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WORD FORMATION IN CLASSICAL SANSKRIT
TREATMENT BY CONTEXT FREE RULES
Brendan S. Gillon
Department of LinguisticsMcGill UniversityMontreal, Quebec
H3A 1G5 CANADA
4th Indo-Wordnet WorkshopIndian Institute of Technology Bombay
Mumbai, India
2 January, 2011
1
OVERVIEW OF THE FACTS:
1. Compounds have the stress of simple words.(A 6.1.158)
2. Compounds undergo derivational and inflectional affixation just likesimple words.(A 2.4.71; A 6.3.1; MBh ad A 2.1.1; Cardona 1988 264-5)
3. There is no lower bound on the complexity of compounds.
4. The linear order of units within a phrasal constituent is free; the linearorder of units within a compound is not.(A 2.2.30; MBh ad A 2.1.1; Cardona 1988 261-4)
5. A compound comprises two constituents of which the second is thepredominant.(A 2.1.4; A 1.2.43; A 2.2.30; Cardona 261-3)
6. Words internal to a compound do not govern words external to it.(MBh ad A 2.1.1)
7. Each compound has a canonical phrasal paraphrase.
PRIMA FACIE CONCLUSION:
Lexical structures are hierarchical, binary, right-headed, of unbounded length,integrating compounding and derivational affixation without inflectional af-fixation occurring on subordinate constituents within the structure.These are precisely the kind of structures which one would expect the contextfree rules of the sort given by Selkirk (1982) for English would generate.
2
PANINIAN ANALYSIS
Pan. ini’s treatment consists in establishing an abstract form of which a com-pound and its canonical phrasal paraphrase are derived. According to histreatment, compounds are divided into four groups: avyayıbhava (adver-bial compounds), dvandva (conjunctive compounds), bahuvrıhi (exocen-tric compounds), and tatpurus.a (thematic compounds).
1. AVYAYIBHAVA (Adverbial Compounds)
Compound: uparibhumi (above ground) (MW: sv)Paraphrase: [PP upari
above[NP6 bhumeh.
ground] ]
2. DVANDVA (Conjunctive Compounds)
Compound: rama+kr.s.n. au (Rama and Krishna)Paraphrase: [ [NP1 ramah.
Ramaca
and] [NP1 kr.s.n. ah.
Krishnacaet
] ]
3. BAHUVRIHI (Exocentric Compounds)
Compound: samacittah. (whose mind is even)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)
(is)[AP1 samam
even] [NP1 cittam
mind] yasya
whose]
3
4. TATPURUS. A (Thematic Compounds)
Compound: asi-kalahah. (sword fight)Paraphrase: [NP1 [NP3 asina
with a sword] kalahah.
fight]
Compound: akhudam. sitah. (rat bitten)Paraphrase: [AP1 [NP3 akhuna
by a rat] dam. sitah.
bitten]
4a. KARMADHARAYA (Descriptive Compounds)
Compound: dırgha-kan. t.hah. (long neck)Paraphrase: [NP1 [AP1 dırghah.
long] kan. t.hah.
neck]
4
ANALYSIS OF TATPURUS. A COMPOUNDS BY CONTEXT FREERULES
(1.1) A → A A (vises.an. a-ubhaya-pada-karmadharaya):snatanulipta: bathed and oiled(A (A snata
bathed)+(A anulipta
oiled) )
(1.2) A → A A (vises.an. a-ubhaya-pada-karmadharaya):tulyasveta: equally white(A (A tulya
equal)≺(A sveta
white))
(2) N → A N (vises.an. a-purva-pada-karmadharaya):nılotpala: blue lotus(N (A nıla
blue)≺(N utpala
lotus) )
(3) V → A V (cvi-gati):laghukr.: lighten(V (A laghu
light)≺(V kr.
make) )
(4.1) A → N A (upamana-purva-pada-karmadharaya):analos.n. a: hot like fire(A (N anala
fire)≺(A us.n. a
hot) )
(4.2) A → N A (vibhakti-tatpurus.a):gohita: beneficial to cows(A (N go
cow)≺(A hita
beneficial) )
(5.1) N → N N (vibhakti-tatpurus.a):dadhyodana: rice with curds(N (N dadhi
curd)≺(N odana
rice) )
5
ANALYSIS OF TATPURUS.A COMPOUNDS BY CONTEXT FREE RULES(continued)
(5.2) N → N N (upapada-tatpurus.a):kumbhakara: pot maker(N (N kumbha
pot)≺(N -kara
maker) )
(5.3) N → N N (avadharana-purva-pada-karmadharaya):rajars.i: philosopher king(N (N raja
king)≺(N r.s.i
philosopher) )
(5.4) N → N N (upamana-uttara-pada-karmadharaya):purus.avyaghra: tiger-man(N (N purus.a
man)≺(N vyaghra
tiger) )
(6) V → N V (cvi-gati):sren. ibhu: allign(V (N sren. i
line)≺(V bhu
to be) )
(7) A → P A (pradi-tatpurus.a):atimadhura: over sweet(A (P ati
over)≺(A madhura
sweet) )
(8) N → P N (pradi-tatpurus.a):adhiraja: overlord(N (P adhi
over)≺(N raja
lord) )
(9) V → P V:adhisı: lie on(V (P adhi
on)≺(V sı
lie) )
6
COMPOUND FORMATION RULES IN ENGLISH ACCORDING TOSELKIRK
A → A A N → A N P∗→ A P V
∗→ A V
wide-spread French-history
A → N A N → N N P∗→ N P V
∗→ N Vhand-made pot-maker
A → P A N → P N P∗→ P P V → P V
over-abundant over-lord over-burden
A∗→ V A N → V N P
∗→ V P V∗→ V V
turn-table
7
REMARKS:
1. V → A V : dry clean; white wash
2. V → N V : hand carve
3. N → V N:
(a) someone or something which V the N:spoil sport, turn table, break water
(b) an N which V:rattle snake, glow worm, scrub woman
(c) an N for V-ing:swearword, rap session, think tank
8
ANALYSIS OF BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS AS ADJECTIVES
1. AGREEMENT:
noun adjective noun bahuvrıhi
masculine asih.sword
tiks.n. ah.sharp
pumanman
dırgha-kan. t.hah.long neck
a long-necked man
feminine churıknife
tiks.n. asharp
strıwoman
dırgha-kan. t.halong neck
a long-necked woman
neuter patramblade
tiks.n. amsharp
mitramfriend
dırgha-kan. t.hamlong neck
a long-necked friend
2. NOMINALIZATIONS
adjective bahuvrıhi
suffix: -tva kr.sa-tvathin-ness
dırgha-kan. t.ha-tvalong-necked-ness
suffixe: null kr.sa(the) thin
dırgha-kan. t.halong-nekced things or persons
9
THE NULL SUFFIX OF BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS AND THESUFFIX -ka
common nouns proper nounsepithets
sanskrit -ka -∅ *-ka -∅
English -ed *-∅ *-ed -∅big-foot-ed big-foot
dim-witted dim-wit
SANSKRIT:
The null suffix and the suffix -ka are in free distribution, except for propernouns and epithets, where the suffix -ka is forbidden. (A 5.4.155)
ENGLISH:
The null suffix and the suffix -ed are in free distribution only when they areattached to compounds which are themselves constituents of a compound.Example: long neck (-ed) bottle plant.
Otherwise, the null suffix attaches only to proper nouns and epithets.
10
SUB-CLASSES OF BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS
1.1 SAMANADHIKARAN. A (literal):
Compound: sama-cittah. (fair minded)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)
(is)[AP1 samam
even]
[NP1 cittammind
] yasyawhose
]
1.2 SAMANADHIKARAN. A (metaphorical):
Compound: candra-mukha (whose face is like the moon)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)
(is)[NP1 candrah.
moonivalike
]
[NP1 mukhah.face
] yasyawhose
]
other examples: stula-caran. aclub footed
, ayas-mus.t.iiron-fisted
11
SUB-CLASSES OF BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS (continued)
2.1 VYADHIKARAN. A (literal)(not productive, according to Whitney 1881 §1303):
Compound: sastra-pan. i (whose sword is in the hand)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)
(is)[NP7 pan. au
in the hand]
[NP1 sastrah.sword
] yasyawhose
]
other examples: asru-kan. t.hatears in the throat
2.2 VYADHIKARAN. A (metaphorical: very productive):
Compound: us.t.ra-mukha (camel-faced)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)
(is)[NP6 us.t.rasya
of a camelivalike
]
[NP1 mukhah.face
] yasyawhose
]
Remark:Even if the two principal words are in different cases, the canonical para-phrase still comprises a predication:
tasyahis
mukhamface
us.t.rasyaof a camel
(mukham)(face)
yasyawhose
whose face is like that of a camel
12
SUB-CLASSES OF BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS (continued)
3. LINKED TO THE SECOND CONSTITUENT
Compound: dur-atman (evil-minded)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)
(is)[AP1 dus.t.ah.
evil] [NP1 atma
mind] yasya
whosei]
whose mind is evil
4. PREPOSITION AS A FIRST CONSTITUENT
Compound: adhah. -mukha (dejected)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)
(is)[AP1 adhogatam
lowered] [NP1 mukham
face] yasya
whose]
whose face is turned down
5. NEGATIVES
Compound: a-bharya (wifeless)Paraphrase: [RC [V P na
not(asti)(is)
[NP1 bhayawife
] yasyawhose
]
whose wife does not exist
6. COMITATIVE
Compound: sa-smasru (bearded)Paraphrase: [RC [V P (asti)
(is)[NP1 smasruh.
beard] yasya
whose]
whose has a beard
13
DERIVED WORDS
1. A → AA (comparative and superlative adjectives):suci-tara: purer(A (A suci
pure(A -tara
-er) )
2. N → AN (abstract nouns):guru-tva: heavy-ness(N (A guru
heavy) (N -tva
-ness) )
3. N → AN (adjectival nouns):kr.sa: the thin(N (A kr.sa
thin) (N 0 ) )
4. V → AV: (denominal verb):lohitaya: redden(V (A lohita
red) (V -aya
-en) )
5. A → NA (adjectives with possessive suffixes):dhıman: possessing thought(A (N dhı
thought) (A -man
possessing) )
6. A → NA (adjectives of appurtenance):saiva: sıva(A (N sıva
sıva) (A -a ) )
7. N → NN (abstract nouns):vr.ks.atva:(N (N vr.ks.a
tree) (N -tva
-ness) )
14
8. V → NV (denominal verb):putraya: treat like a son(V (N putra
son) (V -ya
treat like) )
9. A → VA (participles):kr.ta: made(A (V kr.
make) (A -ta
-ed) )
10. N → VN (deverbal nouns):darsana: sight (seeing)(N (V dr.s
see) (N -ana
-ing) )
11. V → VV (causative):darsaya: show(V (V dr.s
see) (V -aya
make) )
15
RULES OF DERIVATION IN ENGLISH ACCORDING TO SELKIRK
A → A A N → A N P∗→ A P V → A V
A → N A N → N N P∗→ N P V → N V
A∗→ P A N
∗→ P N P∗→ P P V
∗→ P V
A → V A N → V N P∗→ V P V → V V
16
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SANSKRIT AND ENGLISH COMPOUNDS
Sanskrit English
1. Pronouns as constituents: Yes No
2. Constituents as terms in the Yes Noantecedence relation:
3. Government of a word external Yes Noto a compound by one internal
1. PRONOUNS AS CONSTITUENTS:
1.1 English:
Pronouns in English compounds are rare; and when they do occur, theirsense is not the usual one.
Exemples: he-goat, she-devil, etc.
17
1.2 SANSKRIT:
Pronouns are common in Sanskrit comnpounds. And when they occur, theyfunction as pronouns.
1.2.1 RELATIVE PRONOUNS (PVS 18.12):
[S [RC [NP1 [AP1 (yat1≺arthah. )-Bwhich1-aim
] dr.s.t.antah.example
] [V P ucyateis said
] ]
[NP1 [AP1 sah. 1this1
] arthah.aim
] [V P ∅is
[AP1 siddhah.established
] ] ]
The aim for hwich the example is said is established.
1.2.2 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS (M 4.5.7; SG 14.1.2):
[S [NP6 [AP6 tayoh.the two
] baddhayoh.prisoners
] [V P ∅is
[AP1 (kim≺nimittah. )-Bwhat reason
] ]
[NP1 [AP1 ayamthe
moks.ah.release
] ]
What reason is there for the release of the two prisoners?
1.2.3 PERSONAL PRONOUNS (PVS 10.3):
[S [AC [NP7 [NP6 ragasya1
of passion1
] (an-upayoge)non-use
] ]
[ADV kathamhow
[NP1 (tat1≺saktih. )it1-potentiality
] [V P upayujyateis used
] ]
If there is not causal role for passion in the production of speech, how doesits potentiality have a causal role?
18
personal pronouns (continued) (PVS 11.1):
[S [NP1 [NP3 [NP6 anvayasyaconcomitance
] niscayenadetermination
]
[NP6 (((viruddha1)+(tat1≺paks.yan. am))contrary1+it1-similar
] nirasah.rejection
] ]
There is a rejection of contraries and of those things similar to them by thedetermination of concomitance.
1.2.4 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS (PVS 22.7):
[AC [NP7 [NP6 karyasya1
effec1
] [PP [NP2 (sva1≺karan. am)self1-cause
]
antaren. awithout
] bhaveexistence
] ]
If an effect exists without its cause.
reflexive pronouns (continued) (PVS 19.25):
[S [NP1 tau1
the two1
] ] [V P [NP2 (sva1≺pratibaddham)self1-connected
] nivartayatah.exclude
] ]
The two exclude what is connected with them.
19
2. ANTECEDENCE RELATION:
In Sanskrit, as illustrated above, a constituant of a compound can serve asa term of the antecedence relation.
In English, this is not generally the case.*The bicycle owner thinks it was stolen.
20
3. GOVERNMENT
3.1 SANSKRIT:
A sub-constituent of a compound may govern a phrase external to it. Thisis known as asamartha-samasa.
[NP1 ((r.ddharich
≺rajaking
)≺purus.ah.man
) ] *[NP1 [AP6 r.ddhasyaof rich
] (raja≺purus.ah. )roi-homme
]
servant of a rich king servant of a rich king
S 3.9.16 (= SG 3.1.6)
[NP1 [NP3 [NP7 tasyamon her
] (snigdha≺dr.s.t.ya)fixed-gaze
] (sucita≺abhilas.ah. )-Bindicated-affection
]
whose affection was indicated by the gaze he had fixed on her.
3.2 ENGLISH
This is not the case in English.
((man≺eating)≺shark)
*(eating≺shark) of men
3.3 CONCLUSION:
In English, information concerning the argument structure of a compound’sconstituents is transmitted to the entire compound uniquely from the com-pound’s head.
In Sanskrit, information concerning the argument structure of a compound’sconstituents is transmitted to the entire compound not only from the com-pound’s head but also from the sister to the head.
21
EVIDENCE FROM BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS
GOAL OR PATIENT:
Compound: praptatithih. gramah. ( SK 830 )Analysis: (prapta≺atithih. -B)
reached-guestgramah.village
Paraphrase [RC atithayah.guests
praptah.reached
yamwhich
]
sah.the
praptatithih. gramah.village
the village which the guests have reached
AGENT:
Compound: ud. harathah. ) anad. van (SK 830)Analysis: (ud. ha≺rathah. )-B
pulled-cartanad.van
bullParaphrase: [RC rathah.
cartud. hah.bull
yenaby which
]
sah.the
ud. harathah. anad. vanbull
the bull by which the cart is pulled
BENEFICIARY:
Compound: upahr.tapasuh. purusah. (SK 830)Analysis: (upahr.ta≺pasuh. )-B
offered-cattlepurusah.
manParaphrase: [RC pasuh.
cattleupahr.tah.offered
yasmaito whom
]
sah.the
upahr.ta-pasuh. purusah.man
the man to whom the cattle is offered
22
EVIDENCE FROM BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS (continued)
SOURCE:
Compound: uddhr.taudanana sthalı (SK 830)Analysis: (uddhr.ta≺odanana)-B
removed-ricesthalıplate
Paraphrase: [RC odanah.rice
uddhr.tah.removed
yasyah.from which
]
sace
uddhr.taudanana sthalıplate
the plate from which rice has been removed
POSSESSION:
Compound: pıtambarah. purus.ah. (SK 830)Analysis: (pıta≺ambarah. )-B
yellow-clothespurus.ah.
manParaphrase: [RC pıtam
yellowambaramclothes
yasyawhose
]
sah.the
pıtambarah. purusah.man
the man whose clothes are yellow
23
EVIDENCE FROM BAHUVRIHI COMPOUNDS (continued)
AMBIGUITY:
Compound: dr.s.t.akas.t.a strı (Coulson 1976, p. 121)Analysis: (dr.s.t.a-kas.t.a)-B
observed-misfortunestrı
womanreading 1: a woman whose misfortune has been observed
i.e.: a woman who has experienced misfortunereading 2: a woman by whom misfortune has been observed
i.e.: a woman who has seen, but has not necessarily experienced,misfortune
Compound: dattadara rajnı ( Coulson 1976, p. 121)Analysis: (datta-adara)-B
given-respectrajnıqueen
reading 1: a queen who is respectful (of others)reading 2: a queen of whom one is respectful
CONCLUSION:
In English, information concerning the argument structure of a compound’sconstituents is transmitted to the entire compound uniquely from the com-pound’s head.
In Sanskrit, information concerning the argument structure of a compound’sconstituents is transmitted to the entire compound not only from the com-pound’s head but also from the sister to the head.
24
CONCLUSION
1. Context free rules provide a suitable analysis for both Sanskrit com-pound formation and English compound formation, bringing out deepstructural parallels between compound formation for the two languages.
2. Context free rules provide a suitable analysis for both Sanskrit deriva-tional morphology and English derivational morphology, bringing outdeep structural parallels not only between the derivational morphologyof the two languages but also between derivational morphology andcompound formation.
3. The application of context free rules must be lexically constrained. Thismeans that the relevant lexical entries must be enriched to impose thepertinent constraints.
25
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION
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