723 2.33 1906597 2.97 9
Hong Kong 356389 1.30 502564 0.79 1807866 2.82 10
Saudi Arabia 539947 1.96 1636858 2.56 1784742 2.78 11
8 Ibdi.
6
2001 2008 2016
Countries
Value in
000 USD
Share
(%)
Value 000
USD
Share
(%)
Value 000
USD
Share
(%) Rank
Spain 1029530 3.74 2627416 4.11 1623210 2.53 12
Mexico 787863 2.87 1469842 2.30 1471133 2.29 13
United Arab Emirates 271844 0.99 814572 1.28 1296716 2.02 14
Japan 740668 2.69 1339277 2.10 1204863 1.88 15
India 4861 0.018 15176 0.024 40436 0.063 93
Top 15 17615160 64.06 37748669 59.11 38811329 60.50 -
Rest of the world 9881845 35.94 26109437 40.89 25343325 39.50 -
Total (205) 27497005 100 63858106 100 64154653 100 -
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS).
As far as India’s trade is concerned, it imported 0.018 per cent of its total world dairy imports
in 2001; this marginally increased to 0.06 per cent in 2016. In a nutshell, the data shows that
India still remains a minor player in terms of imports, holding the 93rd position, along with
exports where it is ranked 48th in the world for trade in dairy products.
3.1 Trade Performance of Indian Dairy Sector
This section analyses the trade performance of the Indian dairy sector over the period 1988-
2017. During the early ’80s, domestic milk production was inadequate even in the context of
domestic consumption. From the mid ’80s to 2000 India was heavily dependent on dairy
imports owing to this inadequacy coupled with a growing domestic demand. In order to meet
domestic demands, India imported SMP and value-added milk products.
Figure 1: Trade performance of the Indian dairy sector over the period 1988-2017
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS).
0.393
0.162
0.009
0.0540.077
0.0240.0340.051
0.0040.0190.024
0.084
0.0270.010
0.0230.037
0.0130.0050.0120.0060.0050.024
0.0530.038
0.0210.0070.0100.0120.0110.0090.000
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
0.300
0.350
0.400
0.450
198
8
198
9
199
0
199
1
199
2
199
3
199
4
199
5
199
6
199
7
199
8
199
9
200
0
200
1
200
2
200
3
200
4
200
5
200
6
200
7
200
8
200
9
201
0
201
1
201
2
201
3
201
4
201
5
201
6
201
7
Export Share ( as % of total export) Import Share (as % of total import)
7
After 2000, India became the net exporter of dairy products mainly because of higher
domestic milk production; yet dairy product exports picked up only after 2003. From 2015
onwards, both export and import of dairy products showed a declining trend. India’s export
share of dairy products marginally improved from 0.013 per cent to 0.055 per cent between
1988 and 2017. Imports declined significantly from 0.393 per cent to 0.009 per cent in the
same period (see figure 1). It may be noted that the overall exports of dairy products dropped
between 2009-10 and 2011-12, evincing a negative trade balance in 2011. This was when the
Government had to restrict exports due to high domestic food price inflation. When
restrictions were lifted, exports recovered to higher levels in 2013 to fall again when world
demand and prices dropped in 2015 (USDA 2017). India’s dairy export volatility could be
attributable to fluctuating milk production and milk quality, increasing domestic milk
consumption, and price instability in in the international market.
3.2 International Markets for India's Dairy Products
Table 3 shows the major export destinations for India’s dairy products. India’s dairy exports
increased from US$ 97.03 million in 2006 to US$ 209.87 million in 2017; exports in the
major 15 countries showed the same trend with the exception of Bangladesh and Pakistan.
South Asia, the Middle East, South East Asia, and the US are the major markets for India’s
dairy products. India’s export share of dairy products to the top 15 countries comprised 63
per cent in 2006 and reached 91 per cent in 2017. Out of this 91 per cent, India’s export to the
Middle East (46 per cent) ranked highest followed by South Asia (30 per cent), South East
Asia (11 per cent), and the US (5 per cent) in 2017. Rising demands for Indian dairy products
in the Middle East, South Asia, and South East Asia may be attributable to lower
transportation costs, taste, and cultural proximity.
Table 3: Country-wise distribution of India’s export of the dairy products
Exports (Values in Million US$)
Country 2006 Share
(%) 2010
Share
(%) 2014
Share
(%) 2017
Share
(%)
U A E 14.55 15.0 23.71 18.8 35.66 17.2 38.45 18.3
Egypt 12.43 12.8 14.68 11.6 0.21 0.1 26.85 12.8
Bhutan 0.33 0.3 0.92 0.7 7.31 3.5 19.7 9.4
Afghanistan 2.03 2.1 1.85 1.5 2.61 1.3 14.58 6.9
Nepal 4.94 5.1 9.59 7.6 13.66 6.6 12.5 6.0
Philippines 2.62 2.7 6.38 5.1 12.99 6.3 12.24 5.8
Singapore 2.34 2.4 3.45 2.7 6.49 3.1 10.43 5.0
Bangladesh 10.8 11.1 14.51 11.5 37.35 18.0 10.2 4.9
U S A 2.26 2.3 2.95 2.3 3.51 1.7 9.78 4.7
Qatar 0.18 0.2 2.01 1.6 3.77 1.8 8.16 3.9
Oman 1.51 1.6 3.27 2.6 6.29 3.0 8.02 3.8
Saudi Arab 2.61 2.7 3.5 2.8 4.58 2.2 5.62 2.7
Kuwait 0.87 0.9 2.61 2.1 4.63 2.2 5.58 2.7
Pakistan 3.58 3.7 4.72 3.7 28.66 13.8 5.32 2.5
8
Bahrain 0.48 0.5 2.92 2.3 2.88 1.4 4.6 2.2
Rest of the World 35.5 36.6 29.15 23.1 36.85 17.8 17.84 8.5
Total 97.03 100 126.22 100 207.45 100 209.87 100
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: Export Import Data Bank Version 7.1, Ministry Of Commerce &
Industry, Government of India.
India’s dairy exports to its neighbours, Bangladesh and Pakistan, had declined between 2006
and 2017. This could be attributed to the prevailing geopolitical factors coupled with
improvements in domestic production. Notably, Indian dairy products have been unable to
penetrate European and South American markets. Table 4 shows the country-wise
distribution of India’s imports of dairy products over the period 2006-2017. India’s dairy
imports increased from US$ 23.5 million in 2006 to US$ 43.8 million in 2017. In 2017, India
imported more than one-fourth dairy products from France followed by Denmark (7.8 per
cent), Italy (6.7 per cent), Germany (6.5 per cent), New Zealand (4.8 per cent), and so on. It
may be observed that almost 65 per cent dairy products imported by India were from 12
major countries. Out of 65 per cent, 55 per cent dairy imports were from the European Union
and the rest from New Zealand, Australia, the UAE, the US, and Nepal. Overall, the data
shows that a majority of India’s dairy imports were mainly from developed nations. There
were a few exceptions like Nepal with a share of around 3 per cent in terms of total dairy
imports by India in 2017.
Table 4: Country-wise distribution of India’s imports of the dairy products
Imports (Values in Million US$)
Country 2006 Share
(%) 2010
Share
(%) 2014
Share
(%) 2017
Share
(%)
France 2.7 11.6 4.3 2.4 11.9 25.8 11.3 25.7
Denmark 1.9 8.0 3.4 1.9 2.7 5.8 3.4 7.8
Italy 0.5 2.0 1.5 0.8 2.6 5.6 2.9 6.7
Germany 0.3 1.3 0.3 0.2 2.2 4.8 2.9 6.5
New Zealand 12.5 53.0 113.2 62.8 6.3 13.6 2.1 4.8
U K 0.4 1.8 2.8 1.5 2.6 5.5 1.9 4.3
Netherland 0.8 3.5 2.3 1.3 4.2 9.0 1.7 3.9
Nepal 2.1 9.0 2.0 1.1 1.6 3.4 1.4 3.1
Australia 0.2 0.9 45.0 25.0 0.1 0.2 0.7 1.5
Switzerland 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.4
U A E 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.2
U S A 0.7 2.8 2.4 1.4 4.1 8.9 0.0 0.1
Rest of World 1.3 5.5 2.5 1.4 7.9 17.1 15.4 35.1
Total 23.5 100 180.2 100 46.3 100 43.8 100
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: Export Import Data Bank Version 7.1, Ministry Of Commerce &
Industry, Government of India.
Table 5 shows a product-wise (HS 4 digit) distribution of India’s dairy exports over the
period 2006-2017. India’s export share of milk and cream, not concentrated products,
9
increased from 2.4 per cent in 2006 to 4 per cent in 2017 with a CAGR of 14 per cent.
Similarly, the export share of butter and other fats and oils, along with cheese and curd
products, increased from 11 per cent to 52 per cent and 2 per cent to 17 per cent, respectively,
in the same period with a CAGR of 24 per cent and 28 per cent, respectively. The export
share of milk and cream, concentrated (dairy products containing added sugar or other
sweeteners) (HS 0402), buttermilk, curdled milk and cream (e.g. fermented or acidified milk
and cream which may contain added sugar or other sweeteners, flavouring agents, fruits, nuts,
or cocoa) (HS 0403), and whey and other natural milk constituents (HS 0404) products
showed a declining trend. Their CAGR evinced a negative growth with the exception of
whey and other natural milk constituent products in the same period.
Table 5: Product-wise export share of the dairy products in India
HS
Codes Dairy Products 2006 2010 2014 2017 CAGR (%)
0401 Milk and cream, not concentrated 2.44 1.87 5.12 4.11 13.60
0402 Milk and cream, concentrated 78.81 43.83 59.84 25.24 -1.07
0403 Buttermilk, curdled milk and cream 1.10 0.74 0.20 0.84 6.33
0404 Whey and other natural milk constituents 4.43 1.94 0.06 0.28 -13.65
0405 Butter and other fats and oils 10.78 44.87 24.82 52.28 24.07
0406 Cheese and curd 2.44 6.74 9.97 17.25 28.02
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: Export Import Data Bank Version 7.1, Ministry Of Commerce &
Industry, Government of India.
From the above table it is easily discernible that more than 50 per cent Indian exports hailed
from the butter and other fats and oils (e.g. butter, butter oil/ghee, dry spreads) (HS 0405)
category in 2017. This was followed by milk and cream, concentrated (HS 0402) (25 per
cent), cheese and curd (HS 0406) (17 per cent), and whey and other natural milk constituents
(HS 0404) (0.28 per cent); the latter’s export share was the lowest among all the dairy
products. In sum, the study concludes that there is a greater scope for enhancing the export of
some products including milk and cream, not concentrated, butter and other fats and oils and,
cheese and curd.
Table 6: Product-wise import share of the dairy sector in India
HS
Codes Dairy Products 2006 2010 2014 2017
CAGR
(%)
0401 Milk and cream, not concentrated 0.19 0.08 1.18 2.30 33.48
0402 Milk and cream, concentrated 7.71 52.40 14.99 10.02 10.88
0403 Buttermilk, curdled milk and cream 0.92 0.30 0.22 3.59 21.55
0404 Whey and other natural milk constituents 18.41 7.00 56.83 52.56 18.40
0405 Butter and other fats and oils 60.33 36.11 9.54 10.97 -5.88
0406 Cheese and curd 12.45 4.11 17.24 20.56 13.12
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: Export Import Data Bank Version 7.1, Ministry Of Commerce &
Industry, Government of India.
10
Table 6 shows the product-wise import distribution of four-digit HS dairy products over the
period 2006-2017 and its CAGR. In 2017, India imported more than 50 per cent whey
products followed by cheese and curd (HS 0406) (21 per cent), butter and other fats (HS
0405) (11 per cent), milk and cream, concentrated (HS 0402) (10 per cent), buttermilk,
curdled milk and cream (HS 0403) (4 per cent) and milk and cream, and not concentrated
(HS 0401 –dairy products without added sugar or other sweeteners) (2.3 per cent). The latter
registered the lowest import share out of the product groups. Overall, the data indicates that
the import share of all products increased over the period 2006-2017, except for butter and
other fats and oils.
The data shows the UAE to be one of the major markets for Indian dairy products. India’s
dairy exports to the UAE increased from US$ 14 million to US$ 32 million between 2006
and 2017; this comprises 15 per cent and 18 per cent share of the overall dairy trade with the
UAE for those periods (see Table 7). In the context of product details: India exported US$ 23
million butter and other fats to the UAE accounting for 72 per cent of dairy exports to the
latter in 2017. Out of the US$ 23 million, around US$ 19 million worth melted butter was
exported to the UAE, accounting for 59 per cent butter and other fats and oils.
Table 7: India’s export of dairy products to UAE
(Value in Million US$)
HS
Codes Dairy Products
2006 2010 2014 2017
Value Share (%) Value Share (%) Value Share (%) Value Share (%)
0401 Milk and cream, not
concentrated
0.37 2.6 0.36 1.7 0.66 2.2 0.51 1.6
0402 Milk and cream, concentrated 8.01 56.4 4.98 23.9 5.25 17.1 1.38 4.3
0403 Buttermilk, curdled milk and
cream
0.13 0.9 0.08 0.4 0.13 0.4 0.17 0.5
0404 Whey and other natural milk
constituents
0.02 0.1 0.16 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3
0405 Butter and other fats and oils 4.97 35 11.99 57.6 18.94 61.8 23.22 72.2
04051000 Butter 0.44 3.1 2.18 10.5 3.11 10.1 4.19 13
04059010 Butter Oil 0.0 0.0 1.27 6.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
04059020 Melted Butter 4.53 31.9 8.32 40 15.48 50.5 18.89 58.7
04059090 Other fats and oils derived
from milk
0.0 0.0 0.22 1.1 0.36 1.2 0.14 0.4
0406 Cheese and curd 0.71 5.0 3.25 15.6 5.67 18.5 6.79 21.1
Total 14.21 100 20.82 100 30.65 100 32.17 100
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: Export Import Data Bank Version 7.1, Ministry Of Commerce &
Industry, Government of India.
It is interesting to note that the import share – along with the value of milk and cream,
concentrated (HS 0402) (dairy products containing added sugar or other sweeteners) –
relevant to the UAE drastically decreased over the study period, dropping to a mere 4.3 per
cent in 2017 from the earlier 56 per cent in 2006. At the same time, the import share as well
11
as the value of both butter and other fats and oils (e.g. butter, butter oil/ghee, dry spreads)
(HS 0405), and cheese and curd (HS 0406) from India consistently increased over the same
period, accounting for more than 90 per cent of Indian dairy product imports into the UAE in
2017. This implies that India has demonstrated its strength in the production of these products
and that it has a sustainable market avenue for these products with regard to exporting them
to the UAE. The export share of milk and cream, not concentrated (the dairy products that do
not contain added sugar or other sweeteners) (HS 0401), buttermilk, curdled milk and cream
(e.g. fermented or acidified milk and cream which may contain added sugar or other
sweeteners, flavouring agents, fruits, nuts, or cocoa) (HS 0403), and whey and other natural
milk constituents (HS 0404) has more or less remained unchanged with some fluctuations
over the same period (see Table 7).
Table 8 shows India’s import of dairy products from France over the period 2006-2017.
Import of dairy products from France increased from US$ 2.37 million in 2006 to US$ 11.3
million in 2017. In other words, the imports more than doubled from 12 per cent in 2006 to
26 per cent in 2017 (see Table 4). It is evident that the share of whey and other natural milk
constituents (HS 0404) in total imports from France consistently increased from US$ 2.33
million (85 per cent) in 2006 to US$ 10 million (87 per cent) in 2017; 2010 was an exception
when it showed some decline. On the other hand, the share of cheese and curd (HS 0406)
declined during the same period, except in the year 2010. This means that in 2010 the import
share of whey protein was compensated by the cheese and curd group of dairy products.
Cheese is a flagship dairy product, especially in developed countries, including France. In
2015, the developed countries contributed to about 80 per cent of the world’s cheese
production, 75 per cent exports, and 48 per cent imports (Chatellier, 2017). During the
process of cheese making another important byproduct, whey, is generated. France, which is
one of the leading countries in the context of cheese manufacturing, also produces large
amounts of whey. A popular dairy product, cheese finds its way into domestic markets and in
other parts of the developed world unlike whey which, while improving its market presence
steadily, has limited market avenues. Given its nutrition rich characteristics, a large portion of
India’s population has been extensively opting for whey protein, mainly for body building
purposes and dietary supplements. A surging demand may be responsible for stimulating a
rise in whey imports from France. Apart from whey (HS 0404) and cheese (HS 0406), France
exported milk and cream, not concentrated (US$ 0.39 million), buttermilk, curdled milk and
cream (US$ 0.23 million) and milk and cream, and concentrated ( US$ 0.03 million) which
had the lowest value of all the dairy products imported from France in 2017.
12
Table 8: India’s import of dairy products from France
(Value in Million US$)
HS
Codes Dairy Products
2006 2010 2014 2017
Value Share (%) Value Share (%) Value Share (%) Value Share (%)
0401 Milk and cream, not
concentrated 0.03 1.10 0.12 2.82 0.39 3.27 0.39 3.47
0402 Milk and cream, concentrated 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.71 0.03 0.25 0.03 0.27
0403 Buttermilk, curdled milk and
cream 0.03 1.10 0.18 4.24 0.04 0.34 0.23 2.04
0404 Whey and other natural milk
constituents 2.33 85.35 2.61 61.41 9.83 82.40 9.79 87.02
0405 Butter and other fats and oils 0.03 1.10 0.18 4.24 0.44 3.69 0.06 0.53
0406 Cheese and curd 0.31 11.36 1.13 26.59 1.20 10.06 0.75 6.67
Total 2.73 100 4.25 100 11.93 100 11.25 100
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: Export Import Data Bank Version 7.1, Ministry Of Commerce & Industry,
Government of India.
4. COMPETITIVENESS OF INDIA’S DAIRY SECTOR
In this section, the study analyses the data sources and techniques used while measuring
competitiveness of the Indian dairy industry. The country-wise export and import data has
been culled from the World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS) and the product-wise export-
import data from the Export Import Data Bank, Ministry of Commerce & Industry,
Government of India. The world per capita income and exchange rate has been taken from
the World Development Indicators (WDI). We discuss Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC)
and Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) techniques for evaluating competitiveness.
4.1 Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC)
While the competitiveness of any product/commodity can be measured in various ways, NPC
happens to be one of the popular measures (Gulati et al., 1990; Rakotoarisa and Gulati 2006;
Ohlan and Vedpal 2006; Ohlan 2010). It is defined as follows:
𝑁𝑃𝐶𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖
𝑑
𝑃𝑖𝑤
Where, 𝑁𝑃𝐶𝑖 is the nominal protection coefficient of the ith commodity, 𝑃𝑖𝑑 is the domestic
price of ith commodity, adjusted transportation cost in domestic market, and 𝑃𝑖𝑤 is the
international reference price of the ith commodity, adjusted transportation cost in the world
market. The studies mentioned above adjusted both domestic transport cost and the
international reference price. Hence, NPC shows the ratio of domestic price to the world
reference price while explaining the level of competitiveness of a particular commodity in the
world market. The present study estimates NPC under the exportable hypothesis and
compares the unit prices of exportable goods in India with the world unit price of those goods
13
but is unable to adjust transportation cost in domestic and transportation cost in the world
markets (Rajarajan et al., 2007 and Kumar, 20109). Thus, the NPC formula is as follows.
𝑁𝑃𝐶𝑖 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑖
𝑋
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑋
Where 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑖𝑋 is the export price of ith commodity in India and 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑙𝑑𝑖
𝑋 is the export price of
the ith commodity in world.
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑖𝑋 =
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑖
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑖 , 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑙𝑑𝑖
𝑋 = 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑖
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑖
If 𝑁𝑃𝐶𝑖 < 1, implies that the export price of ith commodity in India is less than the export
price of ith commodity in the world, it implies that a particular product is competitive in the
world market. This means the commodity is unprotected and is obtainable in a free trade
scenario. If 𝑁𝑃𝐶𝑖 > 1, it implies that the export price of ith commodity in India is greater than
export price of the same commodity in the world. This ultimately means that the particular
commodity is less competitive in the world market (commodity is a protected item). We have
estimated NPC under the exportable hypothesis of various dairy products (HS 4 digit) as well
as overall dairy products to assess the degree of competitiveness of the Indian dairy industry
over the period 2001-2017; estimates of NPC are shown in Table 9. The value of NCP lies
between 2 to 1.1 for all dairy products over the study period, which confirms that Indian dairy
products clearly lack the requisite export competitiveness with the NPC value above unity.
The probable reasons for non-competitiveness of the Indian dairy industry, inter alia, may
firstly lie in the higher raw milk price due to the rising cost of input prices. Secondly, the cost
of milk processing and other transaction costs make Indian dairy products more expensive;
the export price of dairy products is higher compared to world prices. Thirdly, other countries
providing export (including input) subsidies make Indian dairy products look expensive in the
international markets. Fourthly, some of the non-tariff barriers to trade (NBT) like quality
issues, technical barriers, and so on in the context of exportable dairy products of India may
affect and hinder exports from the country.
Apart from the overall competitiveness of the dairy industry, we also estimated the individual
competitiveness of six major products using the NPC measure. The results are displayed on
Table 9. The values of NPC for milk and cream and not concentrated (HS 0401) products are
lower than the unity for most of the years from 2005 to 2015 with an exception in 2013,
implying that this product group was competitive in the world market during that period.
Nevertheless, its value remained more than unity for most of the years during the study
period 2001-2017 with few exceptions. This indicates that India is not competitive in the
same dairy product group.
9 We have taken value and quantity data from the World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS). Trade value of
goods are given US$ and are Free on Board (or Freight on Board) prices.
14
Table 9: Nominal Protection Coefficient
Year
HS Codes and Corresponding Dairy Products Category
All
Dairy
Products
0401
Milk and
cream, not
concentrated
0402
Milk and
cream,
concentrated
0403
Buttermilk,
curdled
milk and
cream
0404
Whey and
other
natural
milk
constituents
0405
Butter and
other fats
and oils
0406
Cheese
and curd
2001 3.118 0.809 1.407 2.479 1.357 0.926 1.248
2002 5.668 0.797 2.715 1.641 1.235 0.677 1.077
2003 1.999 0.910 1.800 1.703 1.132 0.448 1.170
2004 2.243 1.012 2.096 1.586 1.039 0.590 1.215
2005 0.874 0.865 1.520 1.838 0.859 0.564 1.077
2006 0.930 1.035 1.090 1.650 0.905 0.641 1.132
2007 0.778 1.144 2.072 1.739 0.964 0.735 1.302
2008 0.853 1.066 4.760 1.935 0.846 0.779 1.343
2009 0.974 1.065 1.054 1.221 1.163 0.628 1.223
2010 1.097 0.969 1.275 0.935 0.929 0.983 1.222
2011 0.743 0.853 1.702 2.026 0.953 0.701 1.153
2012 0.942 0.964 1.510 2.361 1.227 0.816 1.252
2013 1.457 1.023 4.351 1.590 1.066 1.621 1.802
2014 0.736 0.965 1.342 2.077 1.146 0.772 1.252
2015 1.304 1.127 1.020 2.756 1.546 0.970 1.711
2016 1.221 1.166 2.107 2.631 1.647 1.017 1.811
2017 1.447 1.281 1.850 2.805 1.149 1.075 2.048
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS).
Similarly, for milk and cream and concentrated products (HS 0402), the NPC is less than
unity for a few years and greater than unity for the rest. This shows that milk and cream
concentrated products were competitive only for a few years. As far as the NPC of butter and
other fats and oils (HS 0403) is concerned, this product group was somewhat competitive
between 2005 and 2011, with the exception of 2009. During the rest of the period it was not
competitive. The NPC values of buttermilk, curdled milk, and cream (HS 0403) and whey
and other natural milk (HS 0404) products were above unity throughout the study period and
remained uncompetitive thereby. The results show that India is more competitive with regard
to exporting cheese and curd. Its comparative advantage is owed to the lower export price of
cheese and curd compared to the world export price. In sum, the results show that India
enjoys competitive advantage, to an extent, in terms of exporting cheese and curd.
4.2 Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA)
We have calculated the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) proposed by Balassa
(1965) for measuring the degree of trade specialisation of a particular commodity. In the
event of the RCA’s being greater than unity for a country, then that country has a
comparative advantage in terms of exporting certain products. In other words, there is scope
for trade with the rest of the world in the context of a particular commodity. Balassa (1965)
RCA measure is as follows:
15
𝑅𝐶𝐴𝑖𝑗 =
𝑋𝑖𝑗
𝑋𝑖𝑡𝑋𝑤𝑗
𝑋𝑤𝑡
⁄
Where, 𝑋𝑖𝑗
𝑋𝑖𝑡= India’s export share of product j over India’s total export in value term
𝑋𝑤𝑗
𝑋𝑤𝑡 = World’s export share of product j over World’s total export in value term
Where 𝑅𝐶𝐴𝑖𝑗 is the revealed comparative advantage index for India ‘i’ exporting product ‘j’,
𝑋𝑖𝑗 is the value of India’s export of products j, 𝑋𝑖𝑡 is the value of India’s total export, 𝑋𝑤𝑗 is
the value of world export of products j and 𝑋𝑤𝑡 is the value of world’s total export. The value
of the RCA’s being greater than unity confirms that India has a comparative advantage
regarding exporting commodity (j). In other words, India’s export share of product j exceeds
the world’s export share of product j. The RCA estimates are shown in Table 10.
The coefficient of RCA (Table 10) of all dairy products is less than unity, which implies that
India does not have any comparative advantage in the context of exporting dairy products.
This finding is consistent with those of Rajarajan et al. (2007). The estimation of product-
wise RAC indices for all four digit HS product groups was found to be less than unity,
suggesting that India does not enjoy a comparative advantage for exporting any or a
particular dairy product from its dairy product portfolio. The situation could be attributed to
various reasons. Firstly, India had been a net importer of dairy products till Operation Flood
began showing results. The country became the net exporter of dairy products, thanks to the
consistent rise of milk production. At the same time, there has been a trend of increasing
income levels in urban centres, where the demand for processed dairy products has gone up
leaving few surpluses for exports.
Table 10: Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA)
Year
401
Milk and
cream, not
concentrated
402
Milk and
cream,
concentrated
403
Buttermilk,
curdled
milk and
cream
404
Whey and
other natural
milk constit
405
Butter
and other
fats and
oils
406
Cheese
and curd All Dairy
Products
2001 0.001 0.531 0.005 0.109 0.210 0.004 0.182
2002 0.003 0.295 0.005 0.044 0.176 0.004 0.099
2003 0.005 0.232 0.026 0.039 0.141 0.007 0.080
2004 0.012 0.375 0.007 0.067 0.168 0.003 0.118
2005 0.018 1.013 0.008 0.135 0.275 0.010 0.292
2006 0.033 0.615 0.022 0.055 0.222 0.009 0.185
2007 0.042 0.482 0.192 0.198 0.271 0.015 0.190
2008 0.049 0.748 0.046 0.108 0.725 0.033 0.290
2009 0.036 0.245 0.003 0.022 0.340 0.018 0.100
2010 0.018 0.197 0.007 0.035 0.319 0.018 0.096
2011 0.032 0.028 0.010 0.006 0.309 0.015 0.051
2012 0.043 0.258 0.006 0.011 0.271 0.024 0.112
16
2013 0.025 1.091 0.033 0.005 0.262 0.023 0.346
2014 0.056 0.458 0.005 0.001 0.270 0.030 0.181
2015 0.028 0.165 0.005 0.000 0.344 0.035 0.094
2016 0.022 0.173 0.012 0.002 0.308 0.044 0.097
2017 0.037 0.128 0.017 0.005 0.430 0.048 0.108
Note: Authors own calculation. Sources: World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS).
Secondly, credit for the vast increment in milk production goes to millions and millions of
small holder dairy farmers who produce small amounts of milk individually, unlike large-
sized commercial farms in the developed world that produce milk in bulk. The large number
of smaller herds renders quality audits difficult. Hence, India’s dairy products are unable to
capture the international market because of quality concerns from the importing countries.
Additionally, antibiotics are used indiscriminately without the monitoring and maintenance of
withdrawal periods. In order to assure consumer safety and maintain export-driven high
quality dairy products, raw milk needs to be regularly analysed to detect the presence of
antibiotic residues (Priyanka et al., 2017). Finally, India has a limited dairy product profile
for exporting its dairy products with limited access to regions including South Asia and
Middle East.
4.3 Assessing the Impact of the Exchange Rate and World Income on Dairy Exports
In this section, we employed the autoregressive distributed lag model (ARDL) to examine the
determinants of dairy exports using annual data over the period 1988-2017. In order to
examine the objective, we estimated the following equation.
𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑡 = 𝛼 + 𝛽1𝑙𝑛𝑤𝑝𝑐𝑡 + 𝛽2𝐸𝑅𝑡 + 𝛽3𝐸𝑈𝑃𝑡 + 𝛽4𝐷2001 + 𝜀𝑡 (1)
Where, lnexportt is the natural logarithm of India’s dairy export to total India’s export, ERt
is the exchange rate, Rupee per US$, EUPt is the export unit price of India’s dairy products
over world export unit price of dairy products, and D2001 is the dummy variable for removal
of trade restrictions relevant to the Indian dairy trade. We estimated the equation (1) using the
ARDL model and estimates are shown in Table 11.
Table 11 :Long Run Coefficient of ARDL (1,1,1,1,1)
Variable Coefficients Std. Error
ln (World Per Capita Income) 30.018*** 7.265
Exchange Rate (Rs/US$) 0.285*** 0.080
Export Unit Price/World export price -8.388*** 2.163
Dummy 2001 (Removal of dairy trade
restriction for India) 0.454 0.634
Note: Dependent variable: ln (Dairy export/total export). In this regression, we include time and a constant term.
F-statistic = 4.612 shows that there exists a long-term relationship between the variables. ***, ** and * denotes
the 1%, 5% and 10% level of significant.
The coefficient of world per capita income is positive and significant; this implies a higher
demand for Indian dairy products due to increased world per capita income. The coefficient
of the exchange rate is positive and significant, which is a theoretically correct sign. The
17
results confirm that lower export prices of Indian dairy products for foreign buyers means an
increased export demand for Indian dairy products. Therefore, we conclude that exchange
rate plays a significant role in enhancing dairy exports from India. Results also show that the
coefficient of the 2001 dummy is positive and insignificant implying that trade liberalisation
has increased dairy exports but not enhanced dairy trade significantly. In addition, the results
show that the coefficient of unit export price to world unit export price of dairy is negative
and significant, implying that the higher export price of Indian dairy products adversely
affects dairy exports.
5. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
In this study, we examined the trade performance and competitiveness of the Indian dairy
products. Based on our analysis, we concluded the following: The results confirm that India
is a minor player in the international market for dairy products. This is because the share of
India’s exports, in terms of percentage of the total world dairy trade, has increased only
marginally from 0.1 per cent in 2001 to 0.2 per cent in 2016. The import share, too, has
increased slightly –from a paltry 0.018 per cent to 0.063 per cent - concomitantly (see tables
1 and 2). The results also indicate that while India became a net exporter of dairy products
from 2000 onwards, exports remained volatile and even dipped below imports in the year
2010-11, probably due to milk production fluctuating. This suggests that its reliability as a
supplier of milk products to the world is a cause for concern. Export destinations like South
Asia, the Middle East, and South East Asia are the major markets for India’s dairy products.
India has been importing largely from the developed nations, Nepal being one exception.
Apart from overall dairy trade performance, we also evaluated the products-wise trade
performance of dairy products. Our data shows that from its total Indian dairy exports, India
sent out around half of the country’s butter and other fats and oils followed by milk and
cream, concentrated (25 percent), cheese and curd (17 percent), and whey and other natural
milk constituents (0.18 percent). The latter constituted the smallest portion of all the dairy
exports (see Table 5). India primarily imported whey and other natural milk, followed by
cheese and curd (21 percent), butter and other fats, and oils (11 percent), and milk and cream,
not concentrated (2.3 percent) in 2017. The data also confirmed the UAE as a favourable
market for Indian dairy products; India exported around 18 per cent of its dairy products to
the UAE in the same year. On the other hand, France emerged as one of the most favourable
sources for dairy imports with India having purchased more than one-fourths of its dairy
products from that country. An interesting finding of the study was that India exported
around 72 per cent of butter and other fat, and oils to the UAE while it imported around 87
per cent whey and other natural milk constituents from France in 2017. This means that much
of its dairy-related international trade occurs with one country, the UAE as far as exports are
concerned while it depends on France for imports with regard to some products. Reliance on
a limited number of countries for international trade invites certain risks given the changing
contours of the foreign market. The risks may be minimised by keeping a close eye on
changing business conditions in the global context, generally speaking, with particular focus
on relevant countries. We have also evaluated the competitiveness of the Indian dairy
industry as a whole along with product-wise competitiveness aided by the NPC and RCA for
18
the period 2001-2016. The NPC coefficient reveals that the Indian dairy industry is, generally
speaking, not competitive enough in terms of exporting dairy products to the world. One
reason could be attributed to export prices of dairy products having exceeded world export
price. Nevertheless, India is relatively competitive in terms of exporting cheese and curd. The
export prices of both are lower compared to those of the world export price. Similarly, the
RCA coefficient reveals that India does not enjoy comparative advantage in terms of
exporting dairy products. We have also analysed the major determinants of dairy exports for
India. The results based on ARDL estimates assert that the world per capita income is one of
the key determinants responsible for increasing dairy exports, while the exchange rate also
plays a significant role in enhancing dairy exports. The results also show that the higher unit
price of dairy products adversely affects dairy exports, while removing trade restrictions can
increase dairy exports to some extent. We conclude that scope exists for enhancing the
performance of the Indian dairy industry pertinent to international trade by focussing harder
on the production of cost-effective and quality dairy products, strengthening international co-
operation and policy dialogues to restrict export (including input) subsidies provided by the
developed countries and negotiating against the non-tariff and technical barriers to dairy
trades, and promoting clean milk production and improved traceability with the help of
technological interventions. These are some of the steps towards cutting through international
dairy trade rivalry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the Verghese Kurien Centre of Excellence (VKCoE) at Institute
of Rural Management (IRMA), Gujarat, India, for providing support to undertake this study.
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development. IRMA Working Paper Series carries ISSN 2454-7115.
IRMA Workshop Reports present analytical summaries of the proceedings
of various workshops, seminars, symposiums and colloquiums, which are
organised at the Institute to bring together practitioners and academicians with
a view to evolving better understanding of practical issues and questions in a
given sectoral or policy context.
Rural Management Cases: These cases are prepared by the faculty and the
visiting fellows of the Institute to provide decision situations and rich
description of the context in which such decisions arise in development
organisations. Cases are used as pedagogic material for IRMA’s academic
programmes as well as executive training/Management Development
Programmes (MDPs).
International Journal of Rural Management (IJRM) is a refereed biannual
publication at the initiative of IRMA, and published by Sage Publication that
began in 2005. For further information about IJRM, please visit:
http://irm.sagepub.com/
For further information on IRMA Publications,
https://www.irma.ac.in/article.php?menuid=5
